adaptation to high altitude diving

The River Otter Journal, Fall 2005 1

Adaptation to High Altitude Diving:Can River Otters Switch fromCutthroat to Lake Trout?By Jamie Crait

Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming

Yellowstone Lake, in Yellowstone National Park, is at the center of a potential ecological catastrophe.Nonnative lake trout, whirling disease, and extended drought conditions have contributed to adecline in the lake’s native cutthroat trout population. This decline has raised concerns both forthe viability of cutthroat themselves and for the many predators and scavengers that feed onthem. Several of these predators also provide a route for nutrients between Yellowstone Lake andforests when they feed in the water and deposit waste in the terrestrial environment. Therefore,a loss of cutthroat trout may have propagating effects beyond Yellowstone Lake by severing thislinkage between water and land.

Since 2001, we have been examining the potential impacts of a declining cutthroat trout popula-tion on river otters in Yellowstone Lake. Little information existed on this otter population priorto our study, and though we have learned a great deal about Yellowstone Lake’s otters in the pastfour years, there is still much to be discovered. While habitat selection, seasonal activity, andnutrient transport by river otters in the Yellowstone Lake ecosystem appear similar to findings inother studies, the heavy reliance of Yellowstone Lake’s otters on one trout species, cutthroat trout,

Table of ContentsAdaptation to High Altitude Diving: Can River Otters Switch from Cutthroat to Lake Trout?.....................1,3

Are There River Otters in Katmai National Park? ...................................2-3

Estimating the Abundance of River Otters in Kenai Fjords National Park: An Update ......................4

Otter Champion Corner .........................5

Otter Updates .......................................6

Population Density and Habitat Characteristics of the Marine Otter ......7-13

President’s Message ..............................5

Seasons of the Otter – A Film Review ................................14-15

The River Otter Alliance promotes thesurvival of the North American RiverOtter (Lontra canadensis) through educa-tion, research and habitat protection. Wesupport current research and reintroduc-tion programs, monitor abundance anddistribution in the United States, andeducate the general public through ournewsletter, THE RIVER OTTER JOURNAL,on the need to restore and sustain RiverOtter populations.

Our goal is to be a center of communica-tions among wildlife biologists, environ-mental organizations, fishermen, and allinterested parties on a national and inter-national basis, in order to ensure thehealthy future of the North AmericanRiver Otter.

THE RIVER OTTER JOURNALis a semi-annual publication of

the River Otter Alliance. Look forthe next edition of THE RIVER

OTTER JOURNAL in Spring 2006!

Volume XIV, Number II, Fal l 2005

continued on page 3

Photo by Eric Peterson©

Otters in the San Juan Islands, WAPhoto courtesy of Jim Wester

Our team surveyed the coast of KatmaiNational Park (KATM) in a ground-break-ing effort for river otter research in thisremote and isolated park. The surveystretched from Amalik Bay to Kukak Bayalong the Alaska Peninsula. The weather,boating, and bear viewing were spectacu-lar. Otter activity, however, was not.Compared to the 428 fresh fecal samplescollected during 10 days in Kenai FjordsNational Park (KFNP), Katmai yielded ascant 63 samples (several of which werequestionably fresh, but the researcherswere getting desperate for positive ottersign) over the same period of time.

We conducted the survey in the samemanner as the KFNP survey in 2004.Otter latrines were identified by surveyingthe coast from skiffs, looking for key habi-tat features (large old-growth trees, highcanopy cover, etc.) which typify otterlatrine sites. Perhaps one of the problemsin KATM, was that there were no large old-growth trees anywhere. All coniferousvegetation was wiped out in the 1912eruption of Novarupta volcano (which cre-ated the Valley of 10,000 Smokes), lessthan 50 miles to the west. The eruptiondestroyed existing vegetation and blanket-ed the entire region in ash. Some places onthe island of Kodiak, 100 miles distant,were buried in two feet of ash.Subsequently, nearly all of the modern veg-etation in KATM consists of alders andgrasses/sedges. Also, the vast majority ofcoastal substrate appears to be ash, whichgives the ocean waters a beautiful blueappearance, but may not provide goodhabitat for the fishes on which otters feed.This could be one possible explanation forthe general lack of otter abundance weobserved in KATM.

Another possible deterrent to otter activitycould be the high number of brown bears(Ursus arctos) and their activity. TheKatmai region boasts one of the world’s

greatest densities of brown bears. Thebeaches are littered with their spoor,and the alder thickets are interwovenwith their trails. We noted an apparentreluctance of otters (and at times,researchers) to enter the vegetation andventure too far from the safety of thewater. In fact, Dr. Ben-David docu-mented a possible predatory interactionbetween a brown bear and an otter.One morning, she followed the tracks ofseveral otters as they played andgalumphed along a sandy beach.Suddenly, the otter tracks made a hastybeeline for the water, to be followed byan equally hurried set of bear tracks ontop of those left by the otter, mere sec-onds before.

We suspect that the level of bear activityand/or lasting effects of the 1912 eruption,may be contributing to the low levels of

otter activity we observed in KATM.Unfortunately, in order to substantiatethe latter claim, we would need at leastsome information on otter abundanceprior to the 1912 eruption, which to thebest of our knowledge does not exist.These theories seem at least plausible,although we may never know for sure.We do know, however that our researchteam will not be returning for a secondsurvey of KATM. Due to the low level ofotter activity, our resources would bebetter put to use elsewhere. Lake ClarkNational Park and Preserve, anotherpioneering research effort, may well bein the cards for next year.

We leave you with a poem written by aprofessional National Park Serviceemployee during the KFNP survey (To thetune of “Blowing in the Wind”).

continued on page 3

2 The River Otter Journal, Fall 2005

Human and otter tracks on an ash covered beach in Katmai National Park

Are There River Otters inKatmai National Park?By Kaiti OttDepartment of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming


is fairly unique. Not surprisingly, otters dofeed on other prey in Yellowstone Lake;however, the lake’s otters are adapted tofeeding on abundant, fat, and easy-to-catchcutthroat trout – qualities not shared bymost alternative prey. Perhaps ironically,the only other fat, energy-rich replacementfish prey for otters in Yellowstone Lake isnonnative lake trout. Unfortunately forotters, lake trout inhabit much deeperwater than cutthroat trout, and catchingthem requires extended and energetically-demanding dives. Because YellowstoneLake is located at over 2,400 m (nearly8,000 feet) elevation, otters would have topossess special adaptations for diving athigh altitude to feed on lake trout. Thisyear we began a project investigatingwhether river otters in Yellowstone Lakehave special adaptations to high altitudediving by comparing the diving physiologyof otters captured in Yellowstone Lake tothose captured at sea level.

In June, we initiated the high-altitudecomponent of our study in Yellowstone.Here, one female and four male otterswere live-trapped on Yellowstone Lake.These animals were all caught within aweek, which represents fairly high trap-ping success for river otters. This mayreflect the fact that otters have not beenlegally trapped in Yellowstone NationalPark for over a century and that theseotters were not wary of traps. Otters werecaught with leg-hold traps and anes-thetized with Telazol. Blood samples,estimates of body condition, and bodymeasurements were obtained from all fiveanimals. All otters recovered from theanesthetic and were successfully releasedat the site of capture. We also observedthe presence of un-trapped otters duringthree capture events. These un-trappedotters swam along the shoreline, appar-ently staying with the trapped otter, anddid not flee until we darted the captured

individual. It should be noted thatYellowstone National Park personnel pro-vided a great deal of logistical supportduring this phase of the study.

For our sea level otter population, wemoved the study to the San Juan Islandsin the state of Washington. Here we werejoined by Dr. Joe Gaydos of the Universityof California-Davis, who has been trap-ping river otters in the San Juans for dis-ease screening. Trapping was conductedfrom late July to early August. BecauseDr. Gaydos was already familiar with goodtrapping locations, we were able to quick-ly capture four females and two maleotters. All otters were captured andprocessed using identical methods tothose in Yellowstone. In the San Juans,we caught two very young otters, onefemale that weighed only 4.5 Kg (10pounds) and an even tinier male that wereleased without anesthetizing. In addi-tion, one older female otter was caughttwice within two days. As in Yellowstone,all of the otters captured in Washingtonappeared healthy and were released ingood condition. We would like to givespecial thanks to Kathy and RonMcDowell for providing generous accom-modations during our research in the SanJuan Islands.

Data collected this summer will be used tocompare oxygen dissociation curves anddifferences in hemoglobin and hematocritbetween the sea level and high altitudeotter populations. Data on diving physi-ology of river otters will eventually becombined with other findings from ourYellowstone otter study to construct abioenergetics model for river otters inYellowstone Lake. Using this approach,we hope ultimately to be able to predictwhat impact further declines of cutthroattrout may have on the river otter popula-tion in Yellowstone Lake.

Adaptation to High Altitude Diving:Can River Otters Switch fromCutthroat to Lake Trout? continued from page 1

BEHIND THE OTTERSBy Mike Tetreau, Kenai Fjords National Park,

June 2005

To the melody of “Blowing in the Wind” by Bob Dylan

How many feces must one woman collect

To get some DNA to compare?

How many follicles must one man obtain

From snares that are designed to pull hair?

And how many scats must one person sprinkle

To see how many poops are really there?

The answer, I’m told, is glittering like gold

The answer is glittering like gold.

How many otters inhabit this coast

Transporting nutrients from the sea?

How many latrines must one otter have

To leave all its poop and its pee?

And how many “jellies” must one otter drop

To leave researchers beaming with glee?

The answer, my chum, comes from an otter’s bum

The answer comes from an otter’s bum.

continued from page 2

Photo by Nathan Varley


To determine the status of coastal river otters(Lontra canadensis) in Kenai Fjords NationalPark (KFNP), we conducted a survey in thesummer of 2004. Following our successful2004 survey, we returned this past summer,2005, to KFNP for another survey. As in 2004,the 2005 survey was a collaborative effortbetween the Alaska Department of Fish andGame, the National Park Service, the U.S.Forest Service, and the University ofWyoming. In 2005, we were able to return tolatrine sites we previously located in 2004.During the initial visit at each latrine site, wecounted all feces, collected fresh feces, andmarked all feces with glitter. We then returnedto each latrine site the next day and againcounted and collected the new deposits. Weused a similar design during the survey ofPrince William Sound (PWS) in 2004. Therewere two advantages for using this approach.First, by having a reliable count of new feceswe will be able to develop an index of abun-dance. Second, by visiting each site twice weare hoping to increase our “recapture” rates ofindividual animals.

We are using data obtained from fecal DNAanalysis to gain a better understanding of riverotter populations in these areas. Fecal DNAanalysis can be used to estimate river otterpopulations by genotyping individual samplesand identifying individuals through theirunique DNA “fingerprints.” For example, ouranalyses of feces collected in KFNP in 2004resulted in complete DNA microsatellite pro-files of 63 samples. These samples represent-ed 56 unique individuals. Of those, five ani-mals were identified twice and one individualthree times. This translates to about a 10%recapture rate which is insufficient for a reli-able population estimate. So, by visiting eachsite twice we are hoping to increase our “recap-ture” rates.

In addition to estimating populations fromfecal DNA analysis, we can make inferencesabout the behaviors of the animals on thelandscape, which are incredibly exciting. Forexample, once an individual is genotyped, his

or her movements can be tracked simply bymapping the occurrence of the same finger-print at other latrine sites along the coast. Ineffect, we can get an idea of an individual’shome range or dispersal patterns. To ensurewe are tracking the same individual, we calcu-lated that the probability of incorrectly identi-fying two otters as having the same genetic fin-gerprint for the samples in 2004 is1:2,000,000. Thus, although the 2004 dataare preliminary in nature, we are confidentthat our results will provide useful informationto managers.

The survey this year was again a major success.The weather was gorgeous, the otters coopera-tive (providing 428 fresh fecal samples in 10days), and the crew enthusiastic and hard-working. We directly observed fewer riverotters this year, only 19 animals. In one case,we observed 16 animals swimming and feed-ing along the shore. Although we have no wayof knowing for certain, it appears that weencountered a meeting of two groups. All ani-mals were highly excited and ran up to sever-al latrines depositing fresh feces. We heardseveral contact calls and a few growls while the

animals were out of site in the vegetation.After about 45 minutes, 5 animals swam northand 11 swam south.

To supplement our fecal DNA samples and totest new techniques for non-invasive samplingof tissues, we also collected hair samples fromriver otters. Hair samples were collected witha modified snare developed by John DePue.Hair snares were placed on well worn ottertrails to snag a few hair follicles from the otters.The success of the hair snare is very excitingbecause it will allow us to use multiple non-invasive methods to track the behavior andstatus of otters in different habitats. Whileresults of DNA analysis from the feces andhairs we collected this year are still pending, itwill be interesting to compare the two sam-pling techniques, and especially to determinewhether we can detect the same individualwith these two different sampling schemes.

With 2004 data analysis wrapping up, and2005 data just beginning, we look forward toanother field season in summer 2006. Staytuned for more exciting news from the Alaskacoastal river otter front!

Estimating the Abundance of River Otters in Kenai Fjords National Park: An UpdateBy Kaiti Ott, John DePue, and Merav Ben-David, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming

Mike Tetreau demonstrating the use of hair snares


Thirteen species of otters found aroundthe world; small, secretive, generallyhard to see.

Typically there are over 100 peoplestudying otter species every year. Someof these are graduate students who willgo on to other topics, others are peoplewho do this work out of curiosity, acommitment to wildlife and conserva-tion, and a passion for otters. Many ofthese people may be unfamiliar to RiverOtter Alliance members, so we wouldlike to introduce them to you.

Hélène Jacques is first a veterinarian inFrance. Second, she is an internationalotter advocate and conservationist. Itis difficult to know where to find herthese days as she is serving as anIUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group rep-resentative in the west African Frenchspeaking countries and conductingresearch on the giant otter in FrenchGuyana.

In both roles, Hélène has contributed sig-nificantly to our understanding of publicperception and environmental issues fac-ing two highly endangered otter species(Congo clawless and giant otters).

Hélène with a tame smooth coated otter in India

Dear Readers,

Welcome to the Fall 2005 edition of The River Otter Journal.

In this issue, we have another article by Claudio Delgado–Rodríguez on themarine otter. This one discusses preliminary results from a population densityand habitat characteristic study in central-south Chile. We also have severalarticles from University of Wyoming graduate students on their current riverotter research: Jamie Crait questions if river otters can adapt to high altitudediving to reach lake trout in Yellowstone Lake, as their preferred prey-species,the cutthroat trout, declines in numbers; and Kaiti Ott discusses river otter dietand population abundance in Alaska’s Kenai Fjords and Katmai National Parks.In addition, Jan Reed-Smith introduces us to Hélène Jacques, an internationalotter advocate and conservationist in the Otter Champion Corner. Otter Updatesprovides information on the recent listing of the northern sea otter as a federal-ly Threatened species, the status of New Orleans’ zoo and aquarium, and whereto submit comments on the southern California sea otter relocation plan. Thereis also a review of Bob Landis’ latest film about river otters at Yellowstone Lake.

As 2005 nears its end, please don’t forget your annual dues contribution to theRiver Otter Alliance. We are a 501(c)3 non-profit, volunteer organization dedi-cated to providing educational information on the thirteen species of ottersaround the world.

We hope you enjoy the newsletter.

--Tracy Johnston, ROA President and Newsletter Editor

OtterChampionCornerBy Jan Reed-Smith


Audubon Nature Institute PresidentRon Forman personally fed the seaotters at New Orleans’ AudubonAquarium of the Americas afterHurricane Katrina devastated thearea. Although the physical structureof the aquarium survived relativelyunscathed, most all of the facility’s10,000 fish, which represented over530 species, were lost when the aquar-ium’s life support systems failed despitethe efforts of many dedicated staffmembers, police officers and NationalGuardsmen who remained on site tocare for the exhibit collections. Eventhough the aquarium had plenty offresh water and food, its backup gener-ators eventually failed in the aftermathof the hurricane and all fish, with theexception of eight large tarpons, dieddue to rising water temperatures andlack of oxygen. Two sea otters, 19 pen-guins, as well as macaws, raptors, leafyand weedy sea dragons, a large whitealligator, an electric eel, and Midas, a250 lb. green sea turtle all survived.Power has been restored to the aquari-um and some of the survivors remain atthe facility, while others are being tem-porarily housed at facilities around theUnited States. The sea otters and pen-guins are currently residing atCalifornia’s Monterey Bay Aquarium.

New Orleans’ Audubon Zoo faired bet-ter than the aquarium, however a pair ofriver otters were among the few casual-ties. The zoo was well prepared for thestorm, having stockpiled fuel, food andother supplies, but is also fortunate to belocated on the highest ground in thecity. Both the Aquarium of the Americasand the Audubon Zoo may remainclosed to the public for up to one year.

The distinct pop-ulation segmentof the northernsea otter (Enhydralutris kenyoni)found in south-west Alaska wasdesignated as anationally threat-ened species bythe U.S. Fish andWildlife Serviceon August 9, 2005under the EndangeredSpecies Act. This ruling only affectsthe population segment of sea ottersfound in the Aleutian Islands, AlaskaPeninsula coast, and KodiakArchipelago, which once containedmore than half the world’s sea otterpopulation. This population segmenthas undergone a 55%-67% overall pop-ulation decline since the mid-1980s,and over a 90% decline in some areaswithin the same time period. The Fishand Wildlife Service cited a publishedstudy theorizing that the Bering Seaecosystem has undergone significantchanges and killer whales (Orcinus orca)have turned to sea otters as a foodsource as the populations of their pre-ferred prey species of harbor seals andSteller sea lions have decreased. Esteset al. 1998. Although this theory doesaccount for some of the northern seaotters’ population decline, scientistsremain puzzled as to why the entirepopulation has decreased so rapidly.

Southern sea otters (Enhydra lutrisnereis), which occur in coastal southernCalifornia, have been a nationally threat-ened species since January 14, 1977.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service isaccepting comments through January5, 2006 on whether they should ter-minate the sea otter translocationprogram and eliminate the “no ottermanagement zone” which wouldallow sea otters to reside where theywish in Southern California waters.

Although southern sea otters had been afederally endangered species for ten years,the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bannedsea otters from California waters south ofPoint Conception near Santa Barbara in1987, with the exception of San NicholasIsland, in an effort to appease fishermenwho felt the otters threatened their seaurchin and lobster fishing. The relocationprogram, which cost several million dol-lars before it was terminated in 1993, hasnot worked, as sea otters continue to turnup in forbidden waters. Fishermen wantthe existing policy enforced. Commentscan be mailed to:

Field SupervisorU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceVentura Fish and Wildlife Office2493 Portola Road, Suite BVentura, California 93003–7726

By Tracy Johnston


Sea OtterPhoto by Chris Wittenbrink


Population Density and Habitat Characteristicsof the Marine Otter (Lontra felina) in theCentral-South of Chile, Preliminary ResultsClaudio Delgado – Rodríguez, Ricardo Alvarez Pacheco and Ana María Pfeifer Vargas

Programa de Investigación Conservación Marina

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACTThe Marine otter, (Lontra felina), belongs tothe mustelid family and lives exclusively inmarine habitats along the Pacific coast, fromPeru to Hornos Cape, particularly in exposedrocky shores. Although previous studies on theL felina species have been done, the currentknowledge about population distribution andhabitat requirements for the central-south ofChile is still scarce and incomplete. This studywas developed to contribute to the knowledgeabout density, distribution, and habitatrequirements of the marine otter. It was car-ried out along approximately 500 km ofcoastal environment of central-south of Chileincluding the Chiloé Island. Observations wereconducted from June 2004 to April 2005.Results suggest that otter density varies from 1to 5 individuals per lineal kilometre (indv./km)and mean density is around 2 indv./km.Apparently, the current otter population in theassessed area could be less than what was gen-erally believed, especially for Chiloé Island.

INTRODUCTION The marine otter, also known asChungungo (Lontra felina), belongs to themustelid family and lives exclusively inmarine habitats, particularly in exposedrocky shores (Castilla & Bahamondes,1979). The population of L. felina is dis-tributed along the Pacific coast, includingparts of the Peruvian shoreline (6º S) andthe entire Chilean coast reaching the 56ºSparallel in Cabo de Hornos (Redford &Eisenberg, 1992; Larivière, 1998).

Before the past century, otters flourished allalong the Chilean coast (Housse, 1953).However, beginning in the year 1900, the

otter population was strongly diminishedby illegal hunting, especially between 1910and 1954 when nearly 38,000 otter skinswere exported from Chile. Although, atpresent, illegal hunting is diminishing, theserious population decline produced dur-ing the first half of the past centuryadversely altered the otter’s geographic dis-tribution and population density. Todaythe otter population in Chile is consideredpatched and fragmented. Despite a Chileanlaw that gave marine otters legal protectionin 1929, at present marine otters are stillunder threat, mainly due to habitatdestruction, water pollution, poorly regu-lated conventional tourism, and illegalhunting; the last of which occurs primarilyin the channels and fjords zone at the 43º40’ S parallel. The other threats are relatedto the progressive use of the seashore, notonly through conventional tourism, butalso by the building of infrastructure suchas hotels and yachting marinas that areenvironmentally inappropriate for the

otters and their habitat. Each one of theseproblems contributes to the fragmentationof the population and increases the rate atwhich the marine otter nears extinction. Infact, the marine otter is currently consid-ered in danger of extinction by the RedData Book (Hilton-Taylor 2000), the RedBook of the Chilean Vertebrate (Glade1993), and also in the Appendix I ofCITES.

Although previous research on this specieshas been done, current knowledge of L.felina is still scarce and incomplete. Almostall past studies were conducted to assessdiet and behavior (Castilla y Bahamondes1979, Castilla 1982, Cabello 1985, Ostfeldet al. 1989, Sielfeld 1990a, Rozzy y Torres-Mura 1990, Ebensperger y Castilla 1991,Medina 1995a y 1995b, Alvarez 2001,Barthled 2001, Medina et al. 2004,Delgado 2001, Delgado 2005,), but nolong-term research has been directed atassessing the population’s density and dis-

Chiloe Island Habitat

continued on page 8


tribution along their habitat area.Therefore, little is known about the locationof the fragmented population patches, thepopulation density, or the actual conserva-tion status. This is particularly true insouthern Chile where significant otter pop-ulations are suspected to still exist and havenot yet been well evaluated (Sielfeld &Castilla 1999, Sielfeld 1992).

This study corresponds to the first phase oflong-term research for marine otter conser-vation, which is aimed to obtain key infor-mation and to assess basic aspects todesign a future marine otter conservationplan, which includes the identification andpromotion of coastal protected areas formarine otters and nested biodiversity con-servation.

METHODS

Study SiteSurveys of marine otter habitat were car-ried out all along the coastline of the 10thregion of Chile, which is located from39°15’S / 71°45’W to 43°40’S / 74°15W. Inthis administrative region, two marineecoregions were identified and describedby Sullivan and Bustamante (1999): theAraucana Marine Ecoregion, which islocated from 33º26’ to 41ºS, and theChiloense Marine Ecoregion, located from41º to 71ºS. The coastal topography ismainly represented by rocky shores as wellas varied sizes and types of sandy beaches.Rocky shores usually have a strong exposi-tion to wind and waves and are character-ized by the presence of cliffs, boulders, andfunnels between large rocks. In the ChiloéIsland, the western coast is similarlyexposed, however the eastern coast isshaped by numerous small islands, fjordsand channels. The coastal area in theupper tidal level is formed by terrestrialvegetation, which is in almost all casesdominated by native shrubs where themain species are Fascicularia bicolor,

Chusquea quila, Greigia sphacelata andGunnera chilensis. In the intertidal zone, themain species of macro algae are Durvilleaantartica, Lessonia nigrescens, Macrocystispyrifera, ulva lactuca and Mazaella lami-naroides.

The total length of the study area isapproximately 500 km. Given the studyarea’s extreme length and size, it is possibleto divide it into two distinct zones: theContinental zone and Chiloé Island zone(Figure 1). In general, it is possible toaccess almost at all the survey transects,pre-selected by photographic analysis, by afour-wheel drive vehicle. However, in thesouthern part of Chiloé Island, no roads forany vehicles exist. Therefore, this part isstill not evaluated and the unique way toaccess that zone must be by horseback oron foot.

Density Population AssessmentDensity population was assessed by meansof census based on direct observation.Each census was made by three observerslocated in advantages points along the 1km line transect. Observers record thepresence of otters and their activities dur-ing five continuous hours. The observa-tions were conducted simultaneously bythe observers carrying out a visual scan-ning during two minutes by each eightminutes. For each scan, observers recordedin a reference map the otter position in thetransect portion under observation. It is important to maintain the synchronici-ty of each visual scanner in order to avoiddouble-counting. This method is an adapta-tion of previous research developed in therocky environments (Barthled 2001,Delgado 2001, Medina et al 2004, Delgadoet al. 2005). However, in this study theobservers used two-way radios to stay on

Population Density and HabitatCharacteristics of the Marine Otter Continued from page 7

Figure 1. Study Area. Chiloé Islad is located in the south west.


in permanent communication. This con-stant communication helped the observerscorrect multiple sightings of individualotters and to distinguish sighting locations,thereby diminishing a double-countingbias. All the observations were made withthe aid of 10x50 power view binoculars and15-60x60 zoom spotting scope.

Habitat AssessmentIn order to assess the otter habitats, bothphysical and biological attributes wererecorded, as follows: Rock size; divided intofour categories based on rock diameter:Small (size between 1 to 50 cm), Medium(size between 50 to 150 cm), Large (sizebetween 150 to 450 cm), and Very Large(more than 450 cm), Width; correspondsto the distance from the tide-line to thecoastal vegetation, which was divided intofour categories: class 1 (between 0 to 10meters), class 2 (between 10 to 20 meters),class 3 (between 20 to 40 meters), and class4 (more than 40 meters), Coastal vegeta-tion; corresponds to the vascular and non-vascular vegetation associated with thecoastal shrubs (both the structure and thedominant species were recorded.); andInter-tidal vegetation; corresponds to thedominant macro algae species placed inthe inter-tidal zone.

RESULTS

Density Population Otter density varies from 1 to 5 individ-uals per lineal kilometre (ind/km). Theaverage density for the 24 line transectssurveyed was 2 ind/km (mean: 2 ±1.48). The higher density (5 ind/km)was recorded in line transect 10, which

corresponds to the coastline of theValdivian Coastal Reserve, a privatecoastal reserve in the continental zone.The lower density (1 ind/km) wasobserved in transects located at thenorthern zone of the study area(Queule), and the other two correspondto sites located in Chiloé Island. Thedensity of the otter population washigher in the continental zone (mean:2,5 ± 1,566) than Chiloé Island (mean: 1,4± 1,17), however, further analysis showsno statistical difference (t: 1,49; p> 0,01).

Habitat Characteristics

Rock SizeIn the 24 transects surveyed, we observeda variety of rocks that fit all proposed cate-gories. However, from the four categories,the higher proportion of rocks were foundto be large (38%) or very large (39.6%)

(Kruskal-Wallis test, H = 18.030 Df: 3 p<0.001).

We recorded a similar distribution acrossall rock size classifications for each sur-veyed transect between the continentalzone and Chiloé Island. Although datashows that the frequency of small andmedium rocks was higher in continentalzone, there is no statistically significant dif-ference (Small: H=0, 86; p=0.354 andMedium: H=0,135; p= 0,714).Additionally, there is no significant differ-ence in very large rocks between the Islandand the continental zone (H= 0.521; p=0.470)(Figure 3).

Width of CoastThe most frequently observed width ofcoast were class 1 and 2. (H= 34.732 Df:3 p <0.001). Class 4 was recorded onlyin one site at Chiloé Island and corre-sponded to a huge, sandy beach at thecentral zone of the Island (Cucaobeach). Therefore, according to theobtained data, otters appear to be usingrocky coasts between 0 and 20 meters(Figure 4).

Although class 1 and 2 were the mostfrequently observed classification of coastwidth, a comparison in class frequencybetween the continental zone and ChiloéIsland demonstrates that class 1 was morerecurrent at Chiloé Island, but no signifi-cant difference was observed (H=2.629; P= 0.105). Class 2 was observed with high-

continued on page 10

Adult Male Marine Otter

Figure 3. Frequency of rock size class observed in transects surveyed at Continental Zone(n=14) and Chiloé Island (n=10).


er frequency in the continental zone(P=0,011). Similarly, class 3 was higherin Chiloé Island, but no significant dif-ference was observed (P = 0.296)(Figure 5).

Structure and Composition of Terrestrial Vegetation Data recorded shows the occurrence of fivedifferent types of structure, terrestrial vege-tation adjacent to the coastline in the sur-veyed sites: scrubs, renoval1, grassland,

dune vegetation, and plantations.Additionally, we classified as no vegetationall sites where absolutely no type of vegeta-tion was observed. Across all sites surveyed, the main vegetation structurewas scrubs (90%), which were composed primarily of native species, especially atChiloé Island. The second most frequentlyobserved vegetation corresponded to grass-land (5%), composed primarily of non-native species (Figure 6).

Species composition of the terrestrialvegetation was composed of ten speciesfrom which 8 are native species and theother 2 are exotic species (Table 2). Themost frequent species for the wholestudy area were Poe (Fascicularia bicolor)(27%), Quila (Chusquea quila) 19 (%),and Nalca (Gunnera chilensis) (15, 91%),however Nalca was recorded only atChiloé Island (Figure 7).

Intertidal Vegetation Composition Intertidal vegetation is defined as macro-algae observed between the lower andhigher tide lines. Results are based ondirect observation of the presence andthe dominance (and co-dominance) ofeach recorded species, but no quantita-tive assessment was done. However, webelieve that this approach was appropri-ate to obtain a general characterizationof the habitat attributes. From the 24sites surveyed, we recorded six domi-nant species: Ulva lactuca, Gigartina sp.Mazaella laminaroides, Durvilleaeaantarctica, Lessonia nigrencens, andMacrocystis pyrifera. Considering globalfrequencies, D. antarctica was the mostfrequently recorded species (48.3%)along the whole study area.

The data demonstrates a similar patternof observed species frequencies distribu-tion between the continental zone andChiloé island, although D. antartica, U.lactuca, M. laminarioides and L. nigrecens

Population Density and HabitatCharacteristics of the Marine Otter continued from page 9

Figure 4. Global frequency of width classifications observed in transects surveyed at continental zone and Chiloé Island (n=24)

Figure 5. Frequency of width of coast classifications observed in transects surveyed atContinental Zone (n=14) and Chiloé Island (n=10).

1 Renoval, correspond to a vegetational structure where young trees are dominant.


were observed with higher frequency onthe continental zone, no significant dif-ferences were observed (F= 0,111p:0,746) (Figure 8).

DISCUSSION

Population Distribution and Density ofMarine Otter Population Although, based on this preliminary infor-mation, it is still difficult to compare ourresults with previous studies. However, wenow have good insight about the distribu-tion of the otter population in part of thecentral south of Chile and we can confirmthe presence of the otter in the northernarea of Chiloé National Park where Cabello(1983, 1985) recorded the higher popula-tion density of otters along the entireChilean coast. Another important record isthe evidence of the marine otter using veryquiet zones, with lower wave energy, suchas in Ancud Bay on Chiloé Island. Thisobservation is in contrast with the majorityof publications that suggest that otters onlyuse very exposed zones with higher waveenergy, heavy sea activity, and strong winds(Castilla 1982, Ostfeld et al 1989, Sielfeld yCastilla 1999). Therefore, we suggest that,at least for Chiloe Island, otters can usevery calm waters, implying that their pop-ulation distribution is not restricted to onlyvery exposed zones, as was described bythe aforementioned authors. AlthoughRozzy and Torres Mura (1990) describedthe potential use of sandy beach environ-ments on remote islands located in thesouth of Chiloé Island, based on the pres-ence of Emerita analoga found in the stom-ach of a single dead otter, several publica-tions suggest that marine otters do not usesandy beaches for feeding (Castilla yBahamondes, 1979, Castilla 1982, Cabello,1985, Ostfeld et al. 1989, Sielfeld 1990a,Sielfeld, 1990a Torres-Mura, 1990,Ebensperger y Castilla, 1991, Medina,1995a y 1995b, Delgado 2001, Álvarez2001). In this study, no observation ofotters continuously using sandy beacheswas done. However, we recorded feedingactivities on the edges between rocky andsandy environments. Yet, more than 90%of the observed otters were recorded inrocky environments and the other 10%

continued on page 12

Figure 6. Structural classification of terrestrial vegetation observed adjacent to the coastline in Continental Zone and Chiloé Island.

Figure 7. Global composition and relative frequency (%) of the terrestrial vegetation species observed adjacent to the coastline in the study area.

Figure 8. Frequencies of macro-algae species composition observed between continental zoneand Chiloé Island.

were observed in so-called edge environ-ments. Additionally, all the places where nootter was recorded corresponded to envi-ronments dominated by sandy beaches.This information allows us to restrict thesandy beaches area (larger than 2 km) inour future estimation of the overall popula-tion in the whole study area. This restric-tion will diminish the potential to overesti-mate the otter population.

Information obtained in this study regard-ing the density of the otter population isvery important because it was the firstattempt to assess the marine otter popula-tion density in such a large area and allowsus to have a wide perspective about thecurrent status of the otter. Values for popu-lation densities obtained in this study fromChiloé Island show significant differencesto those published by Cabello (1977,1983) for the Chiloé Island, which report-ed a density of 10 ind/km in the northernzone of the island, which represented thehighest value observed along the entireChilean coast, and consequently this sug-gested that the greater otter populationalong the Chilean coast exists on theisland. However, in this study surveying

the same sites studied by Cabello (1977,1983), we recorded a density of only 1.5ind/km. This difference between bothstudies could be explained by the use ofdifferent methodological approaches, bythe different seasons, or by adverse humanimpacts during the last two decades.However, we are more inclined toward thefirst explanation, because, at least duringour surveys in the area, we observed nointerruption by humans and access to thesite was not easily available to the generalpublic. Moreover, we suspect that previousstudies have overestimated the populationdensity in this area due to the significantdouble-counting of individuals because ofthe applied methodology.

Our results are more similar to studies car-ried out on the small islands in the south ofChiloé, where a mean density of 3.6ind/km was recorded (Rozzy and Torres-Mura 1990). Additionally, our results alignwith the observed densities along thecoastline of northern Chile, where densi-ties of 2.5 ind/km were recorded in LosMolles between 1976 and 1977, a densityof 1.25 indv/km recorded in the same placein 1980, and densities of 1.5 ind/km inPunta Lobos and 1.25 ind/ km in Chañaralin 1981 (Castilla 1982).

Although our results are preliminary, theyallow us to suggest that the otter popula-tion in the assessed area could be less thanwhat was generally believed, especially forChiloé Island. These results will assist us todevelop a better approach for a future con-servation action plan for marine otter pop-ulation and their environment.

Habitat Characteristics According to the obtained results, ottersare more frequently found in habitats witha high proportion of large (150 to 450 cm)and very large rocks (more than 450 cm).Although small and medium rocks are alsopresent in otter habitats, these wereobserved in lower proportion. This trendwas observed both in the continental zoneand on Chiloé Island. Therefore, this sug-gests that the marine otter could have apreference for environments with heteroge-

neous rock sizes, but with a higher propor-tion of large rocks, which produce the bet-ter availability of funnels, channels, andcaves that otters need for daily terrestrialactivities (such as hunt prey, rest, sleep,and mate). This is in agreement with exist-ing publications that describe otters usingrocky environments with the presence ofnatural galleries commonly used as ways toaccess water and to establish dens (Castillay Bahamondes 1979, Rozzi and Torres-Mura 1990, Ebensperger y Castilla 1992,Sielfield and Castilla 1999, Alvarez 2001).

Our results are in agreement with earlierstudies that reveal otters use no more than30 meters in-land (Castilla 1982).Regarding the structure and compositionof the terrestrial vegetation, we observed ahigh frequency of shrubs composed pri-marily of native species, which is similarwith reports by Sielfeld and Castilla(1999). Although we are unable toestablish a relation between otter pres-ence or density and the occurrence ofnative species, we observed more ottersin locations with native vegetation.However, we do not know if this isbecause native shrubs offer a more suit-able terrestrial habitat or because a non-native matrix (pines or eucalyptus plan-tations) could be affecting the otter pop-ulation by inadvertently changing theecology of the landscape (i.e., by waterpollution or the increase of terrestrialsediments from non-native plant usethat could affect the ecology of preyspecies).

The species composition of inter-tidalvegetation was very similar with thatrecorded by different authors (Castilla yBahamondes 1979, Rozzi and Torres-Mura 1990, Ebensperger y Castilla1992, Sielfield and Castilla 1999,Alvarez 2001). Similarly to the terrestri-al vegetation, we cannot demonstrate ifthe algae association, described previ-ously, has any relation to otter densityvalues. However, we observed a high fre-quency of Durvilleaea antarctica both onChiloé Island and in the continentalzone. This species of algae could offer


Population Density and Habitat Characteristics of the Marine Otter continued from page 11

Marine Otter Family


good hiding and hunting opportunitiesand also because prey species are com-monly nested to a brown algae systems.However, more efforts are evidentlyneeded to fully assess these probablerelations.

PROJECT’S NEXT STEPSThe next phase will involve the assess-ment of remote places both in the conti-nental zone and on Chiloé Island. Basedon obtained information, we will startthe first phase of a process about coastalconservation initiatives involving gov-ernment organizations and other non-governmental institutions related withwildlife issues, in order to discuss alter-native designs and propose coastal pro-tected areas in the central-south ofChile. At the same time, the next phasewill continue with a public awarenesscampaign, but this time focused moreon stakeholders. At this moment, we arepursuing new financial support for thefuture phases of the project, a key com-ponent to accomplishing this long-termproject and promote the conservation ofthis endangered otter species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the Padi Foundationand Project Aware for funding the majorpart of this project phase and to theInternational Otter Survival Fund, espe-cially to Mrs. Grace Yoxon to consider sup-porting part of this study. Special thanks toMr. Francisco Solis, Project Coordinator forThe Nature Conservancy, to Mr. DavidTecklin, Valdivian Rainforest EcoregiónProgram Coordinator for the World WildlifeFund for permitting us complete access tothe Valdivian Coastal Reserve and for pro-viding facilities during our fieldwork in theReserve. We appreciate the advice, com-ments and support of Dr. Jaime Rau, fromthe IBAM Program of the Universidad delos Lagos. Special thanks to Site ManagerMr. Alfredo Almonacid and all theValdivian Coastal Reserve staff for theirlogistical support during the surveys carriedout in the Reserve and Carol Bushar for thehelp with the english version review.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Álvarez, R. (2001). Características del hábitat de L.

felina (Molina 1782) en ambientes rocosos del surde Chile. Tesis de Grado Licenciado en BiologíaMarina. Facultad de Ciencias Universidad Australde Chile.

Bartheld, J. (2001). Patrones de actividad diaria yestacional del Chungungo Lontra felina (Molina,1782) en ambientes rocosos del litoral Valdiviano.Tesis Escuela de Lic. en Biología Marina. Fac. deCiencias Univ. Austral de Chile. 56 pp.

Cabello, C. (1977). La nutria de mar (Lutra felina) en la isla de Chiloé, Chile. En; Otters: Proceedingsof first working meeting of the Otter SpecialistGroup N Dupalix (Ed), Surinam, pp 108-118.

Cabello, C. (1983). La nutria de mar en la Isla deChiloé. Boletín Técnico 6, CONAF, pp 1-37.

Cabello, C. (1985). Informe final proyecto 1409WWF/IUCN Nutria Marina, Chiloé, Chile.

Castilla, J. (1982). Nuevas observaciones sobre conducta, ecología y densidad de Lutra felina(Molina 1782) (Carnívora: Mustelidae) en Chile.Publicación Ocasional Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat.Santiago, Chile 38: 197-206.

Castilla, J y I. Bahamondes. (1979). Observacionesconductuales y ecológicas sobre Lutra felina(Molina) 1782 (carnívora: Mustelidae) en laszonas central y centro-norte de Chile. Arch. Biol.Med. Exper. Santiago. 12:119-132.

Delgado, C. 2001. Ecología trófica del Chungungo(Lontra felina) en ambientes marinos rocosos delSur de Chile. Tesis de grado para optar al títulode Biólogo Marino, Facultad de Ciencias, Institutode Biología Marina, Universidad Austral de Chile.70 pp.

Delgado, C. 2005. Feeding ecology of Sea cat(Lontra felina) in southern Chile. River OtterJournal. 14:1, 2-7, 8.

Delgado, C., R. Álvarez y A. Pfeifer. 2005.“Conservation status and population distributionof the marine otter (Lontra felina) in the central-south of Chile.” Padi Foundation. Project ReportCM/1. 40 pp.

Ebensperger, I y J. Castilla. (1992). Selección dehábitat en tierra por la nutria marina Lutra felina,en Isla Pan de Azúcar, Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat.65: 429-434.

Glade, A. (1993). Libro Rojo de los VertebradosChilenos. Actas del Simposio "Estado deConservación de la Fauna de VertebradosTerrestres de Chile" 2ª. CONAF Ed. Alfonso A.Glade Editor.

Hilton-Taylor, C. (2000). 2000 IUCN Red List ofThreatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland,UK. 61 pp.

Housse, R. (1953). Animales salvajes de Chile, en suclasificación moderna. Ed. Universidad de Chile.Santiago. pp 189.

Körbel (1995). Hindering otter (lutra lutra) road kills.iucn/osg bull. 11:40-47.

Larivière, S. (1998). Lontra felina. MammalianSpecies. 575: 1-5.

Medina, G. (1995a). Activity budget and socialbehaviour of marine otter (Lutra felina) in south-ern Chile. Proceedings VI International OtterColloquium Pietermaritzburg 1993. Habitat 11:62-64.

Medina, G. (1995b). Feedings habits of marine otter(Lutra felina) in southern Chile. Proceedings VIInternational Otter Colloquium Pietermaritzburg1993. Habitat 11: 65-68.

Medina, G. (2001). Habitat restoration and monitor-ing of the southern river otter in Chile. FinalActivity and Scientific Report. Frankfurt ZoologicalSociety Project. Valdivia. 67 pp.

Medina, G., C. Delgado., R. Alvarez., and J. Bartheld.(2004). Trophic ecology of the marine otter(Lontra felina, Molina 1782) in rocky seashore of the South of Chile. Marine Mammal Science:Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 134–144.

Ostfeld, R., L. Ebensperger., L. Klosterman y J.Castilla. (1989). Foraging, activity budget andsocial behavior of the South American marineotter Lutra felina (Molina 1782). NationalGeographic Research, 5: 422-438.

Redford, K. y J. Eisenberg. (1992). Mammals of the neotropics, the Southern cone Vol. 2 Chile,Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. The University of Chicago Press. 430 pp.

Rozzy, R. y J. Torres-Mura. (1990). Observacionesdel Chingungo (Lutra feline) al sur de la islagrande de Chiloé; Antecedentes para su conser-vación. Medioambiente 11:24-28.

Seiler, A. (2001). Ecological effects of roads, areview. Swedish University of AgriculturalSciences, Department of Conservation Biology. Nº 9. 40 pp.

Sielfeld, W. (1990a). Dieta del chungungo (Lutra felina, Molina 1782) (Mustelidae, Carnivora) enChile Austral. Investigaciones Científicas yTécnicas, Serie: Ciencias de Mar, 1:23-29.

Sielfeld, W. (1990b). Características del hábitat deLutra felina (Molina) y L. Provocax (Thomas) enTierra del Fuego- Patagonia. InvestigacionesCientíficas y Técnicas, Serie: Ciencias de Mar,1:30-36.

Sielfeld, W. (1992). Abundancias relativas de Lutrafelina (Molina, 1782) y L. Provocax Thomas 1908en el litoral de Chile Austral. Invest. Cient. y Tec.,Serie Ciencias del Mar, 2: 3–11.

Sielfeld, W. y J. Castilla. (1999). Estado de conser-vación y conocimiento de las nutrias en Chile.Estud. Oceanol. 18: 69–79.

Sullivan Sealey, K. and G. Bustamante. (1999).Setting geographic priorities for marine conserva-tion in Latin American and the Caribbean. TheNature Conservancy. Arlington, Virginia. 125 pp.

Seasons of the Otter, A Yellowstone LakeStory, the latest film from Emmy award-winning cinematographer Bob Landis,has just been released. The film is awonderful mix of wild otters and otheranimals at home in their natural environ-ment. Through the daily lives of theotters, the beauty and plight ofYellowstone Lake is shared with film view-ers. Yellowstone Lake is a beautiful andvery unique ecosystem. As the largestfreshwater lake in the United States above7,000 feet, it reaches depths of 400 feet,covers 136 square miles, and has 110miles of shoreline. The lake lies in a col-lapsed volcano (or caldera) and is theresult of the largest hydrothermal explo-sion presently known to man. Hot air andgasses continue to bubble up from theearth’s core, bringing algae to the surfacewhere cutthroat trout feed on it and uniqueunderwater spires, like coral reefs, risefrom the lake’s bottom and continue forhundreds of yards in a row.

Despite the beautiful backdrop to theotters’ story, the film explores a seriousthreat to the Yellowstone Lake ecosystem.Over 30 different species of birds andmammals, including the river otter,depend on the limited Yellowstone Lakecutthroat trout as a food source. A grow-ing threat to this food source are illegally

introduced non-native lake trout whichare consuming the cutthroats in recordnumbers and have negatively affected thelake’s ecological balance. Unlike the cut-throat, the lake trout live at depths toodeep to serve as a food source for preda-tors such as birds that typically prey on thecutthroat trout. This reduction in avail-able cutthroat trout for dependent speciesis at the center of the current threat toYellowstone Lake.

Interesting bonus features include:• John Varley, the National Parks

Service’s Director of YellowstoneCenter for Resources, explains thehistory and unique and changingecosystem of Yellowstone Lake;

• Dave Lovalvo of Eastern Oceanicsshows the submersible remote oper-ated vehicle (ROV) used for filmingand underwater sampling, as well assome unique features of YellowstoneLake, including the underwatergeothermal spires rising up to 22feet, which remained undiscovereduntil 1996;


Seasons of the Otter – A Film ReviewBy Tracy Johnston

Bob LandisPhoto by William Campbell



• Jamie Crait, University of Wyominggraduate student (See Adaptation toHigh Altitude Diving: Can River OttersSwitch from Cutthroat to Lake Trout?article in this newsletter), explainshis studies on the possible negativeimpacts non-native lake trout havehad on the river otter populationand the Yellowstone Lake ecosystem;and,

• Dr. Tom Serfass of Frostberg State University discusses uniqueshoreline features otters favor forlatrine sites, prey-base differencesbetween eastern U.S. otters versusYellowstone otters, and the promiseof DNA research to assess river otterpopulations.

Wildlife enthusiasts and those interest-ed in Yellowstone Lake’s unique ecologywill enjoy the spectacular photographyand interesting history in the film, andit’s a definite must-see for otter lovers.Seasons of the Otter is available in VHSor DVD format. To order, contact:

Trailwood Films & MediaP.O. Box 1087

Shelbyville, KY 400661-800-75-TRAIL

www.trailwoodfilms.com

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As a member you will be supporting research and educa-tion to help ensure the survival of Lontra canadensis, theNorth American River Otter. You will receive a semi-annual newsletter, THE RIVER OTTER JOURNAL, withupdates on otter-related:

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INSIDE:Adaptation to High Altitude Diving:

Can River Otters Switch from Cutthroat toLake Trout?, Are There River Otters in Katmai

National Park?, Estimating the Abundance of River Otters in Kenai Fjords National Park

and more...

River Otter AllianceBoard of DirectorsPresident, Newsletter Editor – Tracy JohnstonVice President – Carol PetersonSecretary – David BergTreasurer – John MulvihillMembers at Large – Judy Berg, Glenn ChambersMembership/P.R. – Jo Thompson, Ph.D.Rehabilitator Liaison – Lissa MargettsScientific Advisors – Merav Ben-David, Ph.D.,

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adaptation to high altitude diving

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