advanced biology midterm review holt biology chapters 1-6 ch 1 biology and you. ch 2 chemistry of...
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Advanced Biology Midterm ReviewHolt Biology Chapters 1-6
Ch 1 Biology and You.
Ch 2 Chemistry of Life
Ch 3 Cell Structure
Ch 4 Cells and Their Environment
Ch 5 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Ch 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction
Ch 1 Biology and You.
Key Terms
• Section 1 - Biology, Cell, Reproduction, Metabolism, Homeostasis, Gene, Heredity, Mutation, Evolution, Species, Natural selection, Ecology,
• Section 2 – Genome, HIV, Cancer, Cystic Fibrosis, Gene Therapy
• Section 3- Observation, hypothesis, prediction, pH, experiment, Control Group, independent variable, dependent variable, theory
Biology – Study of Life
All living things are made of cells.
Cell are the smallest unit capable of life.
Characteristics of All Living Things.
1. Cellular Organization
2. Reproduction 5. Heredity
3. Metabolism 6. Responsiveness
4. Homeostasis 7. Growth & Reproduction
Steps of the Scientific Method
• Collect Observation• Ask Questions • Formulate Hypothesis and Make Predictions• Experiment to confirm predictions - Collect and
Analyze Data• Draw Conclusion and publish results.
Hypothesis – A statement that can be tested by observation or experimentation.Theory – A set of hypothesis that have been tested and confirmed many times by many scientists.
• Experimental Group – The group in the experiment that receives some type of treatment.
• Control Group – The group in the experiment that receives no treatment.
• Independent variable- The factor that is changed in the experiment
• Dependent variable – The variable that is measured in the experiment.
Ch 2 Chemistry of Life
Key terms • Section 1 – Atom, Element, Compound,
Molecule, Ion• Section 2 – Cohesion, Adhesion, Solution, Acid,
Base• Section 3 Carbohydrate, Monosaccharide, Lipid,
Protein, Amino Acid, Nucleic Acid, Nucleotide, DNA, RNA, ATP
• Section 4 – Energy, Activation energy, Enzyme, Substrate, Active site
Atom – Smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down.
Proton – Positive charge within nucleus
Neutron – no charge within nucleus
Electron – Negative charge – outside of nucleus.
• Element- pure substance made of only one kind of atom.
• Compound – a substance made of atoms of two or more elements
• Molecule – Two or more atoms covalently bonded.
• Covalent Bond – Sharing of electrons.• Hydrogen Bond – Electrostatic attraction between
water molecules.• Ionic bond- An electrostatic attraction between
molecules who have gained or lost electrons.
Water Properties
Cohesion
Adhesion
Capillary action
Surface Tension
pH H2O H+ + OH-
Acid – form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. pH < 7
Base – Form hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. pH > 7
Neutral – pH 7
Carbohydrates – organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.
Key source of energy found in fruits, vegetables and grains.
Lipids include fats, phospholipids, steroids and waxes. Important in the structure and functioning of cell membranes.
Proteins – Made of of amino acids. Found in meat. Many functions.
•Enzymes promote chemical reactions.
•Collagen found in skin, ligaments, tendons and bones.
•Structural proteins found in hair, muscles and help blood clot.
•Antibody proteins help defend against infection.
•Hemoglobin carries oxygen.
Nucleic Acids
DNA – Stores hereditary information
RNA – plays key role in the manufacture of proteins
ATP – Energy storing molecule.
Energy – ability to change matter.
Activation energy – the energy needed to start a reaction.
Enzymes lower activation energy.
Ch 3 Cell StructureKey Terms
• Section 1 – Light microscope, electron microscope, magnification, resolution, scanning tunneling microscope.
• Section 2 – Cell theory, cell membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, ribosome, prokaryotic, cell wall, flagellum, eukaryote, nucleus, organelle, cilium, phospholipids, lipid bilayer.
• Section 3 – Endoplasmic reticulum, vesicle, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, mitochondrion, chloroplast, central vacuole.
Ocular lens x objective lens = total magnification
Magnification – making image appear larger
Resolution – clarity of image
Cell Size – small cells function more efficiently than large cells. Cells need large surface to volume ratio.
Cell Theory• All living things are made of cells.
• Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms.
• All Cells come from existing cells.
Common Features of Cells
Cell membrane Cytoplasm
DNA Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
No nucleus
Lack membrane bound organelles.
Circular DNA
Cell wall surrounds membrane
Nucleus containing DNA.
Membrane bound organelles.
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Cell membranes are selectively permeable.
Ch 4 Cells and Their Environment
Key Terms
• Section 1 – Passive transport, concentration gradient, equilibrium, diffusion, osmosis, hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution, isotonic solution, ion channel, carrier protein, facilitated diffusion.
• Section 2- Active transport, sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis, exocytosis, receptor protein, second messenger.
Passive Transport –does not require energy.
Diffusion – The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis – The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Diffusion through ion channels is passive transport. It does not require energy.
Facilitated Diffusion is passive transport. It requires carrier proteins but it does not require energy. Why?
Active Transport
• The movement of a substance across the cell membrane against its concentration gradient.
• The energy needed for active transport is supplied directly or indirectly by ATP.
An important carrier protein used to move substances
against the concentration gradient.
Active Transport
Active Transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Ch 5 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Key Terms
Section 1- Photosynthesis, autotroph, heterotroph, cellular respiration.
Section 2 – Pigment, chlorophyll, carotenoid, thylakoid, electron transport chain, NADPH, carbon dioxide fixation, Calvin cycle.
Section 3- Aerobic, anaerobic, glycolysis, NADH, Krebs cycle, FADH2, fermentation.
Flow of energy• Energy flows from sunlight or inorganic
substances to autotrophs then to heterotrophs.
Photosynthesis
Chlorophylls absorb mostly violet, blue, and red light, while carotenoids absorb mostly blue and green light.
Sunlight contains a mixture of wavelengths of visible light.
Pigment molecules are embedded in thylakoid membranes
The electron transport chain converts light energy into chemical energy.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration occurs in two stages.
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration.
Glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that breaks down one six carbon glucose to two three carbon pyruvate ions.
Glycolysis uses two ATP molecules but produces four for a net gain of two ATP molecules.
When oxygen is present, pyruvate produced during glycolysis enters a mitochondrion and Acetyl-CoA is formed and carbon dioxide is released.
After the Krebs cycle, NADH and FADH2 contain energy that was previously stored in glucose and pyruvate. These electrons pass through the Electron Transport Chain in the inner membranes of the mitochondria.
Most ATP is produced during aerobic respiration.When oxygen is not present, fermentation follows glycolysis regenerating NAD+ for glycolysis to continue.
Ch 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction
Key Terms
Section 1 – Gamete, binary fission, gene, chromosome, chromatid, centromere, homologous chromosome, diploid, haploid, zygote, autosome, sex chromosome, karyotype.
Section 2 – Cell cycle, interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis, cancer.
Section 3 - Spindle
Prokaryotic Cells
• Cell division is simple.• A single cell doubles
in size and then separates into two daughter cells
• Binary fission
Eukaryotic Cell
• Cell division more complex.
• Process of cell division called mitosis.
Chromosomes contain genetic information.After replication become visible by condensing.
• Chromatids - one of the two strands of a chromosome that become visible during mitosis.
• Centromere - the region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis
Chromatin - DNA and associated proteins observed when the nucleus in not dividing.
Phases of the cell cycle.
• G 1 - Most of the cell’s growth takes place.
• S phase - chromosome replication takes place.
• G 2 - preparation for cell division.
• M phase (mitosis) - Cell division takes place.
Cancer cells lose the normal ability to regulate the cell cycle.
The Cell Cycle -Interphase
• G 1, S, G 2, period between cell divisions.
• The long strands of DNA and protein that make up chromosomes unfold and are difficult to see.
• Chromosomes active directing cell growth & development.
Mitosis - Prophase
• Longest phase- 50% of mitosis.
• Chromosomes appear as a result of condensing and coiling of chromatin.
• Chromosomes consist of 2 identical strands attached at the centromere.
Prophase
• In animal cells two centrioles (b.) separate and move to opposite sides of the nucleus
• Spindle fibers (c.) - network of microtubules begin to form.
• Nucleus begins to disappear.
Metaphase
• Shortest phase of mitosis - lasts only a few minutes.
• Chromosomes complete attachment to spindle fibers
• Chromosomes line up across the middle of cell
Anaphase
• Centromeres split, allowing sister chromatids to separate.
• Chromosomes move to opposite poles.
• Anaphase is complete when chromosomes have stopped moving.
Telophase
• Microtubules of the spindle begin to break apart
• Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
• Nuclear membrane forms
Cytokinesis
• The division of the cytoplasm into 2 individual cells
• Animal cells - pinching
• Plant cells - plate forms.