adapting spousal relations and transnational family ... · of such workers has become a...

Norteamérica,revistaacadémicadelCISAN-UNAM,Año13,número1,enero-juniode2018DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.20999/nam.2018.b002VersiónAheadofPrintFR:20/01/2018FA:06/06/2018

Análisisdeactualidad

AdaptingSpousalRelationsandTransnationalFamilyStructures:ResponsestoMexican-CanadianSeasonalAgriculturalMigration

Adaptarlasrelacionesmaritalesylasestructurasdefamiliastransnacionales:respuestasantelamigraciónagriculturaldetemporadaentreMéxicoyCanadá

AarónDíazMendiburo*,JanetMcLaughlin**,DonWells***,AndréLyn****Abstract:ByexaminingthefamiliesandsupportingsocialstructuresofMexican‘temporary’migrantworkers inCanada’sSeasonalAgriculturalWorkerProgram(SAWP), thispaperexplainshowthesetransnationalfamiliesmodifytheirstructuresinaneoliberalcontext.Wediscusshowmigrantsandtheir familymembers respond to changes associatedwith circular seasonalmigration in order toboth reduce threats of family breakdown and to strengthen their families. We also analyze keycontradictions associatedwith these responses, including those inwhich new roles contribute togreater autonomy and significant changes to gender roles, which simultaneously create greaterstressforfamilies.Key Words: Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program, Strengthening Families, Mexico-CanadaMigration,TransnationalFamilies,MigrantWorkersResumen: Al examinar a las familias y las estructuras sociales de los migrantes mexicanos“temporales”queparticipanenelProgramadeTrabajadoresAgrícolasTemporalesMéxico-Canadá(PTAT), el presente artículo explica cómoestas familiasmodifican sus estructuras en un contextocambiante de regionalización neoliberal transnacional. Discutimos cómo los migrantes y susfamiliares respondena loscambiosderivadosde lamigracióncirculara findereducirel riesgodeseparaciónydefortalecersuslazosfamiliares.Tambiénanalizamoscontradiccionesclaveasociadascon dichas respuestas, incluyendo aquellas en las que nuevosmodelos contribuyen a unamayorautonomíayproducencambiossignificativosenlosrolesdegénero,locualgeneramayorestrésalasfamilias.Palabras clave: Programa de Trabajadores Agrícolas Temporales México-Canadá (PTAT), familiastransnacionales,fortalecimientodelasfamilias,migraciónMéxico-Canadá,trabajadoresmigrantes

*PostdoctoralFellow,InternationalMigrationResearchCentre,BalsillieSchoolofInternationalAffairs,WilfridLaurierUniversity,Waterloo,Ontario,Canada**AssociateProfessor,HealthStudies,ResearchAssociate, InternationalMigration,ResearchCentre,WilfridLaurierUniversity,BrantfordandWaterloo,Ontario,Canada***DonWells,ProfessorEmeritus,SchoolofLabourStudiesandDepartmentofPoliticalScience,McMasterUniversity,Hamilton,Ontario,Canada****AndréLyn,SeniorManager,Community Investment,UnitedWayofPeelRegion,Mississauga,Ontario,Canada

Norteamérica,revistaacadémicadelCISAN-UNAM,año13,número2,julio-diciembrede2018DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.20999/nam.2018.b002VersiónAheadofPrint

LarevistaNorteaméricapublicaversionesAheadofPrint(AOP)delosartículosdictaminadostrasunarigurosaevaluaciónde tipodoble ciegoy trashaber sidoaceptadosporelComitéEditorial conel findeofrecerunaccesomásamplio y expedito a ellos. /Norteamerica publishesAheadof Print (AOP) versions of allmanuscriptswhich have beenthoroughly peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the Editorial Board, with the aim of providing a wider andearlieraccesstothem.

Context

Patriarchalfamilystructureshavechangednoticeablyoverrecentdecadesinbothruraland

urbanareasofMexico.Thesechangestypicallyhavewide-reachingconsequencesforfamily

relationships, rolesand functionsbetweenfamilymembers.Relatedtothesechangeshas

been a decline in fertility (Wahyuni, 2005) and marriage rates (OECD, 2011); the

postponement of childbearing; increased rates of life expectancy; increased education

levels (Farooq and Javed, 2009, Kumari and Ishrat, 2007); and increased rates of divorce

(OECD,2011;Esteinou,2004;Silver,2006,Ribeiro,2002).Thesechangesare in important

part related to ongoing transitions in the economic system, notably the increasing

participation of women inMexico’s formal labourmarket and the increased numbers of

women andmenworking abroad to support their families. Especially consequential have

been rupturesof “typical family structures” causedby theabsenceofoneparent for the

sole purposeofworking abroad.Under theneoliberal economic system, a key result has

beentheaccelerationofprecariousmigrantwork,wherefamiliesaresplitup“temporarily”

at the national and transnational levels. Family separation is a structural outcome of

globalizationforcesandimmigrationpolicies.(Bernhardetal.,2008)

A growing focus on the family as a unit of analysis has emerged in the scholarly

literature on migration. According to Berumen and Hernández, “family” as an analytical

categoryhasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinmigrationstudiesgenerally,andparticularly

centraltostudiesofgenderandtransnationalism(2012).Ariza(2014)analyzed40academic



studiesrelatedtothefamilyandmigrationwritteninMexicofrom2007to2012.Themain

foci emphasized in these papers include gender, migration, family roles, household

structures and family strategies. She also noted an emerging field examining the links

betweenmigration,emotions,affectivityandchildren.

In themain body ofMexicanmigration studies there are various research studies

focusingon family andmigration,mostofwhich centeron theprimarymigrant recipient

country,theUnitedStates.Bycontrast,thefamilyasaunitofanalysisinmigrationstudies

in the context of Mexico-Canada is relatively unexplored. A few studies have analyzed

migrationfromtheperspectiveoffamilyrelations.Forexample,Bernhardetal.(2005,2008,

2009)focusontheexperiencesofLatinAmericanfamilieswhohavefacedseparationand

reunificationduringtheirmigrationtoCanada.Otherworksnotetheimpactsofmigration

onfamilies(McLaughlin2009),particularlythroughafocusonwomen(EncaladaGrez,2017,

Hennebry 2014; Hennebry et al., 2017; Preibisch & Encalada Grez 2012). Our research

team’s other publications emphasize the SAWP’s impacts of remittances on families’

material needs and poverty reduction (Wells at al., 2014) and on family cohesion

(McLaughlinetal.,2017).

ImpactsofMigrationonSAWPFamilies

Transnationalmigration has become increasingly ubiquitous inNorth America and in the

globalizingeconomy.Whilemuchattentionhasbeenpaidtounderstandingthecausesfor

thesepopulationflows,andtoanalyzingtheworkingandlivingconditionsofmigrants,little



isunderstoodabouttheimpactsofcontinuouscirculartransnationalmigrationonfamilies

whoareseparatedannuallyovermanyyears.Byfocusingonspousalrelationshipsbetween

worker-fathersandtheirpartners,thispaperhelpstofillthisgap.

InCanada,aselsewhere,theincreasinglycompetitivedemandsofagribusinesshave

beenusedtojustifytherecruitmentofmenandwomenfromoverseastoworkascheap,

flexibleandeasilycontrolledagriculturalworkers.Basok(2002)arguesthattheintegration

of such workers has become a “structural necessity” in Canadian agriculture. Our study

focusesonMexicanparticipantsinCanada’sSeasonalAgriculturalWorkerProgram(SAWP),

abilateral initiative that recruitsworkers fromMexicoandtheCommonwealthCaribbean

countriestowork legally inCanadaontemporarycontracts.Theworkersarrive inCanada

withouttheirfamiliesthroughboththeSAWP,whichhasbeeninplacesince1966,aswell

asthroughmorerecentstreamsofCanada’sTemporaryForeignWorkerProgramthatalso

employagriculturalworkersfromanycountryandforlongerperiods.In2015,over50,000

agricultural worker positions were approved in Canada, of which nearly 42,000 were

throughtheSAWP(ESDC,2014).MexicoistheleadingparticipantcountryundertheSAWP.

In2016,23,131Mexicanmenmigrated toCanada toworkunder theSAWP(STPS,2017),

most leaving their female spouses with primary and often sole responsibility for their

familiesduringtheirabsence.

SAWPworkersarenotpermittedtomigratewiththeirfamilies.Themajorityworkin

Canadaformultipleseasons,somefordecades.InOntario,whichistheprovincewiththe



mostSAWPparticipation,72%ofMexicanworkersspendmuchofeachyear—betweensix

andeightmonths—inCanada.Abouthalf(47%)havebeenparticipatingintheSAWPforat

least 10 years (STPS, 2017, based on 2016 statistics). The Mexican government

preferentiallyfavorsapplicantswithfamiliestosupport—eithermarriedmenwithchildren

orsinglemothers(seeMcLaughlin,2010).Workerswithfamiliesareseenasmorelikelyto

returntotheircountriesoforiginfollowingcontractcompletion.

ThefocusofouranalysisisonMexicanfatherswholeavetheirspousesandchildren

toworkinCanadaundertheSAWP.Althoughsomewomenalsomigrate,theymakeuponly

threepercentofprogramparticipants,andfaceuniqueissuesthatwarrantseparatestudy

(seeEdmunds2016;EncaladaGrez,2017;Preibisch2007).Theconsequencesofmigration

for these families are generally profound, including emotional distress, depression and

loneliness, among others (McLaughlin et al., 2017, Silver, 2006, Hurtado et al., 2008,

Grinberg,1996).FollowingArizaandD’Aubeterre,wecanidentifylong-distancemarriagein

thesetypesofmigratorycyclesinparticular,"recognizablebytheruptureofcohabitationin

marriedlife"(2009:229).Inresponsetothesechallenges,familymembersoftenadapttheir

familystructuresinordertostrengthenfamiliesinacontextinwhichmenbecomenotjust

temporaryworkers,butalsotemporaryhusbandsandfathers.

Despitethecentralityof familiestotheparticipationofworkers intheSAWP,very

littleregardhasbeengiventounderstandingandmitigatingthenegativeconsequencesof

migrationon families.Our aimwas toproduce research that could informpublic policies



andinstitutionstobuildaframeworktosupporttransnationalfamiliesinbothCanadaand

inMexico.

ThisresearchdrawsonDeFrainandOlson’sIntegratedModelofCoupleandFamily

Systems(2006),basedonthe InternationalFamilyStrengthsModel (IFSM)andCircumflex

Model ofMarital and Family Systems (CMMFS) (Asay and Defrain 2012; Olson 2000), to

analyze changes and responses of SAWP workers and their families. The IFSM model

identifies six family strengths measured by core traits that characterize family relations

basedonresearchineighteencountriesinmajorworldregions:AppreciationandAffection;

Commitment to Family; Positive Communication; Time Enjoyed Together; Spiritual Well-

Being;andAbilitytoManageStressandCrisisEffectively.

TheCMMFSmodel,designedforclinicalassessmentandtreatmentofcouplesand

families, employs a “relational diagnosis,” and is based on three dimensions of family

relationships:cohesion,flexibilityandcommunication,whichareconsideredhighlyrelevant

toa rangeof family therapyapproachesand family theorymodels (Olson,2000:144). Its

therapeuticgoal is to fostermore functional“balancedcoupleand familysystems”which

are neither too “disengaged” (“extreme emotional separateness”) nor too “enmeshed”

(where“anextremeamountofemotionalclosenessandloyaltyisdemanded”).Thisbalance

allows family members to be “both independent from and connected to their families”

(Olson, 2000: 145). DeFrain and Olson’s Integrated Model builds on these two earlier



frameworks, using CMMFS’ three broad categories and incorporating IFSM’s six family

strengths(DeFrainandOlson,2006:63).SeeTable1.

Familycohesion

Commitment

Timeenjoyedtogether

Familyflexibility

Abilitytomanagestressandcrisiseffectively

Spiritualwell-being

Familycommunication

Positivecommunication

Appreciationandaffection

Table1.IntegratedModeloftheIFSMandtheCMMFS(DeFrainandOlson,2006)

Althoughthismodeldidnotguideour initialresearch, itoffersafittingframework

for analyzing the results, because it allows us to identify key elements that help families

with “transnational parents” to stay together in response to the challenges and family

impactsofthefathers’repeatedmigrations.Inthesectionstofollowwehighlighthowthe

challengesassociatedwithtransnationalmigrationunderminefamilies’abilitiestomaintain

eachoftheseaspectsoffamilywell-being,whiledemonstratinghowworkers’integrationof

thesedimensionsmayassist their efforts to retain cohesion.We return to a summaryof

theseissuesinourdiscussionsection.



Familieswithamigrantfather/spouselivinginCanadaformostoftheyearfacevery

difficult issues and challengeswhen they try to pursue sometimes conflicting aspirations

relatedtofamilyemotionsandworkrequirements. Familyorganizationasonedimension

ofmarriage(Cienfuegos,2011)isatrisk,especiallyinregardstocoveringintangibleneeds

suchasemotionalandsocializationneeds.Nevertheless,followingtheDeFrainandOlson’s

Integrated Model (2006), we identified how the dimensions of cohesion, flexibility, and

communicationareusedby familieswithamigrantspouse/ father tocreatestrategies to

keepfamiliestogether.Mothers,fathersandchildrenchangehabitsandsometimesassume

newrolesthatinvolveperformingtasksthattheyhadnotdonepreviously.Whilethesenew

roles frequently generate problems for their physical and mental health and challenge

familycohesion,aswediscussbelow,theymayalsoencouragetheacquisitionofnewskills,

independenceandempowerment.

Our research findings are drawn primarily from interviews with workers, their

spouses and adult children in Mexico, as well as teachers and principals at schools the

workers’childrenattend.Theinterviewswereconductedintwostates:Guanajuato,astate

withalong-standinghistoryoflabourmigrationbothtoCanadaandtheUSA,andEstadode

Mexico,anemergingstateinregardtothismigration.1In2014,theEstadodeMexicosent

2,936migrantworkers, the largestnumberofSAWPworkers,andGuanajuato sent1,231

SAWPworkers,thefourthlargestnumber.(STPS,2015)

1Theinterviewswereconductedbythefirstauthor.



Fifty-four participants were interviewed in Mexico. This included 24 male SAWP

workers, 16 spouses, 10 adult children, and four teachers and school principals. We

conductedinterviewsinworkers’homesand,inthecaseofteachers,intheiroffices.They

were based on open-ended questions and usually lasted 60-90 minutes. Each group –

workers,spouses,adultchildren,andschoolteachers–answereddifferentsetsofinterview

questions. Interviewswere transcribed inSpanishand translated intoEnglish,afterwhich

the data were analyzed using themes and coded into NVivo software. Additional

observations have been incorporated from over 12 years of ethnographic fieldwork

conducted by the first and second authors with migrant workers and their families in

MexicoandCanada.

Results

FamilyCohesionandFamilyFlexibility

TogetherwithcomponentsoftheIntegratedModeldiscussedbefore,weunderstandfamily

cohesionmoregenerallyas“theemotionalbondingthatfamilymembershavetowardone

another”(Olsonetal.,1989:48).Thenotionoffamily flexibility refersto“theamountof

change in its leadership, role relationships and relationship rules” (Olson, 1999). More

usefulforourstudyistherelatedconceptof“familyadaptability,”whichisthe“abilityofa

maritalorfamilysystemtochangeitspowerstructure,rolerelationships,andrelationship

rulesinresponsetosituationalanddevelopmentalstress”(Olsonetal.,1998:48).



ThefamilydynamicsofSAWPmigrantshavebeenchangingsignificantly,particularly

in regard to spousal roles and parent-child roles. Our study focuses on nuclear families

comprisedofamigrantfather,mother,andchildren,withextendedfamilymembers(e.g.,

grandparents, aunts and uncles) often playing important roles, such as assisting with

childcare and house maintenance, as well. In this section, we focus on how workers,

spouses and children demonstrate flexibility in their changing roles during migratory

periods.

TheChangingRolesofSpouses

Previously,mostprimary leadershippositionswithinMexican familiesweredominatedby

men,but inpracticethesepositionsareoftenbeingmodifiedaswomenbecomeineffect

theheadsofhouseholdsduring theirhusbands’absences, therebychanging familypower

structures,at leasttemporarily.Formanywomen,takingonthesenewroles,especially in

theearlyyearsoftheirhusbands’migration,imposesburdensomeresponsibilitiesthatthey

struggle tomeet.This, coupledwith feelingsof loneliness,hasgeneratedsevere levelsof

stressamongmanywomen.Somewomenresorttopublichealthservicesforsupport,but

formanyotherssuchpublicsupportsarenot readilyavailable.Othersadaptbyregarding

thesestressesastemporaryobstaclestowhichtheymustadjust.Theydotheirbesttosolve

theproblem.However,theirnewresponsibilitiesandthestressestheycreateoftenbecome



constant,notonlywhentheirhusbandsareworkinginCanada,butalsowhentheyreturn

home.

Twoofthesespouses/mothers,EsperanzaandDelia,describethechangingrolesin

theirfamilies,andtheresultingdifficultiestheyhavehadtoface.Esperanza,whohasfour

childrenathome,explainsthatwhenherhusbandfirstbegantomigratetoCanadatowork

undertheSAWP,thechildrenwereyoungandtheyallwereattendingschool.“Ihadtotake

themtoschoolandthengototakecareofthecattle,tothefield”sheexplained.“Ihadto

come back in a hurry to cook, to help them to do their homework”. Speaking of Delia’s

experienceaswell,shecontinued:

When [our] husbands are here they help a little with the children. When you’re

aloneyouhavetodoeverything.Ifthey’resick,itisthesame.Youhavetobetwoor

threedaysatthehospitalandyou’reworriedbecauseoftherestofyourchildren,

andthecattle.(..)BeforeIhadtogotoworkinthefield,andthencomebacktobe

withmychildren.Thenextdaythesame, takechildrento theschool, takecareof

thecattle,gotoworkatthefield.It’sdifficult.Whenhusbandsareherewesplitthe

work.

Asthechildrengrewintoadulthood,theyfacenewanxieties.Esperanzacontinues:

Nowthatmychildrenaregrownup,theyoungeronegoesandcomesbackaround

11or12atnight.You’rewondering,“What’shappening?Whattimehewillbeback?



HowcanIgotolookforhimthatlateatnight?”When[our]husbandsarehereitis

easier,forexampleifmyhusbandgoestolookforhim.That’swhatImeanwhenI

sayit’sdoubleresponsibilitywhenI’malone.

Thesenewresponsibilitiescannegativelyaffectwives’health.AsEsperanzaexplains:

Ihadtogotothedoctorbecauseofthat.It’sstressfultobealone.It’sexhaustingfor

yourbody,foryourmind,foreveryphysicalaspect. Igotdepressedbecauseofhis

absence.IfeltsobadIdidn’twanttoliveanymore.

Esperanza’s sister-in-law took her to a doctor. “[The doctor] told me that I was

getting depressed. Shewanted to knowwhy and I told her itwas because ofmy

husband’sabsence. I felt thehousewasempty”.Shetoldherhusbandthat“every

cornerofthehouseremindsmeofyou.”So,that’swhyIfeltlikethat,sobad.”“It

tookgreateffort”,shesaid,“togetridofthedepression.”

As Esperanza and Delia have explained, they are having to adapt to new roles

imposedby themigrationof theirpartners.Especially in ruralcommunities, littlecredit is

usuallygivenforhandlingthisstressfuldouble-parentingrolethatregularlyproducesstress.

Sometimes not even husbands help to reduce stress levels of their wives and children,

because they think that their essential responsibility lies in sending remittances. Jimena,

anotherspouse,adds:



[Myhusband]said“waitforme,payattentiontothechildren,Iwillprovideforyou.

Whatevertheyneedatschool,I’llsendmoneytoyouforwhateveryouneed.I’llbe

thereforyou,andyouhavetohelpmewiththem,educatethem.Dowhatittakes.I

don’twant tohearcomplaints”.Canyou imaginethatkindof responsibilityonmy

shoulders?Ifmysonwentto[a]dance,Icouldn’tsleepuntilhecamebackhome.If

somethingbadhappened,itwasmyresponsibility,becausemyhusbandsaid“Idon’t

wanttoknowanything.Dowhatyouhavetodo.Youjusttellmeeverythingisfine

anddon’tworryme.WhatcanIdohere(inCanada)?”So,Ididn’ttellhimanything.

Itwasmyresponsibility.

Aprominentfindingofourresearchhasbeenthecentralityofthesemothersasthe

principal actors maintaining family cohesion. In the absence of their husbands, mothers

become responsible formanaging all aspects of the household, including taking on non-

traditional gender roles such as finances, repairs, building ormaking decisions related to

agriculture.Theylearnandapplydifferentmechanismstoguidetheirfamilies.Thisincludes

their role in delegating responsibilities to children, mainly to the oldest male child who

assumespartoftheroleofthefather incertainpracticalactivities (suchastakingcareof

thechildren,somelabouractivitiesinthefieldsorinthehouse),andalsoinsymbolicways

(suchasto“bethemanofthehouse”,and“betheexampleforthebrothersandsisters”).

SAWP fathers also have to adapt roles to help strengthen their families. In the

context of their lengthy, repeated absences, these men typically learn to adapt their



parentingstylestoprotecttheiremotionsandthoseoftheirfamilymembers.Forexample,

migrant father Omar explains that hemodifies the ways and degree to which he shows

affectiontohischildren,sotheywillbelessharmedbyhisabsencewhenheisinCanada:“I

showmylovetothem,nottogivethem[mylove]allatonce,becausethentheygetusedto

itandthey’llmissyouwhenyouleave,especiallytheyoungones.Itrytobeagoodfather.

I’mlovingandcaring,butnottoomuch.”

Thismannerofexpressingtheirloveinasomewhatguardedwayiscommonamong

seasonal agricultural migrant workers from Mexico. While some fathers do not freely

express their affection to their childrenbecause this is not considered a “male role” and

inconsistent withmachismo (Giraldo, 1972), youngermigrant workers aremore likely to

changetheirwaysofexpressingtheirlovefortheirchildren.

Whilehusbandsexperiencethepainofbeingseparatedfromtheirfamilies,friends,

country, identity, traditions andhabits for longperiodsof time, their spouses experience

loneliness and frustration. Most did not expect to live in intermittent relationships.

Althoughsomewiveshaveexperiencedfathers,grandfathersorbrothersgoingtoworkin

the USA or Canada, many encounter new and unexpected challenges. As newly alone

married women, migrant spouses learn new rules of behavior. In traditional patriarchal

Mexicancommunitieswhereweconductedourresearch,womenaregenerallyexpectedto

marry and perform traditionally gendered family roles.When these women live without

theirhusbands’presence,theyoftenfindthemselvesunderincreasedscrutinybymembers



of their husbands’ families and their own families, particularly to ensure their celibacy

duringtheirhusbands’absences.Forexample,inruralMexicancommunitiesitisgenerally

frowneduponifwivesgooutaloneoraskforhelpfromothermenoutsidetheirfamilies.

Theyareusuallyexpected tosolve theirproblemsby themselvesorwith their familiesor

husbands’ families. Many women report that the constant pressure of their husbands’

families’monitoring them causes a lot of stress. Somewomen speculate that this stress

contributes to the breakdown of their physical and emotional health in their husbands’

absence,withillnessesoftenincreasingintheirabsenceanddiminishingupontheirreturn.

Womenoftenadoptstrategiestominimizetheseproblemswhilenegotiatingnewformsof

empowermentandindependence.Forexample,iftheyarestilllivingintheirin-laws’homes,

orthedependencyrelationshipwiththemisveryintense,somewomenseektonegotiate

the possibility of building or renting their houses in spaces outside the oversight of the

paternalfamilies,toestablishgreaterindependence.

Themainfamilycommitmentofmigrantmenandtheirwiveswhoremainalonein

Mexicoistostriveforbetterlives.Theirsacrificesareviewedasnecessarytopromotethe

welfareoftheirchildren,whorepresenthopesforsuccessthattheirparentsdidnothave.

Forthemigrantfamiliesmigrationrepresentstheabilitytofulfillfamilydreams,especially

for material things. The children’s education, in particular, is seen as a major way to

overcomefuturepovertyandtogivechildreneconomicopportunities.



Withinthecontextofbuildingfuturesuccess,gender-inscribedrolesareexpectedto

becarriedoutbothwithinthefamilyandthebroadercommunity.Theexpectationisthat

fathersmustsupportthefamilyfinancially,andmigrationisoftennecessarytoachievethis.

Womenareexpectedtostayathomeandtakecareofthechildren.However, inpractice,

theresponsibilitiesofwomengobeyondtheroleoftraditionalmotherhood.

Manywomenhaveassumed roles thatwere formerly typicalofmen.During their

husbands’migration,theybecomeresponsibleforworkingormanagingtheland,whichis

demanding andoften increase during the seasonswhenmen are away.Women copeby

sometimeshiringadditional laborerstoworkthe land,ortheysuperviseolderchildrento

takecareofit.Inothercases,familiesprefernottoworkthelandbecauseoftheproblems

that this entails. Likewise, wives are responsible for resolving problems in which their

husbands were involved before leaving. For example, if the husband assumed a debt,

women are often responsible for administering the remittance money to pay it off. In

emergency situationswomen are regularly required tomake decisions on their own. If a

childgetssick,womenareexpectedtoknowhowtofindhelp.Intakingontheseadditional

rolesandresponsibilitiesbecausetheirhusbandsareawayworking,thewomen/mothers

contribute significantly to the stability of the family, and in many cases, such changes

empower women to become more independent and assertive. Yet at the same time,

sometimesthepressureissogreatthatwomensufferextremestressorphysicalillness.At

the beginning of themen’s participation in SAWP in particular, these situations are very



challenging for the entire family, but season-by-season the women often grow more

experiencedandconfidentintheirnewroles.

Extra-MaritalRelationships

Insomecases,malemigrantsestablishromanticrelationshipsinCanadawithothermigrant

womenfromMexico,andsometimeswithCanadianwomenor those fromothernational

backgrounds.Sometimesthemigrantfarmworkersmaintaindoublelives,spendingwinters

withtheirfamiliesinMexicoandtherestoftheyearwiththeirpartnerinCanada.Inother

cases they completely abandon their original families in Mexico. In such situations, the

childrenarealmostalwaysleftinthecareoftheirmother,whoisusuallysupportedbyher

family. Sometimes, such migrants who remain in the SAWP voluntarily support their

children financially.Womenalmostneverconduct legalproceedings to sue the fathersof

theirchildrentoreceivechildsupportduetothe lackoffinancialmeanstodosoandthe

difficultiesinnavigatingcomplexlegalchannels.Inaddition,manyimpoverishedsmall-scale

farmingcommunitiesviewthe legalprocessas inaccessibleand, inorder toavoid further

conflictsbetweenthemselvesandtheirformerpartners’families,theydonotpursuelegal

action.

In some cases, especially when women take less submissive roles in marital

relationships, theymay start romantic relationshipswithothermenwhile theirhusbands

areawayinCanada.Thisislesscommon,inpartbecausewomenareundersurveillanceby

their familiesandothers in thecommunity.Womenhave fewer resources to leavehome



and it is usually hard to establish relationships with other men who will accept the

responsibility of caring for children who are not theirs, especially when they are small.

Women who are unfaithful to their husbands and who leave their children are widely

stigmatized, making it difficult for them to continue living in their communities.

Nevertheless, our fieldwork suggests that such extramarital relationships are becoming

morefrequent,especiallyinfamilieswheremenmigrateforlongerandhaveyoungwives.

Highlevelsofstress,lonelinessandsadnessamongwives,partlyinthecontextofalossofa

sense of being in normal relationships, sometimes leads to a search for companionship

outside of themarriage. Sometimeswives leave the townwith othermen. Silver (2006)

found similar extramarital relationships among transnational families where one spouse

waslivinginMexicoandtheotherintheUnitedStates.

Yet themajority of people, both husbands andwives, choose not to pursue such

relationships.Religiousandothernormsstrongly influence thesechoices.Themajorityof

peopleinthecommunitiesweresearchedidentifyasCatholic,andreligiousvaluessuchas

fidelity, self-sacrifice, and familywell-being are central to theirworldviews. These beliefs

are reinforced by priests who serveMexican communities in Canada. Sermons regularly

emphasizetheimportanceofwell-behavedcouplesandthevirtuesofpersonalsacrificefor

thefamily.

Communityandfamilyritualsalsohelptounitefamilies.Amongmigrants,themost

significant rituals are those of a religious nature, particularly those associated with the



sacramentalacts (e.g.baptisms,weddings, funerals).Sucheventsarescheduledwherever

possibleduringthestaysofmigrantsintheirhomecommunities.It iscommontoobserve

baptisms, confirmations, first communions,marriages, andquinceañeras (youngwomen’s

fifteenthbirthdaycelebrations)beingobserved inthe lastor firstmonthsoftheperiod in

whichmigrantsarehome.Thepreparationtimeforthelargepartiesassociatedwiththese

eventsusuallytakesseveralmonthsduetotheir lavishness.Wivesareusuallyresponsible

forthiswork,andtheyaregenerallysupportedbyotherfamilymembersandgodparents.

Uponmigrants’arrivalintheirhomecommunities,mostoftheworkisalreadydone,leaving

onlyfinaldetailstobecompleted(includingsomeofthepayments).Whatmattersmostis

thatallfamilymembersareabletobepresentandparticipateinthesekeyevents.

TheChangingRoleofChildren

Cohesionisalsosometimesstrengthenedthroughthecommitmentsandactionsofchildren

who also take on parental roles. Sometimes these roles are not taken on by choice, but

rather by the direct command from their father or by pressure from the traditional

expectationofeldestsonstobetheirfather’ssurrogates.Thisnotionofpaternalpoweris

transferredtotheeldestmalechild,who,onceateenager,isexpectedtotakeontherole

offather,protectinghismotherandyoungersiblings,inhisfather’sabsence.

However, such transfers of parental responsibility to the next generation are

frequentlydisrupted,asmigrantchildrenincreasinglyexhibitrebelliousbehaviors,exerting

their independence,while focusing onmodernist individual consumption and enjoyment,



rejectingconstantlythetraditionalvalues,whichtheyviewasarchaic.Somemigrantfathers

feeltheyhavebecomedistantsponsorsoftheirchildren,astheyarenotinvolvedonadaily

basis intheireducation.Whentheycallhometheirchildrenoftendon’twanttotalkwith

them, except to ask for special gifts, such as brand-name clothes and shoes, tablets,

computers,cellphones,andotherexpensiveitemstheycannotaffordinMexico.

These trends disappoint and bewilder many migrant fathers, who regard the

children’s actions asdisrespectful and irresponsible.Manyobserved that today’s children

have easier access to consumer goods, and, as they do not see the work their fathers

enduretoattainthem,theyhavebecomedetachedfromthevalueandimportanceofhard

work.Forexample,migrantwifeandmotherGloriacomplained:

When there were not many migrants, the youngsters were all quiet, relaxed,

respectful,hardworking,exactlywhattheyaren’tnow.Theyarelazy,theydon’tfeel

likedoingthings,theydon’tcareabouttheirfuture.Theyonlylivefortodaybecause

theyarelivingagoodlife.Idon’tknowwhattheythinkabouttheirfuture.Before,

therewerenogangs,perhapsoneortwoweretherehavingabeerorsomething,in

apeacefulway;nowtheydogatheringangs,let’ssay,andtheydrink.Theygoback

homeat2,3 inthemorningandsomeofthemjustdon’tshowup.(...)Theywere

notlikethisbefore(...)whenIwasyoung.

ChangingFamilyNormsandCommunityControls



Thelargercommunityalsooftenplaysanimportantroleinshapingfamilycohesion.Some

communitymembers, includingneighbors,becomesentinelswhohelpensure that family

ties do not weaken by setting and enforcing norms to maintain the family as a social

institution,includinginequitablegenderroleswithinit,despitechanginggenderdynamics.

Traditionalpatriarchalnormsreinforcewomen’svulnerabilityinsideandoutsidethehome.

Only in rarecasesarenormsmodified toallowwomentoattainmorepowerandreduce

inequitiesbetweenmenandwomen.Forexample,thismaybeseenincasesofyoungwives

who had the chance to study at university, or had experiences in life that made them

rethinkwomen’sexpectedrolesinthefamily.

Based on our observations, most women have not achieved significant

empowerment in relation to their additional responsibilities in the absence of their

husbands.Menarestillconsideredtheheadofthehousehold,andwomenstillfeelobliged

toasktheirhusbandsforpermissiontomakemanyfamilydecisions.Evensmalldecisions,

suchaswhethertoattendaparty,oftenrequirethepermissionofthehusbandabroad.

Increasingly, however, some movement towards greater autonomy for women is

evident.Manywomengain confidence inactivitiesapart from theirhusbands,andassert

their independence even if it contravenes their husbands’ wishes. For example, some

womenwhobegandanceclasseswhiletheirhusbandswereawaycontinuedtotakethese

classesevenaftertheirhusbandsreturnedand indicatedtheydidnotwanttheirwivesto

doso.Inaddition,somemen,afterbeingexposedtomoreprogressivegenderdynamicsin



Canada,becomesupportiveofthesechangesandmaritaldynamicsmovetowardsgreater

equality. Forexample, someof thehusbands supported thewomencontinuing todo the

activitiesthattheybeganintheirabsence.Suchdynamicsaremorelikelytooccuramong

youngermigrantswhogrewupinalesstraditionally-genderedcontext.

FamilyCommunication

Intheintegratedmodel,Communicationis“measuredbyfocusingonthefamilyasagroup

withregardtotheirlisteningskills,speakingskills,self-disclosure,clarity,continuitytracking,

and respect and regard” (Olson, 1999). As Olson et al. (1989) argue, the communicative

dimension is critical to family cohesion and adaptability. Our findings demonstrate that

communication is key to maintaining relationships across distances, but the ability of

workersandtheir families tocommunicate isgreatly influencedbycircumstancesbeyond

theircontrol.

For nearly three decades, SAWP families used letters as a primary means of

correspondence, allowing for only very infrequent and delayed communication activities.

However, over the past decade, landline and then cell phone technology have reached

morerurallocationsinCanadaandMexico.Gradually,asmorefamiliesattainedtelephone

services in both countries, letters have become less frequent in transnational family

communication.Morerecently,withthe increasinguseofcellphones,migrantscanmore

easily maintain regular telecommunication with their families. Nevertheless, family

communication is often impeded by lack of adequate access to good telecommunication



infrastructure(e.g.,notenoughlandlinesperworker,costsofcellservice,insufficientaccess

to internet services) in Canadian andMexican rural areas. In addition, lack of privacy in

workers’accommodations;demandingschedulesofworkersandtheir families;anda lack

ofthetechnicalskillsandfamiliarityneededtomakethebestuseofthesecommunications

devicesposeadditionalchallenges.

Moreover, none of these long-distance communications technologies affords the

same kind of close emotional communication that is possible in direct person-to-person

communication. This is particularly apparent during special occasions such as births and

birthdays, the beginning and end of children’s school term cycles, illnesses, deaths and

funerals. Electronic communication isnotenough to fullyexpresshappiness, sadnessand

other emotions on both sides of separated families. While communication between

mothersandchildrenisreinforcedbytheirproximityindailylife,communicationbetween

childrenandtheirabsentfatherstendsgenerallytobemoresuperficial.Overalongperiod

of repeated separations, this superficiality of communication weakens the quality and

strength of their relationships. Emerging and better access to technologies may assist

migrantsinmaintainingbettercommunicationwiththeirfamiliesintheyearstocome.

Discussion

Our findingshaveshownhowourresearchparticipantsstruggledtomaintaineachof the

dimensionsoffamilystrengthandwell-beingoftheIntegratedModelamidthechallenges

oftranslationalmigration.Withrespecttofamilycohesion,workersdemonstratedtotheir



commitment to their families bymigrating and remitting income, but their time enjoyed

togetherwasseverelycurtailedbytheirinabilitytobephysicallypresentformuchofeach

yeartheyweregone.Withrespecttofamilyflexibility,migrantworkersandtheirspouses

showed varying degrees of adaptability to the changing roles thatmigration thrust upon

them,withwomen, inparticular,adjustingtomanynewresponsibilities intheabsenceof

theirhusbands.Sometimestheseadjustmentsgeneratednewstressesandtensions,while

other times they contributed to personal growth and empowerment. Spiritualwell-being

actedasacatalysttofamilyunity;thoseworkerswhoweremoreintegratedintospiritual

andreligiousbeliefsystemsdemonstratedagreatercommitmenttotheirspouses.Religious

services also offer a system of social support during long absences. Prioritizing religious

festivalsandritualstooccurwhenmigrantfamiliescouldbetogetheractedasacatalystto

strengthentiesandinstillmemoriesthatwereimportantforfamilybonding.Finally,family

communication iskeytomaintainingtheintegrityoffamilies,butthiswasunderminedby

insufficientandinconsistentcommunicationtechnologiesandtimesavailableforfamiliesto

haveprivateconversationstomaintainregularcontact.Demonstrationsofappreciationand

affectionarecriticalinpromotingfamilycloseness,butagain,areoftenunderminedbythe

challenges of constant, prolonged separations. Many migrant families demonstrated

resilience in the face of myriad challenges, but clearly, transnational migration poses a

majorchallengetofamilycohesion,andlittleisbeingdonetoaddresstheseconcerns.

PolicyRecommendations



In an ideal world, no personwould need to separate from his or her family in order to

provide economic support for the family. There are a number of changes, however, that

could help to strengthen the cohesion, flexibility and communication of SAWP families,

whiletheyendurethesedifficultcircumstances.Ourresearchparticipantsemphasizedthat

SAWP employment is extremely important to their families’ economic futures, and they

were hesitant to suggest any changes that could potentially jeopardize the future of the

programand,thus,theirjobopportunities.Webelievetheproposalssuggestedherewould

improve the experiences of SAWP workers and their families without undermining the

viabilityoftheprogramonwhichtheirlivelihoodsdepend.

First,maximizingremittanceswouldhelpsupportfamiliesbyreducingtheduration

oftheseparationneededinordertoremitthesameamountofmoney.Whileraisingtake-

homewageswouldbeanobviouswaytoincreaseremittances,incomecanbemaximizedin

otherways.Workersaskedforfewerwagedeductionsandgreateraccesstobenefitsfrom

theirexistentpay,andforgreatercontrolandconsistencyovertheirhoursofwork.Among

the most crucial recommendations is that the Canadian government provide migrant

workersaccess to fullbenefitsunder theEmployment Insurance (EI)program, intowhich

they contribute millions of dollars annually, and which could provide crucial income in

betweenworkseasons.

Second, we recommend strengthening workers’ rights and protections. Workers

whoareprotectedaremorelikelytoreturnhomesafely,healthy,andinastateofmental



well-beingtotheirlovedones.Severalkeychangescouldreduceworkers’vulnerabilitiesto

rights violations and health risks. First, Canada should sign and enforce theUNMigrant

Workers Convention,which recognizes the need to protect the unity ofmigrantworkers’

families.Openorsector-specificworkpermits,anappealsprocesspriortorepatriationsor

program removals, increased access to existing employment rights, and the full right to

unionization inallprovinceswouldbemajor improvements.Multilingualsupportservices,

mandatory health and safety training and seniority/recall rights for workers would also

promoteworkerempowermentandjobsecurity.Moreinformationonworkers’rightscould

beprovided inMexicoprior toworkers’ departure anduponarrival. In addition,workers

could have more say over their contract durations and destinations. Choice of contract

durationwouldempowerworkerstobalancetheirfamilies’incomeneedsagainsttheharm

totheirfamiliescausedbysustainedabsences.

Additional measures could also be taken to strengthen migrant families. The

importanceoffamilycommunicationwhileworkersareinCanadaisgroundsforenhanced

use of communications technology, for example, through mandatory phones placed in

workerhousing,inprivatelocations,andthroughincreasedaccesstointernetforemailand

videocallingcommunicationsystems.AllowingfamilymemberstovisitCanadaandworkers

to visit their families partway through their contracts would also help maintain family

connectionsanddemonstratecommitmenttoeachother.Providingsupportgroups,social

work and/or counselling services for bothmigrants and their families could help to build



important spiritual, emotional and coping skills to manage the challenges of repeated

separations. Workers and their families could be counselled in positive communication

strategies, the importance of affection and appreciation, and how to handle negative

emotionsthatemergeoverthecourseoflongabsences.Providinggreaterspiritualsupport

for those with spiritual or religious inclinations may also help some workers and their

families to cope with the sadness and difficulties inevitable with prolonged separations

fromtheirlovedones.

Althoughour research focusedon fathers,migrantmothers’ needs should alsobe

considered. In particular, women migrants could be granted greater protections during

pregnancy, including the right to safe work, prenatal care, and to protection from

premature employment terminations based on reproductive status. Particular support

systemscouldbeputintoplacetoassistthechildrenofsinglemigrantworkerswhoareleft

withoutaparentformuchoftheyear.

Finally,wejoinmanyothersincallingforSAWPworkerstobeprovidedtherightto

permanent residency and family reunification in Canada for those who wish to do so.

Repeatedlongabsencesfromtheirfamiliesastemporary“visitors”couldbereplacedbya

systemofpermanentimmigrationandfamilyreunification,whichrecognizesandwelcomes



migrant workers and their families as valued and respected contributors to Canadian

society.2

Conclusion

In the context of growing regional and global neoliberal economic restructuring, the

repeated migrations of husbands and fathers under the SAWP, and the emergence of

important, albeit partial, changes in traditional patriarchal structures in much of rural

Mexico,challengethecohesionofthesetransnationalfamilies.Thisstudyhasanalyzedkey

impacts of changing gender and parental roles, and changing relations between children

and their parents, especiallywhen fathers are absentworking in Canada, andhas shown

howthesechangeshavebeenreshapingtransnationalfamilyrelationsandfamilycohesion.

Facedwithnew,increasingandoftendauntingpressuresthatthreatenthestrengthoftheir

transnational families,mothers, fathersandchildrenarechangingsomeoftheirrolesand

performing new tasks.While these new roles and tasks, to varying degrees, impose new

burdens and transfer responsibilities within families in ways that are deleterious to the

physicalandmentalhealthoffamilymembersandfamiliesasawhole,insomecasesthey

alsopromotegreaterautonomyforwomen.Inparticular,theymaycontributetowomen’s

development of new confidence and decision-making capacities by taking over, even if

temporarily and in part, roles that have been traditionally afforded more exclusively to

fathersandhusbands.2Theserecommendationsareadoptedfromourpreviouspublication,McLaughlinetal.2017,wheretheyarediscussedinmoredetail.



Thisstudyhasanalyzedtheoften-prodigiouseffortsthatbothparentsmaketokeep

their familiestogetherwhilepursuingdreamsofbetter livesfortheir families,particularly

their children. At the same time these efforts entail sacrifices, burdens and stresses that

mayweakenfamilyrelationships,insomecasesevencontributingtofamilybreakup.

Duringourobservations indifferent familyenvironments,werealizedthat feelings

ofabsence thatarecausedby thedepartureof the fatherarenever fully resolved in the

familyenvironment.Theabsenceofthefather,underthesecircumstances,oftenendsup

irreparably damaging relationships between spouses and between fathers and children.

Despitetheimportanteconomicbenefitsthatmigrationbringstofamilies,rarelyisamore

harmonious family relationship restored. In this sense, the fact that parents migrate

becomes awatershedmoment for children in their family relationships, particularlywith

theirparents.Childrenoftenspeakoftwoperiodsintheirrelationshipswiththeirparents—

oneoccursbeforemigrationandtheotherafter.Tocounteractsomeofthesechallenges,

most families exhibit flexibility to try to promote cohesion. Policy changes may help to

ameliorate some of these challenges, but ultimately, repeated, prolonged family

separationswillcontinuetoputstrainonmigrantsandtheirfamilies.

The SAWPprovidesmuchneededemployment to approximately 24,000male and

700 femalemigrantworkers fromMexicoannually. It alsoprovides themwith salariesof

aboutC$1,500amonththatarewellabovewhattheymightreceivedoingsimilarworkin



Mexico. These wages become the remittances that SAWP workers send home to their

families, helping them to meet basic needs, including food, clothing, education, medical

treatmentandhousing,allofwhicharefoundationaltofamilycohesion(Wellsetal.2014).

At the same time, however, the SAWP harms family cohesion by weakening spousal

relations and relations betweenmigrant parents (particularly fathers) and their children.

Thus,thefamilyadaptationsthathavebeenarisinginthecontextoftheformationofthese

transnational families under the SAWP have mixed often competing tendencies to both

strengthenandweakenthecohesionofthesefamilies.Suchisthecontradictorynatureof

theimpactsoftheSAWPontheseMexicanfamilies.

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adapting spousal relations and transnational family ... · of such workers has become a...

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