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Administering Rural Water Supply- Implementation of

Swajaldhara and Measures for Artificial Groundwater

Recharge in Arsenic Affected Areas of West Bengal

I. Introduction

“Gracious be divine water for our protection, be they for our drink, and stream on

us bliss and happiness. Sovereigns over precious things and Rulers over men

Waters!

We seek healing balm of you.”

The Rig Veda

“…Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life… The

earth was formless and empty, and darkness covered the deep waters. And the

spirit of God was hovering over the surface of waters.”

“Genesis 1: 2”. The Bible

“We have made every living thing out of water.”

“Sura 21. The Prophets, Ayat 30.” The Holy Quran”

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The religious scriptures of India have described water as the sole basis for the

emergence of life. Even the “Nasadiya Sukta” of the Rig Veda states that, initially

the earth was also covered by darkness and unfathomable water. Neither there was

death nor deathlessness. Amongst that unfathomable darkness, the first instances of

life were born in the earth- Swadha and Salil. In scientific aspects too water is the

basic component of life since every cell in human body is made of water. The

earliest civilizations on earth were found to have flourished in the banks of rivers

like Tigris, Euphrates or the Indus. In a civilization, water not only adds to the

enrichment of agricultural activities, but also the growth of trade and industrial

activities.

The Census of India in 2011 emphasizes that 70% of the total population of India

reside in rural areas where provision of clean drinking water faces a challenge.

Along with proper supply of drinking water, sanitation and sustainable

conservation of environment are also essential in improving the rural health of

India and reduce incidents of death due to scarcity of water. It is worth mentioning

that, sometimes the targeted growth rate cannot be achieved due to water scarcity

since water is not only a consumption good, but also stands for a crucial

component of irrigation and agricultural activities and an environmental amenity.

A study sponsored by the World Health Organization and the UNICEF, titled as

Water Supply and Sanitation states,

“Out of 4000 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of available water from precipitation,

the mean flow in the country’s rivers is about 1900 BCM. Out of this only 690

BCM is utilizable. With 177 BCM of live storage created by the existing major and

medium projects and another 75 BCM of storage from projects under construction,

there is still a gap of 440 BCM of water.”

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Though only 2% of the entire water resources available on the hydrosphere stand

to be potable, the pressure of increasing population and expectations of

development is changing the scenario. A very extensive amount of water is

pumped from the rivers and reservoirs without proper artificial recharge

provisions, thus resulting in the depletion and lowering of aquifer. Studies by

expert have revealed that, India is expected to be a water stressed country with a

per capita availability of 1600 cubic meters/ person/ year.

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II. Reasons for Scarce Water Supply

Several studies have been conducted on matters relating to scarce water supply

have revealed that, lack of clean drinking water is the root cause of disease, hunger

and poverty in the developing countries. Death takes toll on the people of these

areas suffering from this problem. In rural areas of India, water is contaminated by

wide varieties of organisms causing typhoid, diarrhea, cholera, amoebic dysentery

etc. Incidents of death have also been repeated due to unhealthy drinking water.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has revealed the fact that organic

pollutants come from aquatic sources to a great extent.

The reports of the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) states that, although the

level of exploitation of ground water is less than 20% in Assam, Kerala, Orissa,

Maharashtra, West Bengal, but this stands to be a menace in Haryana, Delhi and

Punjab where the level of exploitation amounts to 75%. It also states that,

Puducherry and Chandigarh are over exploited. As a result of over exploitation of

groundwater resources, water table goes down, causing a slippage in safe water

supply. This is the major cause of arsenic menace in the state of West Bengal, even

though scarcity of drinking water was never so evident there. Prior to 1980-90, i.e.

the decade of eighties, surface water resources were the primary sources of

drinking water. The shift from surface water to groundwater have given birth

arsenic problems in the right bank of the river Ganges.

The menace of arsenic poisoning in West Bengal was first diagnosed by a

dermatologist Dr. K. C. Saha, of the School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata. As a

result, studies on arsenic pollution commenced in mid eighties. In 1988, the

number of arsenic affected villages was 22, which has increased approximately

over 3500 in the next 24 years. Extensive contamination is found in the low lying

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areas of Bhagirathi-Ganga delta and the lower part of the Damodar. It is a much

believed notion that arsenic contamination is much prevalent in the Himalayan

Rivers. But, this has also been recorded in some flood plains of the United States

of America. Since, the topic of the present paper is water supply in areas of Wes

Bengal, so I would discuss matters concerning this area only.

Pollution of Water

Intermittent arsenic contamination in districts of West Bengal has resulted in

diseases like conjunctivitis, melanosis, hyperkeratosis etc. Incidents of gangrene in

limbs and malignant neoplasm have also been observed. Toxicity also results into

skin cancer. According to the standard set by the World Health Organization, the

permissible limit for water is 10 Mg/ L but in many areas of India this cannot be

maintained. It is considered that, six districts of West Bengal, namely, Burdwan,

Malda, Murshidabad, North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas suffer from

arsenic contaminated diseases to a considerable extent. The diseases caused by this

can be clinically classified in three stages as follows:-

First Stage - Dermatitis, conjunctivitis, keratosis, bronchitis and gastroenterotitis.

Second Stage –Peripheral neuropathies, hepatopathy, melanosis, depigmentation

and hyperkeratosis.

Third and the last Stage – Gangrene in limbs and malignant neoplasm.

In a study conducted by the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health,

Kolkata on arsenic affected areas of West Bengal, it has been found that, above

60% of tubewells in arsenic affected blocks contain arsenic above 0.01 Mg/ L and

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in almost 20% of these blocks, arsenic content is more than 0.05 Mg/ L. In West

Bengal, arsenic can be treated between 20 m to 80 m in the aquifer.

In recent times, arsenic is not only the cause for drinking water pollution. Traces of

Fluoride pollution have also been traced to a great extent. Fluoride is a water

dissolved substance which has been found in almost 15 states of India and is

considered to be a toxic pollutant by the WHO. Consumption of excess fluoride

leads to dental and skeletal fluorisis, allergy and neurological complications. The

maximum permissible limit for fluoride is 1.5 Mg/ L. Fluoride affected states

include Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand,

Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, West Bengal etc. In general cases, fluoride contamination

may be found from 1.5-1.8 Mg / L but in some states it can be as massive as 20

Mg/ L to 36 Mg/ L.

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Pollution of water by Immersion of Idols

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III. Schemes under Implementation in India

Water supply is a subject which has been included in the state list. This is why

schemes come under political periphery in most of the cases. Thus, they are

restricted to ministries and agencies where responsibilities overlap and a very

obvious feature of public administration, i.e. red tapism in decision making occurs.

Water supply and sanitation were added to the national agenda since the first five

year plan period (1951-56). The world summit for sustainable development at

Johannesberg and the earlier Millenium Declaration at the United Nations both

have laid emphasis in global goal proper water supply by 2015 A. D. In India,

there have been successful implementations of schemes ensuring provision of

water in rural and urban areas.

But implementation had never been so easy in India due to operation of various

factors. Initially, the entire society could not be a part of the total process because

of several factors, like lack of proper education on their part. People were

superstitious and unwilling to act in accordance with scientific interventions. Apart

from this, in a taboo ridden society, participation of women was not found. The

dissemination of information also had been a driving factor for problematic

implementation of schemes in the bygone era. The problem of unemployment had

also been an obstacle in the process of implementation.

From that period till today, the picture of implementation has changed to a great

extent. Latest innovations in technology, social strata, and the life and living of the

people had contributed a lot in sound execution of schemes in recent times. I have

put an attempt to discuss about few schemes which have properly been

implemented in West Bengal.

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Swajaldhara

The area chosen for discussion is located in Eastern India accounts to a

considerable percentage of groundwater resources because of the presence of rivers

but a very less portion of its area is developed fully. Marginal farmers and their

population are very insignificant in these areas since the alluvial soil in the flood

plains stand good for agriculture. They lack capacity to invest in the tubewell

installations individually. So poverty was a challenge in this part of West Bengal

for the mitigation of groundwater problems.

In Uttar Pradesh, an experiment of public owned tubewells was started in the

district of Deoria, in the decades of fifties. But very soon, around in 195, this lost

momentum though many of them were constructed with the assistance of the

Dutch and the World Bank. After this, the World Bank again assisted to promote

construction of tubewells much advanced to the previous. But, these too did not

work and failed to assist the farmers in their needs. Scholars have blamed several

reasons like erratic power supply, inadequate maintenance and monitoring systems.

This went for so many days and reforms in the drinking water sector were

introduced in 1999, when several pilot schemes were also introduced.

The Swajaldhara is such a reform initiative on the part of the Government of India.

Besides proper water supply, the motives of the Government were also the

promotion of social mobilization and capacity development of the community and

their institutions for sustainable drinking water supply. This is a shift from the

centralized supply driven approach to a demand responsive approach. This carries

a bottom-up approach turning the role of the Government to a facilitator. The basic

principle of Swajaldhara is to ensure participation of the community that has been

empowered with a decision making role in choice of schemes for drinking water,

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planning, designs, implementation of schemes, controlling own finances and

management initiatives. According to this, the Government is supposed to take up

efficient measures of conservation by rain water harvesting or artificial recharging

system.

The 10% of the total cost of the estimated capital cost is borne by the beneficiaries,

i.e. the people. The operation, maintenance and management cost is borne fully by

the concerned community.

Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM)

The Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) was established

in 1991 with a national goal of provision of clean drinking water to the mammoth

rural population of India. The main objectives of this includes- to provide a

sustainable supply of drinking water to rural people, to improve the cost

effectiveness of ongoing programmes, steady improvement of environmental

sanitation and reduction of water borne diseases, thus uplifting the health status of

the people.

Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)

The Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was launched in 1972-

73 under the auspices of the Government of India to mitigate the problems in water

supply and accelerate the pace of the same. The main objectives of ARWSP

include- imposing control on the over-extraction of groundwater, increase in funds

for repair and rehabilitation, increase of sustainable means by strengthening

watershed development programmes.

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Bharat Nirman

The Bharat Nirman Programme, launched in 2005 is a “time bound business plan

for action in rural infrastructure. Under Bharat Nirman, action is proposed in

areas of irrigation, road, rural housing, rural water supply, rural electrification

and rural telecommunication connectivity.” (Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime

Minister).

In the context of rural water supply the Bharat Nirman targeted to address all

households affected with problems of water quality by 2009. 55,067 uncovered

habitations were to be made fully covered by 2009. The Bharat Nirman programme

emphasized to put up an effort to achieve these agendas in a time-bound,

transparent and accountable manner in order to ensure a sustainable growth for

India. The plan document of the Bharat Nirman had mentioned that, 50% of the

total fund is allotted by the Central Government whereas the rest is sponsored by

the State Government.

The Bharat Nirman focused to achieve 40 litres per capita per day (lpcd) of safe

drinking water to every rural household, one hand pump stand for every 250

persons. The scheme also pays a special attention to a habitation inhabited

exclusively by scheduled castes and tribes. Women are the principal beneficiaries

of the programme. This programme ensures effective participation of women by

providing for women caretakers for the handpumps, and appointing members from

among women in village level water monitoring committees.

It has also been mentioned that, since 1972, over 37 lacs hand pumps and 1.5 lacs

of piped water supply schemes had been set up to provide water supply.

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IV. Implementation Scenario in India

The quality of water supplied in the rural area is a crucial determinant of public

health. The report of the Expert Committee on Rural Water Supply (April, 1994)

constituted by the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission states that, the

Sub-Missions under it have not been successful in tackling the problems in

maintaining the quality of water except Guinea worm Eradication. In de-

fluoridation the plant attached to the hand pump had not been successful so much.

In India Nalgonda technique is also a common procedure for the same. This

involves addition of chemicals like, lime, aluminium, salts and bleaching powder

followed by sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. This method is not free from

certain drawbacks lie generation of lime sludge and associated problems of

disposal. On the other hand, this method also leads to the Alzheimer’s disease

caused by high levels of aluminium. The water quality after applying Nalgonda

technique was not very great due to problems in operation and maintenance.

If we go through Government documents, we can find that the Public Health

Engineering Department (PHED) in coordination with the Panchayati Raj

Institutions (PRIs) have been doing some excellent work in provision of safe and

clean drinking water. The PHED has portrayed the fact that peoples’ participation

by community ownership is the key factor for sustainable implementation of

Swajaldhara.

The Community and Capacity Development Unit (CCDU) of the PHED provide

momentum in the implementation procedure. It organizes training camps and

seminars to train the people and make them efficient in Water Quality Monitoring

and Surveillance. The team of CCDU visits the districts of West Bengal and

ensures the wholesome utilization of funds. In recent times, it has been found that,

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small sized water supply systems had been made affordable from management

point of view and technically sound operation and maintenance system.

The PHED, West Bengal has also established for the first time in India a modern

water testing laboratory and a Central Monitoring Unit equipped with Supervisory

Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) for keeping a strict vigilance on

water supply management, water quality control and monitoring of rural water

supply piped water supply schemes. The SCADA acts like a supervisor on an

electronic mode, collects data from fields by remote terminal units. After

consolidation of data, SCADA provides real time information by graphic displays

and control signals, which in turn increases productivity and profit.

The PHED has also taken up attempts to supply safe and potable drinking water in

areas with brackish water. Such a project had been implemented successfully at

Abad Kuliadanga in the North 24 Parganas of West Bengal. The estimated cost of

this scheme was around ` 42.26 lacs. The establishment of Boat Mounted

Desalination Units based on Reverse Osmosis technology in Sunderban delta had

also benefitted the people. Apart from ensuring supply of potable water in rural

areas, the PHED is also implementing schemes for meeting challenges of salinity

in water.

The Programme Evaluation Organization (PEO) in its report on the

implementation of RGNDWM states that in Himachal Pradesh almost 96% of the

rural women participated in the community centred schemes. In some states, 93%

have access to clean drinking water and people have reported their satisfaction

regarding the quality of supplied water. The PEO also emphasizes on paying of

water charges on a regular basis and it has been found that 87% of the household

pay water charges regularly.

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But, the success stories of implementation are not found equally all over India.

Five states, namely, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Assam and West

Bengal have shown good signs of implementation. While in another survey the

PEO reveals that, Himachal Pradesh has a 100% access to safe drinking water and

West Bengal has a 98% access to the same. At present, 93% of the fully covered

states have a total access to clean drinking water. Overall, the current status of

implementation in Orissa is also very positive. In 2004, the Village Water and

Sanitation Committee (VWSC) collected ` 1000 per household in the village

Badjode of the Baripada District in Orissa. After depositing the community

contribution, the project started on 10.08.2004 and was completed on 22.12.2005.

Presently, every household have access to safe drinking water and their permanent

contribution is also satisfactory. But the status of implementation is not as good as

these all over India. A report of an expert group of the Government of India in

2007 has stated that the conditions of groundwater in India are facing severe

problems. In India, the numbers of over exploited villages have gone up to 3449 as

compared to 1481 in 2002. Previous institutional innovations in Andhra Pradesh

focused on community based collective strategies such as framing rules and

regulations for management of groundwater resources. Initially, they were

successful, but they turned to be inefficient in the long run, as they came to be

driven by leadership factors and local social mechanisms.

The Ramakrishna Mission Lokasiksha Parishad (RKMLP), a unit of the

Ramakrishna Mission Ashram, Narendrapur had put up great efforts in maintaining

water resources. An initiative was taken on their part to demonstrate community

based maintenance of hand pumps in the district of Midnapore. This Midnapore

model of community development had been quite famous in this context. A seven

member committee was formed which included both male and female members

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chosen from amongst the beneficiary families. The maintenance charge, which was

fixed according to the family income, was collected twice a year. The members

were trained in operation and maintenance by the RKMLP. The committee also

organized awareness generation activities for safe utilization, collection, handling

of drinking water and most importantly, they promoted sanitation and practices of

personal hygiene. The involvement of women and their recognition has also

ensured women empowerment. This venture was primarily successful and in 1996,

this programme was introduced for the first time in Midnapore.

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V. Implementation:- A Few Cases

It is a proven fact that India has been successful in provision of clean drinking

water in rural areas. Now, the basic concern is provision of quality service in a

stipulated time. The numbers of fully covered habitations have gone up

considerably under the ARWSP.

I have attempted to focus on two of the schemes implemented by the PHED, West

Bengal. The studies have been conducted in the Burdwan district of West Bengal,

since this district faces the problem of arsenic contamination to an extreme and had

been the concern of the Central Government. In the low-lying areas of the

Bhagirathi-Ganga delta, mainly in the eastern plain of the River Bhagirathi,

problems are very noticeable.

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(A) Piped Water Supply Scheme at Krishnabati, Burdwan

The area Krishnabati is located in the North-Eastern part of Burdwan. The scheme

is a part of the ARWSP of the Government of India under the auspices of the

Executive Engineer, Burdwan Division, PHED, WB. The scheme has covered

areas under Purbasthali – II Block of Burdwan. The estimated cost of the project

was around ` 274.18 lacs including 2% contingency charges. The scheme had

focused on the elements like construction of tube wells for extraction of

groundwater installation of submersible pumping machinery and an iron

elimination plant and construction of street stand post tube wells. The recent data

collected from the spot reveals that every household gets a supply of 50 litres per

capita per day (lpcd) which had been much better than a previous supply of 30

lpcd. A water drawn sample previously from a nearby area Sajiara had revealed

acute concentrations of Arsenic, Fluoride, Iron and Nitrate. But, after the scheme

has been implemented, the sample of water from the newly constructed tube well

shows no sign of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), coliform and the presence

of arsenic or iron is below the permissible limit. The local authority has also taken

charge of operation and maintenance of the constructed tubewell. This scheme had

been implemented for villages of Krishnabati.

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(B) Kansa Water Supply Scheme, Ijjatganj, Durgapur

The water supply scheme for this area was based on two command areas.

Zone I- Gang Bil, Prayagpur, Anandpur and Silampur.

Zone II- Ijjatganj, Panagarh, Kanksa and Debipur.

The task for Zone I was commissioned in June 1998, but then Zone II did not have

success because tube well for the concerned region could not be sun due to a very

low lying aquifer. Later on, the water bearing aquifer could be located after a

thorough investigation. But that was outside the command area. Three tube wells

were constructed in the same area and a sum of ` 278.54 lacs were allotted for the

same. The total fund was exhausted in the course of time because of the change in

command area and the cost involved in it. The Prayagpur village could not be

covered in Zone I and later on his was included in Zone II where the scheme was

executed in June, 2011. Prior to the preparation of estimates for the scheme, a

chemical analysis report of a pre-existing tube well had revealed that the water in

the area contains iron above the permissible limit. Hence, an iron elimination plant

was also constructed. The augmentation had been able to provide safe drinking

water to the inhabitants of the locality. The project had been a success in

eradicating problems in drinking water and thus has improved aspects of

community health.

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An underground water supply scheme under construction at Patuli, Krishnabati in

the district of Burdwan.

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VI. Water Management

The indiscriminate use of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes

have resulted into a considerable depletion of groundwater level. The need for

efficient groundwater management has arisen due to avail water a economical cost,

with proper quantity and quality. Wise use of groundwater involves three

principles (Driscoll, Fletcher G, 1986)-

Development of technologies enhancing the storage capacity of

groundwater reservoirs.

Protection of groundwater quality.

Utilization of groundwater resources for their best use to society.

Though a renewable source, groundwater level varies from place to place due to

climatic and hydrological factors. At present, information technology offers a lot in

implementation of water harvesting programmes. The demand for groundwater

resources is going high because of population pressures. Less precipitation due to

climatic factors has also resulted into diminished level of natural recharge of

aquifers. As a result, the water table prevents construction of deep tube wells, thus

giving birth to diseases caused by water crisis. Groundwater recharges by artificial

means have turned to be a response to the growing water crisis.

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Artificial Recharge Method

Recharge of groundwater serves the following purposes (Todd, 1987)-

i. Coordinate operation of surface and groundwater reservoirs.

ii. Provide sub-surface storage for local or imported surface waters.

iii. Provide treatment and storage for reclaimed waste water for subsequent re-

use.

Thus, the concept of artificial recharge also helps to overcome the problems of

over drafting. Rooftop rainwater harvesting system has been a common

phenomenon nowadays. In order to recharge the groundwater reservoir, there

should be an adequate source of monsoon rain and suitable geological and hydro

geological conditions. The artificial recharge projects are not identical. The

techniques for the same are to be determined at par with the extent to which the

aquifer is depleting.

I won’t discuss much about the techniques since that is not the focal point of the

paper. However, I will put some outlines about recharge techniques as per the

guidelines of the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB):-

(A) Direct Surface Techniques

Flooding.

Basins or Percolation tanks.

Stream Augmentation.

Ditch and Furrow System.

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(B) Direct Sub-Surface Techniques

Injection wells and recharge wells.

Recharge pits and shafts.

Dug well recharge.

Bore hole flooding.

Natural openings, cavity fillings.

(C) Combination of Surface and Sub-surface Techniques

Basin or percolation tanks with pit shaft or wells.

(D) Indirect Techniques

Induced recharge from surface water source.

Aquifer modification.

In India some techniques are only feasible because of climatic and geographical

conditions:

a) Ditch and Furrow System- This is constructed in areas with areas having an

irregular topography.

b) Percolation Tanks- These are the most prevalent techniques in India as it is

adaptable in both rocky terrain and alluvial plains.

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c) Recharge Wells- A recharge well is a well which transfers surface water in

the aquifer. They are also known as disposal wells and drain wells and differ

a lot from injection wells.

d) Modification of abandoned streams and village streams- The existing silted

village streams are modified to serve as recharge structures. This has been

done in some villages of Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Waste water treatment and reusing of the treated water is another effective measure

for proper conservation of water. The treated water can be used for purposes other

than drinking, since this water is non-potable. The proper treatment of waste water

improves its quality by removing physical, biological and chemical impurities. In

order to reduce the burden on groundwater resources, the reuse of waste water after

proper treatment had been introduced in several parts of the country.

Another method to recharge groundwater is rainwater harvesting. In villages,

people store rainwater in pots and use them for domestic purposes. In urban areas,

rainwater harvesting is based on a mechanism where a separate plant is built for

the same. But, I won’t discuss this in detail since the paper focuses on efficient

water supply in rural areas.

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Implementation of Groundwater Recharge in India

Tamil Nadu is a state where recharge methods were constructed in 2001-02. In the

initial years, the construction costs were very high. As years have passed with

innovations in technology the costs have become economical. According to the

reports by the Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD Board), 12

recharge structures had been constructed in 2006-07 at an estimated cost of 0.39

crores, which was funded by the Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana. The Central

Ground Water Board (CGWB) had also funded the construction of 22 recharge

structures in Salem. The TWAD Board had reported that, up to 2008, 3585

recharge structures had been functioning efficiently. The recharge structures which

were found suitable were the sub-surface dykes, check dams, recharge pits with

bore wells. The over exploited areas that have been benefitted are- Thanjavur,

Tiruvalur, Madurai and Perumbalur.

In Maharashtra, greater scopes of development and irrigation had resulted into

over-exploitation of groundwater, which in turn had lowered the aquifer in various

parts of the state. The Artificial Ground Water Recharge System was sponsored by

the Central Government. This was technically assisted by the CGWB and financed

by the National Bank for Agricultural Development (NABARD). After the

artificial groundwater recharge system had been implemented, the impact was

tested on the Jalgaon district which was affected with salinity and nitrate in water.

In a report by the Planning Commission, it was revealed that the pH level of the

surface water was 7.1 which is neutral and the overall quality of it was better than

groundwater. The recharge by percolation tank had been a success.

In West Bengal, the Tagore Society for Rural Development (TSRD) had done a

commendable task in Basanti, Sagar and Gosaba blocks of the Sunderbans in

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promoting water conservation by excavation of tanks, kharis and canals. Since the

past two years, TSRD had constructed more than 700 tanks in the district of South

Parganas, West Bengal. The Jal Dharo, Jal Bharo programme in has been

introduced by the State Government all over the state under the Twelfth State Plan

which will harvest rain water in households, water bodies like ponds, reservoirs,

canals, underground aquifers and by various mechanisms. The State Water

Investigation Directorate (SWID) is playing a crucial role in this regard.

The various methods of artificial recharge have been implemented successfully

almost in every area of India except in few areas like Saurashtra in Gujarat and

coastal areas of Karnataka. The extreme porosity of aquifer and its link with the

sea does not allow the harvesting of the exact amount of water which is injected.

Hence it is inferred by instances that, in India policies are not only implemented by

Governmental agencies. But, civil society organizations play an essential role in

spreading awareness among the people about hygiene and sanitation.

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VII. Conclusion

Water is not only essential for survival, but it is also necessary for environmental

health, social stability and sustainable economic growth. Though the

implementation of schemes is satisfactory, but it is seen that 90% of the waste

water from human settlements is discharged into rivers and lakes without

treatment. Once there was a situation when lack of funds had been a barrier in

improving services. Till date, wise management of water and implementation of

programmes for the same are hindered by lack of public accountability, operational

inefficiency, political interference and enforcement of proper legislation. In my

own views, groundwater legislation should be enforced to address issues like

control and regulation of groundwater to prevent its over-exploitation and

pollution. In this context, I feel the regulations in India should be like the

Reasonable Use Rule in the United States of America. According to this rule,

though the owner of the land can use the water beneath his land, he is subject to

legal action if a landowner can prove that water from his land has caused any harm

like water logging in the neighboring lands. This rule in USA binds the landowner

to make a sustainable use of groundwater. While another regulation prevalent in

USA and England, named as the Prescriptive Rights, a user can lose his rights to

water if he is found making adverse uses of it. These regulations might ensure a

proper use of water.

We have also noticed the introduction of E-Governance and Public-Private

Partnership (PPP) model in various sectors. In order to ensure effective distribution

of public services, good governance should be the key, which in turn would make

policy-makers, policy-executors and service providers more accountable to the

water users. Good governance in the sector of water supply and sanitation can

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delineate the spheres of responsibilities of them to the public. Public accountability

should also be ensured among the Governmental Institutions. Transparency is a

step towards right to information of the public which would generate the sense of

ownership in the community.

At present over extraction of groundwater is also causing the problem of salinity

ingression. This needs to be checked out by newly developed artificial recharge

methods. At present, wastewater and its treatment is an issue which deserves a

special attention. The wastewater discharged from habitations pose a serious threat

to aquatic ecosystem. As a result, surface water is polluted. Thus, a fulfilled water

supply system can be achieved with a well governed, time bound, citizen friendly

delivery of public services. This can be achieved when emphasis will be laid on,

understanding the status of water resources and generating a sense of ownership of

the same, treating effluents to mitigate the impact in environmental and economic

activities; a strong social audit exists among the beneficiaries and proper

information dissemination takes place.

At the extreme last, it can be stated that, water supply being a subject of the State

Government as laid by the Entry 17, List II, Seventh Schedule of the Constitution

of India, in many cases it is found that, the state Government bodies do no

prioritize proper utilization of funds. This creates a difference between the states.

The Department of Drinking Water Supply under the Ministry of Rural

Development should keep a strict watch on the implementing agencies of the states

in this regard. This would help us to dream of an India with drinking water free

from pollution.

28

WoRks consulted:-

A. Ghosh, Gourishankar, Kamal Mazumdar, Amarendra Kumar

Dubey and Jagdish Chander. Water Supply in Rural India, (Policy

and Programme). New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1995.

Print.

B. Karanth, K. R. Ground Water Assessment, Development and

Management. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 1987. Print.

C. Samanta, Nihar Kanti. “Jal-Sarbaraha Prajukti Bidya” [The

Technology of Water Supply]. Kolkata: Ashok Pustakalaya, 1976.

Print.

D. Todd, David Keith. Groundwater Hydrology. New Delhi: Wiley India

Private Limited, 1959. Print.

E. Driscoll, Fletcher G. Groundwater and Wells. Minnesota: Johnson Division,

1986. Print

29

References:-

1. Acharyya, Subhrangshu, and Babar A. Shah. “Arsenic-contaminated

groundwater from parts of damodar fan delta and West of Bhagirathi

River, West Bengal, India: influence of fluvial geomorphology and

Quaternary morphostratigraphy.” Environmental Geology September

(2006). Print.

2. Government of India. Ministry of Rural Development, Department

of Drinking Water Supply. ARWSP Guidelines. New Delhi.

3. Government of India. Ministry of Rural Development, Department

of Drinking Water Supply. Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water

Mission”. New Delhi: 1999. Print.

4. Government of India. Ministry of Water Resources, Central

Groundwater Board. Guide on Artificial Recharge to Groundwater. New

Delhi: May 2000. Print.

5. Government of India. Ministry of Water Resources. National Water

Mission under National Action Plan on Climate Change. New Delhi:

2009. Print.

6. Government of India. Planning Commission. Faster, Sustainable

and More Inclusive Growth. An Approach to the Twelfth Five Year Plan.

New Delhi: October 2011. Print.

30

7. Government of India. Planning Commission, Programme Evaluation

Organization. Evaluation Study on Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking

Water Mission (RGNDWM). New Delhi: November 2010. Print.

8. Government of India. Planning Commission. India Assessment 2002.

Water Supply and Sanitation – A WHO-UNICEF Sponsored Study. New

Delhi: 2002. Print.

9. Government of India. Central Public Works Department, Manual,

Rain Water Harvesting and Conservation. New Delhi.

10. Khurana, Indira et al. “Drinking Water Quality in Rural India –

Issues and Approaches”. WaterAid. India.

11. Rajagopal, R et al. “Water Quality and Economic Criteria for Rural

Wastewater and Water supply Systems.” Journal (Water Pollution

Control Federation) 47.7 (July 1975): 1834-1847. Print.

12. Government of West Bengal. “Activities and Achievements in Rural

Drinking Water Supply and Other Areas.” Public Health

Engineering Department.

31