ADAPTATION FUTURES 2018 INSIGHTS FROM AFRICA

environmental affairs Department: Environmental Affairs REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

About this report

Adaptation Futures 2018, the fifth in the global adaptation conference series, was held in Cape Town, South Africa, from 18 to 21 June 2018. Participants from many parts of the African continent enriched the conference and contributed their experiences, views and aspirations to shape the outcomes of the conference. This report reflects not only the ‘state of the art’ of adaptation in Africa, but also adaptation challenges and aspirations from an African perspective. The report collates the Africa-specific insights and opportunities from over 377 individual reports by adaptation experts attending the conference.

Disclaimer

The Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa report does not aim to cover the conference comprehensively or to capture all aspects of adaptation that were discussed at the conference. The report focuses only on reflecting those issues that were seen as relevant and reported on by the rapporteurs.

This report is free of charge and free of all copyright restrictions.

Acknowledgements

Sincere thanks to all the rapporteurs who voluntarily contributed their insights from the conference (see list inside, page 44).

Editors: Leslie Ashburner, African Climate and Development Initiative (ACDI), South Africa; Dania Petrik, Adaptation Network, South Africa; Noel Oettle, Adaptation Network, South Africa; Mikateko Sithole, Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), South Africa; Barney Kgope, Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), South Africa

Sponsors and partners: With thanks to our conference sponsors and partners who enabled this report:

environmental affairs Department: Environmental Affairs REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

5th International Climate Change Adaptation Conference

Cape Town, South Africa 18–21 June 2018

ADAPTATION FUTURES 2018 INSIGHTS FROM AFRICA

Photo © Dania Petrik

iiiContents

Contents

Executive Summary: Key messages from an African perspective 1

About Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa 5How to use this report 5Design of the report 5Abbreviations used in this report 6

Chapter 1: Adaptation in Africa – a broad overview 7Assessing vulnerability 7Communities in flux 8Transformative adaptation 9

Chapter 2: Ecosystem-based adaptation 11Ecosystem-based adaptation valuation 11Enablers and opportunities for scaling up ecosystem-based adaptation solutions 12

Chapter 3: Managing water scarcity 15Rural water sources 15Urban water resilience 15Transboundary water management 16

Chapter 4: Cities, settlements and key infrastructure 18Adaptation to flooding 18Resettling 19Increasing coastal resilience 19Multi-stakeholder engagement for urban resilience 19

Chapter 5: Health and well-being 21Capacity-building in the health sector 21Heat stress and infectious diseases 22Well-being and resilience 22

Chapter 6: Rural livelihoods and agriculture 23Pastoralism 23Tourism opportunities 24Microfinance to support livelihoods 24Innovations and indigenous knowledge in agriculture 25Climate smart agriculture 26

Chapter 7: Finance and funding 28Accessing private-sector finance 28Finance for small and medium-sized enterprises 28Recommendations to funders 29Adaptation funding sources 29

iv Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Chapter 8: Governance 31Urban climate governance 32Rural climate governance 32

Chapter 9: Climate information services 34Data provision in Africa 34Need for free and sustainable access to quality data 34Barriers to uptake by end users 35Co-production of climate information services 35

Chapter 10: Co-design and co-production 38Community-level capacity development 38Harnessing local and traditional knowledge 38Engaging faith-based communities 39Building trust within co-production processes 39Large transdisciplinary projects 40

Chapter 11: Decision-making for climate-resilient development pathways 41Adaptation pathways 41Adaptation metrics 42Improving gender equity 43Learning from adaptation processes 43

List of Rapporteurs 44

1Executive Summary: Key messages from an African perspective

Executive Summary: Key messages from an African perspective

Climate change is a severe threat to future sustainable development in Africa. The challenge for Africa is to maintain and improve economic growth, and at the same time integrate adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development practices. It is vital to include adaptation considerations in development plans and to review progress regularly so as to be able to adjust decisions where necessary. Well-conceptualised and well-implemented climate change adaptation has the potential to be a driver for positive, sustainable development.

Systemic, structural problems need to be addressed to achieve transformative adaptation

Transformative adaptation addresses the systemic structural causes and manifestations of vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. To achieve this, it is essential to shape adaptation interventions with the participation of affected people and on the basis of their evolving values. Local ownership and sustainability of adaptation processes must be fostered so that the benefits are retained and processes sustained even if external funding is not available. Sustainable transformative adaptation requires collective, incremental change at local level and institutional change at country level.

Climate-resilient pathways are necessary to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa

It is vital that African countries plan for and implement development pathways that will create processes, social resilience and economic infrastructure to withstand the anticipated impacts of a warmer climate and more extreme climatic events. These pathways should ensure that developmental processes will not contribute to further global warming by reliance on non-renewable forms of energy

or excessive consumption. Manufacturing and mining industries must off-set their impacts on the atmosphere and the land. Agriculture and forestry must sequester more greenhouse gases than they release into the atmosphere.

Ecosystem-based adaptation not only reduces climate vulnerability, but can also support socio-economic development

Healthy ecosystems provide a variety of co-benefits for society, including important adaptation-enhancement benefits. When fully embedded in national, sectoral and regulatory frameworks and budgets, ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) can secure ecosystem services to support development goals and reduce the vulnerability of communities and countries to climatic impacts.

An essential lesson learned from EbA implementation is the importance of eliciting the support and engagement of the local community. EbA initiatives should be co-designed with the local community since they are the primary beneficiaries. Community participation, learning and ownership should be maximised to ensure sustainability.

It is essential to develop effective monitoring and evaluation systems, both qualitative and quantitative, to track the progress and effectiveness of EbA interventions, enable processes to be adjusted in response to emerging evidence and lessons learned, and demonstrate the value and socio-economic co-benefits of EbA strategies.

Managing water scarcity requires a multi-sectoral, collaborative approach

Large parts of Africa are already water stressed, with climate projections showing that this will increase in the future. Water management

2 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

requires multi-sectoral, collaborative approaches, including both science and local knowledge. Sound agricultural practices can reduce water demand and increase the provision of clean water to downstream users. Transboundary water cooperation for climate resilience needs to be further advanced to avoid potential future conflict.

Urban resilience can be strengthened by embracing innovations and facilitating more active participation by all stakeholders

African cities are currently facing rapid urbanisation and growth of informal settlements, leading to vulnerable urban communities exposed to climate risks. Improved spatial planning and avoiding settlements in high-risk zones are crucial for disaster risk reduction. New investments in infrastructure should be designed with climate impacts in mind to achieve long-term resilience. Local governments need to take a systems approach and find long-term adaptation solutions. Urban resilience can be strengthened by embracing innovations and facilitating more active participation of civil society, the private

sector, researchers and local government in project planning.

The health sector and the public need more information on climate change impacts

Climate change will have increasing direct and indirect impacts on the health of populations in Africa, increasing the numbers of cases of malnutrition, diarrhoea, heat stress and malaria. Through taking adaptation measures, the threat of climate change on health outcomes could be significantly reduced. However, health systems are already overburdened and there is a trade-off between improving existing systems and investing in adaptation measures. The challenge will be to build capacity in the health sector and increase awareness of effective emergency prevention measures and responses among the public. Local, in-country experts should be included when designing strategies and implementation plans in the health sector.

Adaptation strategies should be included in natural resource management, agriculture, and rural governance in order to protect rural livelihoods and food security

Photo © Dania Petrik

3Executive Summary: Key messages from an African perspective

Adaptation strategies should be included in natural resource management, agriculture, and rural governance in order to protect rural livelihoods and food security, especially among the poorest and most vulnerable who depend on subsistence farming, fishing and tourism. Responses that can increase the resilience of communities and minimise negative impacts on biodiversity should be identified and promoted.

For rural adaptation projects to be effective, it is essential to understand how communities experience the negative impacts of climate change on the ground and what their actual needs are. Local and traditional knowledge should be included in designing adaptation responses.

Sustainably boosting agricultural productivity despite the upsurge in climate variability is an urgent priority for communities concerned about their food security. However, adaptation to current and expected climate change impacts is largely fragmented and short term. Such incremental adaptation may not be sufficient to adapt to increasingly severe climate change impacts or to prevent the erosion of development gains. Farmers are often conservative; however, demonstrating the value of new technologies in pilot schemes at the local level can improve uptake of innovative adaptive practices.

Pastoralists in semi-arid regions are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Enabling policies, including increased land tenure rights, and supportive institutions are needed to ensure improved adaptive capacities for pastoralists – particularly women. Facilitated engagements are necessary to reduce conflict and give a greater voice in a context of unequal power dynamics.

Capacity-building is required to access adaptation finance and funding

In some developing countries, low understanding of or appetite for debt negatively affects the uptake of insurance and financial services for climate adaptation, but offers high potential for growth of new microfinance

markets. Microfinance can enable small adaptation projects at community level where adaptation is most often needed. However, to increase private-sector lending, projects must be packaged to make the business case for adaptation, demonstrating tangible results.

Adaptation funding is available from multiple sources but is often difficult to access because of onerous requirements by donors. There is also often a mismatch between donor objectives and what is actually needed on the ground. Projects should be co-designed with active participation of beneficiaries and should aim to effectively build beneficiary capacity and achieve sustainable resilience. Funders should take cognisance of these requirements and actively support them.

Effective governance requires the engagement and inclusion of all players

Within government, adaptation to climatic impacts is often seen as solely an environmental issue. Other departments within governments are too frequently not involved in addressing climate impacts. Successful adaptation requires an integrated governance approach, both horizontally (across departments and sectors) and vertically (through all levels of government, from local to national) to eliminate typically ‘siloed’ practices. This will lead to better coordination and accountability, and greater efficiency and effectiveness in preparing to avoid climate impacts. Reframing adaptation as a developmental imperative could help governance and practice at the local level.

Cross-boundary governance will become increasingly important, particularly with regard to contested water sources, and requires context-sensitive, community-based management approaches to build regional capacity for climate adaptation.

Africa needs better climate information systems to support adaptation decision-making

Successful adaptation depends on reliable and accurate climate data. There is currently a lack

4 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

of high-quality data across Africa. Proxy data options, such as satellite data, and emerging technologies are necessary to bridge the current gaps in climate information services.

Producers of climate information need to ensure that information is user-relevant. Co-creation of climate information services by researchers, data providers and decision-makers from various sectors and disciplines would ensure better usability of data. Active involvement of the users in the design and production of climate information services is key in enhancing the usability and effectiveness of the information.

This report lists a number of useful tools that have been developed to make it easier to access, share and use climate data.

Local-level participatory vulnerability assessments are critical for understanding climate risks at the community level

Local vulnerability to climate impacts depends on the local environmental, social and economic context. Local-level participatory vulnerability assessments are therefore critical to understand climate risks at the community level. Relevant adaptation solutions must address these realities. Participatory vulnerability assessments enable a holistic understanding of shocks and risks, and promote community ownership of the adaptation process.

Co-design of adaptation interventions by all stakeholders can significantly improve climate change outcomes

The diverse communities within Africa are a huge resource to tap into and involve in the development and implementation of climate responses. Bottom-up approaches have legitimacy and gain acceptance at a local level, and create opportunities for social learning in the process. Knowledge production and research must aim to integrate scientific and indigenous information.

There is a critical need to engage effectively with stakeholders in the design and planning of climate change adaptation interventions. Co-design and collaboration has the potential to significantly improve climate change practice in Africa.

There are tools to support decision-making for climate-resilient development pathways

Decision-making for adaptation at local, national and regional levels is complex, and implementing adaptation plans is costly. Moreover, there is a high level of uncertainty and risk regarding adaptation decisions, how these interact with development goals, and how to measure success. Adaptation choices can be contentious and it is challenging to satisfy all stakeholders. The following tools can assist with sound decision-making: adaptation pathways, adaptation metrics, improving gender equity, and learning from adaptation processes.

5

About Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Adaptation Futures 2018, the fifth in the global adaptation conference series, was held in Cape Town, South Africa, from 18 to 21 June 2018. The conference attracted over 1,300 scientists, practitioners, business leaders and policy-makers from around the world to discuss adaptation solutions. This is the first time the conference has been hosted on the African continent. This setting brought developing country adaptation issues to the fore and increased developing world participation. Funding was raised to support the access of over 180 sponsored delegates from lower-income countries and Africa.

Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa was conceptualised by the South African Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) to take advantage of the increased participation of Africans in the conference and the numerous sessions focusing on Africa. African delegates were asked to report on the sessions they attended, with a perspective of ‘what’s in it for Africa?’ This report collates the Africa-specific insights and opportunities from over 377 session reports by adaptation experts attending the conference.

This report does not aim to cover the conference comprehensively or to capture all aspects of adaptation that were discussed at the conference. Instead the report focuses on reflecting those issues that the rapporteurs perceived as relevant from an African perspective.

How to use this report

The report is not designed to stand alone – it is meant to be used in conjunction with the session material found on the conference website. Wherever possible, insights or observations are linked to the relevant session that produced the observation. To find out more about topics and people of interest in a particular session, you

will need to visit the Adaptation Futures 2018 website, where you will find the original session descriptions, including lead organisations and presenters, as well as a link to the individual presentations made at the conference.

About Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Design of the reportUseful tools are given in green boxes, for example:

Quotations are shown in brown, for example:

We often learn more from sharing failures than from sharing successes (S36)

Please note: Quotes are from rapporteurs.

Case studies are given in red-brown boxes, as follows:

Definitions are given in yellow boxes, for example:

Case study: Title, Country (Session number,

Case study author). Link to online presentation

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA): EbA is the conservation, management

and restoration of natural ecosystems to help people adapt to climate change.

UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre

(WCMC) is currently developing a Navigator Tool that collects all the existing EbA tools to help practitioners identify which one to use at different stages of EbA-related projects. https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/cbd_sbstta_navigator_presentation_unep-wcmc_final.pdf

6 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Abbreviations used in this report

CIS climate information services

CSA climate smart agriculture

EbA ecosystem-based adaptation

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

M&E monitoring and evaluation

Photo © Adaptation Futures 2018

7Chapter 1: Adaptation in Africa – a broad overview

Chapter 1: Adaptation in Africa – a broad overview

It may be necessary to reframe the climate change position within the broader development agenda (S349)

Africa’s context is changing dramatically. Since 2000, life expectancy has been increasing and the continent’s population is growing exponentially.1 While there has been substantial economic growth in recent years, this has not always translated into improving socio-economic development. Cities are currently facing rapid urbanisation, and the majority of people will be living in cities by mid-century, in many cases in informal settlements, and are at a risk of chronic stresses and disasters such as droughts and floods. Those remaining in the rural areas are dependent on increasingly degraded or contested natural resources.

National government priorities are to accelerate economic growth, overcome poverty and achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). But development is negatively impacted by exposure to climate events such as droughts, flooding, coastal surges and extreme temperatures, while weak governance and socio-economic challenges related to poverty, health, gender, degraded ecosystems and a high reliance on subsistence agriculture across the continent compound the issue and increase vulnerability.

It is vital that African countries plan for and implement climate-compatible development pathways that will create processes, social resilience and economic infrastructure that will be able to withstand the anticipated impacts of a warmer climate and more extreme climatic events. These pathways should ensure that developmental processes will not contribute to further global warming by reliance on

1 World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2015/06/01/urbanisation-in-africa-trends-promises-and-challenges

non-renewable forms of energy or excessive consumption. Manufacturing and mining industries must off-set their impacts on the atmosphere and the land. Agriculture and forestry must sequester more greenhouse gases than they release into the atmosphere. At the same time, development initiatives must be aligned with adaptation to climate change. Reframing climate change as a development opportunity could enable the continent to achieve its vision of a resilient future (S349).

Assessing vulnerability

Local vulnerability to climate impacts depends on the local environmental, social and economic context. Local-level participatory vulnerability assessments are therefore critical to understand climate risks at the community level. Relevant adaptation solutions must address these realities. Participatory vulnerability assessments enable a holistic understanding of shocks and risks, and promote community ownership of the adaptation process.

When assessing vulnerability to climate change, it is important to bear in mind the variations of stressors in different localities and communities (S406). Thus, local-level vulnerability assessments are critical to improving adaptive capacities of communities. Households may be exposed to the same shocks, with the same impacts, but their make-up influences how each household can cope with the shocks. For example, when mapping social vulnerability in urban areas to the risks of floods or droughts, it may be important to understand spatially differentiated impacts of risks on households. Everyday risks need to be understood in terms of the threat they pose to environmental, social and economic structures in order to motivate policy-maker and community action to address these risks (S51). The voices of local communities are key to understanding the

8 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

stresses, experiences, coping strategies, funding needs and support required for adaptation at a grass-roots level (S406) [see Case study 1].

Participatory vulnerability assessments enhance local understanding of climate issues and help to create a sense of ownership for adaptation activities. To carry out participatory assessments, local experts who have sufficient local and community knowledge must be chosen and community meetings held in order to figure out what the real problems are, and what potential solutions could be. The process leads to community-designed solutions which enhances community ownership and the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of the solutions (S315). In addition, the process improves understanding through social learning, gathers community knowledge and perceptions that can inform appropriate adaptation plans, and provides opportunities to bring different knowledge together (S406).

However, challenges may be that the ‘right’ people may not be the ones that show up to the workshop. Women and other vulnerable groups may be excluded for various reasons. There may be some practical and logistical issues preventing people from attending the workshop (e.g. in rural

areas where the roads are not good) (S406). A strong local institution can help communities to access information and funding that can be used to increase their adaptive capacities (S36).

Participatory vulnerability assessment (PVA): PVA is a systematic process that

involves communities and other stakeholders in an in-depth examination of their vulnerability, and at the same time empowers or motivates them to take appropriate actions. PVA is a qualitative way of analysing vulnerability, which involves participation of vulnerable people themselves.2

Communities in flux

Can migration be an avenue out of poverty or does it lead to more poverty? (S7)

2 ActionAid UK. https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/108_1_participatory_vulnerability_analysis_guide.pdf

Case study 1: Vulnerability assessment of everyday

risks in informal settlements, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Systemic and high-frequency risks and hazards include flooding, infections, parasitic diseases, fires, crime, lack of governance, inadequate health system, lack of solid waste management and inadequate storm-water drainage. Participatory approaches using action at the frontline provide a platform between communities and government actors to explore multiple risks and threats. Research findings showed that government was not acknowledging all risks, while flooding was ranked highest in regards to people’s understanding of risk (S51, Tim Ndezi). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1t7IYYiLXBUCxbVaDOQmk_LewQAz1MCHK

The UN Environment (UNEP) Country-Level Impacts of Climate Change

(CLICC) provides a tool to structure a common way for countries to present the impacts of climate change at the national level, drawing on existing national assessments and other research material. This initiative enables better international comparison and transparency.

The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)

Climate Vulnerability Sourcebook offers a step-by-step guideline for standardised assessments of vulnerability to climate change. It has been used widely for vulnerability assessments in the framework of climate change adaptation planning from local to national levels. The Risk Supplement provides practical guidance on how to apply the Vulnerability Sourcebook’s approach using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report risk concept (S179).

9Chapter 1: Adaptation in Africa – a broad overview

African communities are in flux, with changes in land use, traditional ways of life, traditional roles of men and women, and increasing urbanisation. There is a wide debate on the effects of climate change on mobility and urbanisation trends. Migration does not always necessarily happen as a result of climate change – there may be many reasons behind it (S7). In some mountain areas, for example, migration has always been the norm to deal with socio-economic pressures (S340). Migration, whether climate related or not, has consequences for those who stay behind, often the most vulnerable (e.g. women, old folk and children).

A simplistic, generalised statement that migration is bad may be problematic. Migration research tends to focus on extreme movements and governments perceive migration as a problem, but there are many instances of the importance of mobility as a livelihood strategy that remain hidden and should not be overlooked (S340). Migration can be an opportunity – but there is a need to make it more of an informed choice, as opposed to a response. Through mobility, some problems are lessened while others are increased (S340). Adaptation strategies such as migration might have unintended negative impacts and even exacerbate conflict. Even if, objectively speaking, a situation may be improved by migration, there is the issue of the ‘subjectivity’ of the situation in terms of the overall well-being of an individual who has moved away from access to their social ‘fabric’ (S340). What is required is to provide information on what situations exist at the end point so that migrants are aware of what their options are (S340).

Changing community and intra-household dynamics play a role in the vulnerability of women to climate change (S64). Understanding the conditions that affect women’s agency – material conditions, environmental stress, household structures, social capital, state interaction, and women’s work and labour – is crucial to developing adaptive responses (S64). Some women are moving into new roles that are less labour intensive and less vulnerable

to climate change and bring faster economic returns, but in many households women still often do not have property rights or decision-making power [see Case study 2]. Adaptation policies and programmes must be more gender-sensitive and provide space for women in decision-making (S64).

There is a need to improve our understanding of the localised impacts of climate change and their interaction with socio-economic development issues both currently and into the future (S313).

Transformative adaptation

If an adaptation initiative is successful and self-sustaining, then transformation has occurred (S231)

Transformative adaptation addresses the systemic, structural causes and manifestations of vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. To achieve this, it is essential to shape adaptation interventions in participation with affected people and on the basis of their evolving values.

Adaptation strategies need to be designed with a community-oriented approach so that

Case study 2: Women and climate adaptation

in semi-arid economies – evidence from Pathways to Resilience in Semi-arid Economies

Male out-migration may lead to deterioration in the situation of the women who are left behind. For example, when men migrate with their cattle during drought in Kenya, it creates vulnerability for the women and children left behind, such as increased labour and responsibilities for women, as well as potentially reducing food or livelihood for the household, through lack of milk products (S64, Ayesha Qaisrani). https://drive.google.com/drive/u/2/folders/ 1dXed_vqTsd_zyP8rNlAsY6-1Ucbahk15

10 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Photo © FRACTAL

communities become more self-reliant and can build resilience independently over the longer term (S36). The term ‘transformative’ signifies addressing systemic, structural problems (e.g. discrimination against women; lack of land tenure by small-scale farmers; poor governance and coordination) to bring about systemwide change and transform societies in the long term. Transformative adaptation aims to achieve more equitable and sustainable futures for communities in changing social ecological systems (S314).

Long-term and sustainable adaptation is key to climate change resilience but is often not implemented due to urgent short-term needs. Adaptation options depend on how people are able to respond to a set of risks, and what resources they have (S340). Project facilitators often assume that communities have a long-term perspective, but this is often not the case (S54). Communities often come up with their own adaptation responses, but these typically

address survival in the face of more immediate needs and are not necessarily driven by an understanding of climate change, but rather by a direct response to a disaster, such as flooding (S313). Many low-income communities in Africa have limited choices for adaptation, and severe climate impacts lead to an ever smaller adaptation option space (S314).

Sustainable adaptation requires going beyond one-time climate-proofing measures. Projects need to ensure that long-term sustainability is built into the design of the project (S153, S306). Transformative adaptation requires collective, incremental change at local level, and institutional change at country level (S153). Transformative adaptation includes systemic changes and is multi-scalar (S316).

The following chapters cover the opportunities for successful adaptation through a sectoral lens.

11Chapter 2: Ecosystem-based adaptation

Chapter 2: Ecosystem-based adaptation

In Africa, climate change impacts such as erratic rainfall, drought, flooding, coastal surges and heat extremes negatively affect communities who depend on ecosystems and their products and services. Healthy ecosystems provide a variety of co-benefits for society, including important adaptation-enhancement benefits. When fully embedded in national, sectoral and regulatory frameworks and budgets, ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) can secure ecosystem services to support development goals and reduce the vulnerability of communities and countries to climatic impacts (S48).

An essential lesson learned from EbA implementation is the importance of eliciting the support and engagement of the local community (S42). EbA initiatives should be co-designed with the local community; since they are the primary beneficiaries, bottom-up approaches or alternatives coming from citizens or communities themselves are the best (S36, S40). Interventions should be designed to maximise community participation, learning and ownership to ensure sustainability (S219).

It is essential to develop effective monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems, both qualitative and quantitative, to track the progress and effectiveness of EbA interventions, enable processes to be adjusted in response to emerging learnings and evidence, and demonstrate the value and socio-economic co-benefits of EbA strategies.

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA): EbA is the conservation, management

and restoration of natural ecosystems to help people adapt to climate change.3

3 Conservation International. https://www.conservation.org/pro-jects/Pages/adapting-to-climate-change-ecosystem-based-ad-aptation.aspx

Ecosystem-based adaptation valuation

EbA strategies are not yet being taken up broadly and receive little funding. This may be because the evidence base to support EbA is still weak, particularly regarding economic viability, as the restoration of ecosystem infrastructure frequently has high costs. Currently, there tends to be a reliance on anecdotal case studies in which EbA activities are reported as ‘successful’, while actual costs and challenges of EbA interventions may be underreported (S40). Although there are claims that EbA projects have performed well compared with hard-infrastructure adaptation measures, valuation of EbA needs biophysical evidence as well as evidence of promised co-benefits (S37, S48).

Some of the barriers for mainstreaming EbA solutions are: � lack of capacity and awareness of co-

benefits, which is a stumbling block; � there is a need to create the right enabling

environment; � the urban context is particularly complex.

It is essential to develop M&E systems, both qualitative and quantitative, to track the progress and effectiveness of EbA interventions, and to see the value and co-benefits of EbA strategies (S16). Ecosystems have multiple benefits, so it is important to demonstrate the value of the EbA approach at a large scale. Such analysis should not just focus on cost–benefits in monetary terms or physical benefits, but also on the socio-economic co-benefits (S30), which ensure that the socio-economic benefits of EbA are visible [see Case study 3].

It is important to acknowledge that EbA may not work in all contexts; other solutions such as engineered solutions may at times be preferable (S16).

12 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Enablers and opportunities for scaling up ecosystem-based adaptation solutions

An essential lesson learned from EbA implementation is the importance of eliciting support of all relevant stakeholders (S42)

Political and legislative support

Government has to sit in the driver’s seat – if subnational governments do not take leadership, EbA mainstreaming and implementation will not succeed (S37)

Political and legislative support is necessary for the success of EbA strategies (S48). Indeed, the implementation of EbA strategies can be a problem if there are political hindrances. For example, if the government policy favours mining, EbA strategies will never be implemented effectively (S48). While EbA is costly, some of the costs support developmental co-benefits – for example, labour for ecosystem rehabilitation supports job creation (S30).

Restorative EbA, with a strong emphasis on socio-economic benefits for poor communities, should be aligned with national-level developmental prerogatives, such as green job creation, training and income generation for these communities (S48).

Activities should ideally be aligned with the existing national and subnational institutional framework for adaptation to climate change and development goals (S36). EbA strategies need to be institutionalised, rather than executed as standalone projects. As such, EbA considerations need to be included in local government budgets (S16). A useful way to increase the effectiveness of EbA is to identify successfully implemented, institutionalised projects and processes, and to incorporate the EbA approach into them (S40).

Community engagement

EbA initiatives should be acceptable to the local community; since they are the beneficiaries, bottom-up approaches or alternatives coming from citizens or communities themselves are the best (S36, S40). Interventions should be designed to maximise participation and learning, and create conducive spaces and processes for these (S219). Technical jargon should be avoided when communicating with communities. It is vital to understand the local perspective of the importance of ecosystem services in order to understand what the real problems are, what potential solutions would be, as well as what the outcomes from adaptation activities may be and who would benefit (S315). It is essential to include indigenous knowledge from the beginning of a project (S40, S315). EbA interventions may sometimes require communities to modify traditional practices, for example, in terms of the ways in which they use their land, forests or ecological products. Bearing in mind that it will take time for benefits from EbA to materialise, it is important to provide livelihood alternatives for these communities in the interim and ensure that the community understands the importance of the change (S30), while at the same time acknowledging the impact that such changes

Case study 3: Building resilience in rangelands

through natural resource management and land-user incentives, Namaqualand, South Africa This project is implemented by Conservation South Africa, framed within a larger national public works programme. The project is focused on restoring eroded ecosystems using low-cost measures and methods expected to increase soil filtration and soil retention, which supports a rangeland more resilient to extreme weather events, while also providing socio-economic benefits to those engaged in the programme and surrounding communities who depend on the rangeland – thus supporting an EbA approach (S48, Sarshen Scorgie et al.). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1mt60UMujaEJIBMYwO_VoCceRuj6DvhvE

13Chapter 2: Ecosystem-based adaptation

may have on the socio-economic fabric of the community. Participatory modelling is a good way to assess the long-term sustainability and impact of nature-based solutions (S219).

Partnerships

There is a need to work across sectors and engage with different stakeholders to maximise the effectiveness of EbA. Creating alliances for communication, capacity development and implementation, including financing, is critical (S36). Partnerships with global institutions (such as the Global Centre for Excellence in Adaptation) could be explored to promote the EbA agenda. Context is important for EbA – site-specific analysis must be done, and partnerships with local research institutions must be explored (S16).

Interactive Nature-based solutions (NBS) mapping tool is a policy

platform to make NBS more accessible to decision-makers. Practitioners should analyse the effectiveness of NBS, keeping in mind the potential biases that studies may have (S315). www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org / www.nbspolicyplatform.org

UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is

currently developing a Navigator Tool that collects all the existing EbA tools to help practitioners identify which one to use at different stages of EbA-related projects. https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/cbd_sbstta_navigator_presentation_unep-wcmc_final.pdf

Photo © Dania Petrik

14 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Photo © Dania Petrik

15Chapter 3: Managing water scarcity

Chapter 3: Managing water scarcity

Large parts of Africa are already water stressed, and climate projections show that this will increase in the future. Pressures on water resources are increasing both in terms of quality and quantity (S213). The interactions between adaptation and development, and the food–water–energy nexus, present complex challenges for water management. Water management is complex and requires multi-sectoral approaches and interventions, based on both science and local knowledge (S47). Water stress interacts with environmental changes (e.g. encroaching invasive species, changes in available grazing or farming areas), economic factors (e.g. livelihoods, land tenure systems) and health systems (S213). Sound agricultural practices can reduce water demand and increase provision of clean water to downstream users. Transboundary water cooperation for climate resilience needs to be further advanced to avoid future conflict (S47).

Rural water sources

Rural communities depend directly on water sources for their subsistence and livelihoods. Drought is part of a wider set of dynamics that impacts on the extent of the drought impacts and the success in responding to drought. Drought impacts and responses can only be understood within the context of much wider environmental (e.g. invasive species range greatly expanded), economic (e.g. alternative livelihood options, migration and resettlement), cultural (e.g. household dynamics), demographic (e.g. female-headed households) and managerial stresses and changes. The interaction of dynamics presents challenges for chronic and extreme water-stress management, in that it makes it more difficult to pinpoint specific instruments for risk reduction. Community participation is key for setting up more effective water management systems, and decision-making must be locally driven [see Case study 4]. Ownership of water infrastructure must be defined (S330).

Urban water resilience

Urban water scarcity is already a common reality around the world that is exacerbated by increasing population growth, competing demand for resources, and erratic rainfall and drought (S194A).

Case study 4: Capacity of local actors to participate

in decentralised water governance: insights from north-central Namibia Decentralised water reforms offer an opportunity for increased participation across scale so as to reduce water scarcity. Though there is an attempt to decentralise in north-central Namibia, there is a tendency towards power concentration at the higher level of government, leading to limited understanding of community needs. Capacity should be developed for decentralisation of water management to be successful, while empowering poorer communities to be involved in water management and use (S116, Salma Hegga et al.). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1NkAMYuP59k9KrvhCpOgEtGiOXCiRbxCp

Multiple use water system tool. A multiple use water system is a

simple technology of piped water systems to households so that they can effectively manage water for domestic and productive use. A simple structure that can easily be managed by communities, with a relatively short construction time, reduces the time spent collecting water significantly. Generally designed in rural areas and for smallholder farmers to sustainably improve health, economy and livelihoods (S330, Sagar Pokharel). https://drive.google.com/drive/u/2/folders/ 1M8XDleklCpkAF5zyT8ZHN-36FNtNy4aQ

16 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Solutions for water scarcity in cities include the following (S194). � Exploring nature-based solutions:

Government should work with urban developers, researchers and citizens to find innovative solutions, with buy-in from the community. This includes landscape-based adaptation and the restoration of degraded ecosystems surrounding cities.

� Advanced water demand management: This could include higher pricing/tariffs to reduce water consumption, using sensor data, models and weather forecasting, as well as improvements in the distribution system, avoiding leakages.

� Improved water catchment – envisaging cities as catchment areas: Redesigning how cities capture run-off to reduce storm-water problems, improve water quality and increase biodiversity.

� Constructing water-efficient buildings and increasing water productivity (e.g. water harvesting infrastructure, efficient plumbing, and efficient air-conditioning systems).

� Advanced water supply though public–private partnerships, including extraction from aquifers [see Case study 5] and desalination.

� City networks to share and adopt technology and international best practice.

Transboundary water management

The expected impacts of climate change present unprecedented challenges for managing conflict risk at river borders, and transboundary river basins and dams (S213). Additional political and financial commitments and the establishment of shared management mechanisms are important to ensure stability and sustainability of transboundary waters, as well as some of Africa’s clean hydropower energy generation (S347).

Understanding the political and social economy across transboundary water resources (e.g. river basins), where the balance of decision-making power lies in the region and how

decisions are within given existing policy frameworks, institutional arrangements and livelihood realities, is integral to the approach used for adaptation purposes. An integrated systems approach is required in policies, laws and regulations. More capacity development is needed across sectors and for all stakeholders (including small-scale farmers, policy-makers and the private sector) to facilitate understanding and cooperation around what is needed for transboundary river basin management. New methods and models to illustrate the benefits of cooperation and collaboration, including quantifying benefits, are required for such partnerships to work. Information and data should be shared among partners, and plans should be transparent. Sharing things that go right and those that go wrong can help stakeholders to learn from these experiences (S213).

Interventions need to be based on both science and local knowledge, as context-specific understanding of the linkages between transboundary cooperation and climate resilience is of paramount importance (S213).

Case study 5: Assessment of privately owned water

sources as adaptation option to water scarcity in peri-urban Zanzibar, Tanzania Zanzibar has no permanent lakes or flowing rivers. Groundwater (wells, springs and caves) remains the main source of potable water. Residents have to look for alternative sources of water by establishing their own wells and thus there is a mushrooming of private water wells. The suitability of establishing private water sources as a response to water scarcity has not been investigated. Most of the wells were developed without technical advice from responsible authorities and most of them are located within flood-prone areas. The study recommends the involvement of technical experts and the responsible authority to make the option more feasible (S194A, H. Mwevura and Mohd R. Haji). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1XtK5VZ1EURXuLeRkvXgQplhHppwca6mU

17Chapter 3: Managing water scarcity

Trust and transparency are crucial to the success of transboundary water management – the process of finding commonalities between communities or stakeholders to build relationships must be engaged. Both the level of trust and the form of trust is important: the breakdown of relationships can otherwise lead to the breakdown of transboundary agreements

(S330). Transboundary river basin cooperation procedures should start by focusing on ‘easy wins’ for all stakeholders, including their development needs.

More evidence is needed of what works and what does not work in terms of management of transboundary water resources.

Photo © Siya Myeza

18 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Chapter 4: Cities, settlements and key infrastructure

African cities are currently facing rapid urbanisation and the growth of informal settlements, leading to vulnerable urban communities exposed to climate risks. Improved spatial planning and avoiding settlements in high-risk zones is crucial for disaster risk reduction. New investments in infrastructure should be designed with climate impacts in mind to achieve long-term resilience. Local governments need to take a systems approach and find long-term adaptation solutions (S251). Urban resilience can be strengthened by embracing innovations and facilitating more active participation of civil society, the private sector, researchers and local government in project planning. Multi-sectoral participatory adaptation is essential for climate resilience and inclusive urban development (S50).

Adaptation to flooding

Flooding brings a host of additional risks: infections, parasitic diseases, fires, disrupted waste management as well as increased crime and disrupted governance (S51)

There are many causes of urban flooding, including inappropriate land use (settlements along rivers or in floodplains, or too close to the coast), shoreline modification, topography, and ineffective waste management or drainage (S182). Ideally, settlements should not be allowed in inappropriate locations. In addition, the following adaptation actions are necessary. � Create awareness in affected communities

of potential problems, using tools such as

Photo © FRACTAL

19Chapter 4: Cities, settlements and key infrastructure

a flood-risk map. Develop an early warning system that will be easily understandable for local communities.

� Include communities in the development of resilience strategies. Strive to include job creation (e.g. community EbA). Work with vulnerable communities to manage the watercourse system and improve or extend drainage infrastructure.

� Engage with the private sector for funding partnerships. Build a business case for resilience and/or floods controls (S400).

Communities in informal settlements are often the most vulnerable to flooding. Community vulnerability is driven primarily by a lack of assets, manifested in a lack of basic amenities, such as resilient shelter, storm-water drainage or waste disposal systems (S68). Informal settlements often develop in lowlying zones prone to flooding, where land is available and formal settlement is constrained. Communities need basic support, including simple permissions from local government to implement practical adaptation measures (S51) [see Case study 6]. Grass-roots mobilisation and data-collection are fundamental to empower communities, reduce risks and enhance governmental responses.

Resettling

Resettling affected communities is challenging. Almost inevitably conflicts arise between communities, government and humanitarian agencies when it comes to resettling (S51). Resettling has a technical component and also a political component: ideally, certain conditions must be met to ensure the stability of resettled communities, such as enabling people to own their own houses. However, this might exclude squatters and renters (S51).

Increasing coastal resilience

Protecting coastal cities from climate impacts requires resources that place a huge financial strain on local governments and the public. While infrastructure projects provide equity and can thus be leveraged for private funding,

involving private investors in large-scale projects changes the role of local governments in delivering adaptation (S3) [see Case study 7].

New-build infrastructure challenges include high costs and uncertainty in assessing climate impacts. An integrated environmental and social impact assessment needs to be put in place at the design stage of new infrastructure projects to avoid mal-adaptation (S349).

Opportunity: It is often less costly to finance an adaptation project from scratch than to adapt existing infrastructure.

Multi-stakeholder engagement for urban resilience

It may be necessary to reframe the climate change position within the broader development agenda (S349)

Urban resilience can be strengthened by more active participation of civil society, the private sector and other urban stakeholders in project planning. While it is challenging to have a multi-stakeholder or transdisciplinary approach, the following recommendations will support the process and outcomes.

Case study 6: Community-responsive adaptation to

flooding, Kibera, Kenya Communities’ own efforts can be bolstered to help them become more resilient. By advancing equity, communities in informal areas are helped to activate their unrealised potential in both structural measures (e.g. doorsteps to inhibit water ingress, putting up local flood walls, gabion walls and river clearance) and non-structural measures (e.g. solid-waste collection as a business, and savings and loans groups for enterprise start-ups) (S51, Vera Bukachi). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1t7IYYiLXBUCxbVaDOQmk_LewQAz1MCHK

20 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

� A good, transparent communication process is needed to build trust.

� A shared language and developing a common goal/vision is key [see Case study 8].

� There needs to be shared responsibility for decisions or actions, and coordination of resources.

� Sustainability and resilience planning need to be integrated for the long term.

� Formal and informal connection nodes and spaces need to be created in local government structures – allow for experimentation and learning processes (S349).

� City-to-city networks and partnerships provide platforms for advocacy and decision-

making, as well as lesson- and knowledge-sharing. Networks need to be leaned on in order to share expertise, generate combined action, and bring about effective and innovative urban governance structures (S50).

The adaptation cycle is complex – it is not a simple sequence of steps and there is no one single decision-maker. Prioritising ways for city stakeholders to identify their primary issues is of utmost importance, as is understanding how the physical and social systems interact (S83B). Decision-making to avoid mal-adaptive lock-in takes time and requires funding from sources beyond rates and taxes, such as investors, donors and the private sector. Resilience building is cross-sectoral and has to be integrated into all public agendas (S63). A city that is prepared for climate shocks protects its people, fosters an investor-friendly environment and drives positive change.

Medellín Collaboration on Urban Resilience city resilience tool.

A practical framework to collect, systematise and analyse data, to implement resilience action into public agendas. The tool helps the city to raise climate funds as it makes evident the challenges, gaps and the objectives – and, importantly, brings the private sector on board. It provides a resilience dashboard for the city, with more than 100 indicators monitored (infrastructure, municipal services, social assistance and protection). Training is required for technicians and government authorities through resilience dialogues, technical meetings and multi-sectoral workshops (S63). http://urbanresiliencehub.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Local-Governments-Pocket-Guide-to-Resilience.pdf

Other useful urban resilience tools can be found at:

http://www.resiliencetools.org/tools-overview

Case study 7: State-centric governance in the

coastal risk and vulnerability domain: a recipe for disaster in Cape Town?, South Africa Risk is set to be amplified in urban hubs where ‘static’ settings meet dynamic and advancing pressures of sea-level rise, storm surge and coastal erosion. In such settings, where both state and private-sector interests coalesce and are impacted upon, governance needs to shift to governance defined by state–society interactions. Despite private property owners having insufficient resources to effectively respond to eroding shorelines, the burden of responsibility of responding to coastal hazards is placed squarely on their shoulders by the state. The marginalisation of these property owners by government is leading to ill-informed and piecemeal responses to coastal hazards. Consequentially, risk is being amplified not only to the private sector, but this risk is beginning to manifest across a wider socio-economic and environmental spectrum. Importantly, this includes the gradual deterioration and loss of beaches used by members of the public from less-affluent communities (S207, Daryl Colenbrander). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1XFimIousJ7sqbCspZZzUWTZKWzMvIGbV

21Chapter 5: Health and well-being

Chapter 5: Health and well-being

Climate change poses the risk of both direct and indirect health impacts on communities in Africa, including increasing cases of malnutrition, diarrhoea, heat stress and malaria. Through taking adaptation measures, the threat of climate change on health outcomes could be reduced significantly (S146). However, health systems are already overburdened and there is a trade-off between improving existing systems and investing in adaptation measures. The challenge will be to build capacity in the health sector and increase awareness of effective emergency prevention measures and responses among the public. Local, in-country experts should be included when designing strategies and implementation plans in the health sector.

Capacity-building in the health sector

There is a huge demand and growing concern from health ministries in Africa to integrate climate change, but there are serious resource and capacity limitations to do this. It may be better to first build a functioning basic health service, before moving on to using resources for expensive climate change vulnerability assessment (S146)

Within the health sector, climate change is seen as a new issue. Health practitioners do not necessarily understand it or how it can affect the spread of diseases or other health risks. There is the need to build climate research capacities in the health sector and improve partnerships between health professionals and climate change professionals. Indeed, climate professionals should be included when designing strategies and implementation plans in the health sector. These should be local, in-country experts (S146).

Many countries still have inadequate basic health services. There are financial trade-offs between improving basic health infrastructure and investing in a greater climate change response in the health sector. Decision-makers at the ministry level in particular need to understand and make informed strategic decisions to address risks. Investing too much attention and resources in future climate change impacts may take resources and attention away from immediate high-priority needs (S146).

Health ministries need more information for decision-making for climate-sensitive health issues (S404)

Challenges for the health sector include establishing the links between climate events and the spread of disease. The needs include gaining insights from stakeholders to better understand systems, processes and priorities, and developing new data platforms to collate and analyse data from different streams and across sectors (S84) [see Case study 8].

Case study 8: Integrating climate change and

variability into health decisions: a multi-pronged policy approach in Mozambique Research has found that higher temperatures lead to an increase in diarrheal diseases and malaria. However, there is a lack of information to inform the health sector when they have to take decisions for climate-sensitive health issues. How can forward planning reduce the spread of diseases or other climate-related illness? (S404, Colin Quinn et al.). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1Z4HgluHB-DqWQo-XwBiJJ-0_mhALJ9ew

22 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Heat stress and infectious diseases

Many countries in Africa will experience higher temperatures, especially after 2030. Chronic heat stress is already becoming a problem. Linked to higher temperatures, all sorts of other stresses are experienced, such as increased water scarcity, increased rate of food decomposition, increase in rodents and other vectors, and related disease outbreaks. Early warning systems are vital and various methods should be used to communicate heatwaves, using both traditional methods and technology (S404). Higher temperatures will increase the range of malaria. The approach to the disease will need to shift with increased surveillance for the disease; malaria response programmes will need to be extended in key areas, while seasonal responses will need to be refined (S323).

Climate change has various effects on the spread and occurrence of infectious diseases. A study of how vectors and diseases are affected by climate change is needed across regions

to improve the knowledge base, and this information needs to be shared with countries that may face similar challenges.

Well-being and resilience

In recent years, the climate world has seen the rise of new buzzwords such as ‘well-being’ and ‘resilience’. However, people’s perceptions of well-being and resilience differ and the relationship between ‘well-being’ and ‘resilience’ is complicated, sometimes even contradictory (S55). For example, after the tsunami in Indonesia, people were relocated to improve their resilience to potential future tsunamis, but this had a negative impact on their overall well-being (S36, S313).

Adaptation strategies within the health sector should be designed with a community-oriented approach for long-term sustainability (S36, S313). It is important to create awareness of disease outbreaks in high-risk areas and to teach the communities and individuals how to prevent outbreaks. Climate change and health should be taught in schools, and at university level, to support successful adaptation efforts.

Photo © FRACTAL

23Chapter 6: Rural livelihoods and agriculture

Chapter 6: Rural livelihoods and agriculture

Adaptation strategies should be included in natural resource management and rural governance in order to protect rural livelihoods, especially among the poorest and most vulnerable who depend on subsistence farming, fishing and tourism (S330). Responses that can increase the resilience of communities and minimise negative impacts on biodiversity should be identified and promoted (S314).

For rural adaptation projects to be effective, it is essential to understand how communities experience the negative impacts of climate change on the ground and what their actual needs are. Local and traditional knowledge should be included in designing adaptation responses.

Sustainably boosting agricultural productivity despite the upsurge in climate variability is an urgent priority for communities concerned about their food security (S314). However, adaptation to current and expected climate change impacts is largely fragmented and short term. This incremental adaptation may not be sufficient to adapt to increasingly severe climate change impacts or to prevent the erosion of development gains. Farmers are often conservative; however, demonstrating the value of new technologies in pilot schemes at the local level can improve uptake of innovative adaptive practices.

Pastoralists in semi-arid regions are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Enabling policies, including increased land tenure rights, and supportive institutions are needed to ensure improved adaptive capacities for pastoralists – particularly women. Facilitated engagements are necessary to reduce conflict and give a greater voice in a context of unequal power dynamics (S172).

Pastoralism

The pastoralist way of life in the arid and semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa is

increasingly under threat as climate change interacts with and exacerbates existing stressors, such as desertification and constraints on mobility, and creates new ones, with increased levels of competition for land among pastoral communities and growing conflicts over land between pastoralists and farmers (S327). There is also a gradual change in the roles of men and women (S342) [see Case study 9]. Pastoral adaptive responses include changes in diet and livelihood patterns, changes in the type and number of livestock that are kept, and increased mobility, particularly by men. Many pastoralists are increasingly dependent on crops in addition to livestock products. This means there is a greater need for secure land tenure (S327). Facilitated engagements are necessary to reduce conflict and give a greater voice in a context of unequal power dynamics (S172).

Case study 9: Gambian women livestock farmers’

adaptation strategies, The Gambia It is clear that both men and women recognise the challenges that climate change poses to livestock farmers. There need to be enabling policies and institutions in place to ensure improved adaptive capacities – particularly among women. There also need to be improved synergies and mutual respect and relationships built between male and female livestock farmers. There need to be enabling policies and institutions in place for pastoralists, with gender-inclusive laws and policies (S342). Synergies, mutual respect and relationships should be built between male and female livestock farmers. There needs to be a localised champion for the cause of women to ensure that women’s voices are heard (S342, Olawale F. Olaniyan). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1Nh2tK9DXO8XoMpyYP-v9MS-hpYvEN-rL

24 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Tourism opportunities

This may include reconsidering the human–wildlife nexus to support activities such as tourism [see Case studies 10 and 11] to increase livelihood opportunities for local communities (S22, S314).

Microfinance to support livelihoods

It is challenging to provide financial services to those who are not able to access

traditional financial institutions or who do not understand that climate adaptation can yield greater financial returns on their livelihoods. Microfinance can address these challenges – particularly if concessional – for example, loans offered at lower than market interest rates (S239).

Barriers to access

� Many farmers would like to invest in insurance or adaptive solutions but cannot because they do not have the money to do so. This results in an increase in inequality between farmers who can afford insurance (and are able to recover more quickly from climate shocks) and those who cannot afford insurance and are even worse off after a climate event (S34).

� Accessing climate insurance requires farmers to identify their needs and frame them in the language of insurance/lending institutions. For instance, they might need to talk about climate risk, rather than climate change (S34). This can often be a challenge for many farmers.

� Farmers in remote areas may struggle to access the internet, or to fill in online applications, which deprives them of opportunities to apply for funding or online assistance (S306).

Opportunities for financiers

� In some rural communities, low education and limited understanding of credit negatively affects the uptake of insurance and financial products and services, but offers high potential for growth by finance institutions.

� Climate adaptation technologies and solutions must be made known to farmers so that they can identify those that are suitable for their needs.

� Banks and formal financial institutions can learn from informal institutions to reduce transaction costs and become more accessible to farmers (S142) [see Case study 12].

� Building resilience requires training on innovative financial mechanisms such as

Case study 10: Pathways to climate-resilient

livelihoods in the Okavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area KZTCA is the world’s largest transfrontier conservation area, including five countries and 2.7 million people. Tourism can be a great economic driver and provide people with secure livelihoods, less susceptible to climate change. This results in a more harmonised landscape within which both wildlife and people can thrive. Interventions with local communities must be business-based using best technologies which both support and encourage local tourism service support nodes (S22, Pauline Lindeque and Caroline Brown). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1fZ4cywXT00VshgmA6WH4S32Vtf4GilHM

Case study 11: Sustainable tourism livelihoods –

Berg River Tourism Project, South Africa ‘From a waste water furrow to a pristine riparian corridor’. With the potential for mushrooming micro-business, the Berg River Tourism Project creates economic empowerment, financial growth and sustainability. The vital role of coherent policy and coordinated action between sectors is emphasised (S305, Francis J. Steyn). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1nR5W7MoZmSubkbENHXNVHFXzXlzlg16V

25Chapter 6: Rural livelihoods and agriculture

loans, insurance, general risk management. This is a long-term intervention – emerging farmers will need financial support while they are studying or learning (S34).

Innovations and indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Non-tillage farming in Western Cape has gained acceptance because people had the opportunity to see it in action (S34)

Sustainably boosting agricultural productivity despite the upsurge in climate variability has become an urgent priority for farming communities concerned about food security (S309). New methodologies, including low-tech solutions, are vital in the agriculture sector, for production and the entire value chain. Farmers are frequently conservative and making the case for a new approach needs evidence and engagement by research institutes. Despite this, however, some farmers may never change their age-old practices – ‘I farm as my

Case study 12: Microfinance for enterprise

development in agriculture and tourism adaptation, Jamaica A cooperative that had worked with communities for 60 years expanded its operations to include microfinancing. They were interested in supporting agriculture and tourism, they have very ambitious repayment targets supported by a strong process for repayment (S239, Nadine Brown). https://climatefundsupdate.org/pilot-program-for-climate-resilience/

Photo © ASSAR

26 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

grandfather did’ (S34). On the other hand, farmers themselves can be highly innovative and adaptive. Researchers and commercial farmers should cooperate to develop transformative technologies and systems. Public policy should support the deployment and scaling up of successful technologies (S34).

Indigenous knowledge holds many benefits but is gradually being lost; it is mostly used and shared among the elderly while the youth are migrating to urban areas and not acquiring it. Government should recognise indigenous knowledge and document such practices effectively (S306).

Climate smart agriculture

Well-implemented climate smart agriculture holds the potential to contribute to sustainable and increased food production (S191)

Factors for success in implementing climate smart agriculture

� Increased government support (S352). � Avoid being too fixed on the term ‘climate

smart agriculture’ and use whatever agricultural practices help local communities to cope (S352).

� Ensure inclusive stakeholder engagement in all project phases (S352). Integration of marginalised groups (women and those without land tenure) is crucial to transformation.

� Accurate information about local climate impacts is necessary.

� Collaborative research, between farmers and researchers, encourages farmers’ buy-in when introducing new strategies. For

example, using demonstration plots, whereby the farmers get a clear understanding of the risks, as well as seeing first-hand the benefits of particular practices (S34) [see Case study 13].

� A systems approach with a combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches.

� Transforming value chains and creating new markets for new products (S191) [see Case studies 14 and 15].

� Identify and share early win strategies, demonstrate success – showcase success stories where climate smart agriculture (CSA) offers opportunities for additional income (e.g. alley farming for wine) or out-of-season crops (S34).

� Support low-carbon technologies and processes.

� Financing must meet the real needs of the system. Public–private partnerships need to be developed to support the long-term viability of projects or programmatic responses.

� Focus on cross-disciplinary solutions. There must be knowledge-sharing and collaboration between farmers, researchers and other sectoral players, to enable working with and coordinating multiple actors, and developing stakeholders’ capacities.

� Local/indigenous knowledge must be included from the start.

Case study 13: The role of social learning in

making climate change response strategy a leverage for a sustainability transition, Western Cape, South Africa The process of developing the Western Cape Climate Change Framework and Implementation Plan for the agriculture sector was a two-pronged approach, using science and research alongside intensive stakeholder engagement. This process-oriented approach, building on an open and flexible communication process, built trust among actors but is time and commitment intensive (S354, Nadine Methner et al.). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1vzZBBdF2lJk9hSSFm9KZtPCWtLjtfYKx

Climate smart agriculture (CSA): CSA integrates adaptation and mitigation

responses and uses technology for best results. Such practices include intercropping with nitrogen-fixing legumes, composting, agroforestry, conservation agriculture and use of resilient varieties of crops (S352).

27

� Digital technology must be harnessed, including online networks and early warning systems. Farmers need effective platforms for shared accumulated knowledge of production technologies, market linkages and value chains (309). It will be important to develop a global overview of what works and compare results and improve further implementation. This process could identify what farmers are doing in different parts of the world to improve resilience.

Chapter 6: Rural livelihoods and agriculture

Case study 14: Evaluating learning in methods to

scale up CSA interventions Novel scaling-up approaches are urgently needed to address the food production challenge of the coming decades. A framework for monitoring and evaluating social learning in projects has been used in 11 case studies that exemplify innovative approaches to scaling up CSA interventions based on (1) value chains and the private sector, (2) policy engagement, and (3) information and communications technologies and agro-advisory services. Multi-stakeholder engagement and partner networks are critical to effective scaling up, particularly if linked with capacity enhancement, looped learning and farmer decision support. Projects that intervene upstream at higher leverage points can be highly efficient and can reach across scales. Social learning has a key role to play in such approaches, as it requires significant levels of local engagement, while continuously paying attention to farmers’ needs and their own situations (S166, Philip Thornton). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1XmeDoz5MnYBFIUHHIJ_QWw1R6zuFGIXb

Case study 15: Margarita Project: Can agricultural

supply chains gain competitive advantages by becoming more climate resilient?, Latin America

Sustainable adaptation requires going beyond one-time climate-proofing measures and questioning the assumption that every adaptation to climate change is beneficial to the communities. Reflections on the role that business relations and interdependencies can exert on the adaptive behaviour of actors operating within an agricultural value chain in the Caribbean (S306, Laura Canevari). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1kc1zsMGd-W9bBbhCeqo9SQDIGXxjh8h0

Photo © ASSAR

28 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Chapter 7: Finance and funding

In some developing countries, low understanding of or appetite for debt negatively affects the uptake of insurance and financial services for climate adaptation but offers high potential for growth of new microfinance markets. Microfinance can enable small adaptation projects at community level where real adaptation is most often needed (S239). However, to increase private-sector lending, projects must be packaged to make the business case for adaptation, demonstrating tangible results (S78).

Adaptation funding is available from multiple sources but is often difficult to access because of onerous requirements by donors (S108). There is also often a mismatch between donor objectives and what is actually needed on the ground. Projects should be co-designed with active participation by beneficiaries and should aim to effectively build beneficiary capacity and achieve sustainable resilience. Funders should take cognisance of these requirements and actively support them (S314).

Accessing private-sector finance

It is difficult to persuade financial institutions to allocate money towards things that don’t generate a financial return but might generate a more resilient healthy society (S34)

Financial institutions remain largely conservative and have not yet engaged meaningfully in adaptation projects. The insurance sector is driven by the recommendations of actuaries who look at historic data as indicators of potential eventualities (S34). Banks focus on protecting revenues but do not necessarily see that climate and developmental risks may impact on corporate revenue (S400). The state is ultimately burdened with the costs of climate disasters.

Rural livelihoods are often subsistence-based; therefore, the community priority is

to get from day to day. However, even when communities know what to do to counteract the impacts of climate-related disasters, capacity for adaptation is often limited, due to lack of resources. Moreover, some communities/cultures have negative perceptions relating to insurance and debt. It is not always understood that insurance is an investment in resilience and not just an expense or added burden. For example, rural farmers are not necessarily or technologically inclined to fill in online applications, which deprives them of opportunities to apply for funding or any assistance. Accessing climate insurance requires farmers to identify their needs and frame them in the language of insurance/lending institutions. This can often be a challenge as many farmers lack this capacity. Climate adaptation technologies and solutions must be made known to farmers so that they can identify those that are suitable for their needs. Farmers should take pro-risk management strategies and base their decisions on what actually works to reduce their risks and maintain their business profitably (S306). It is important to understand the community context and be wary of trying to take models from one place and apply it to somewhere else (S34).

To increase private-sector support for adaptation projects, projects must be packaged to make the business case for adaptation (see ‘Adaptation metrics’ in Chapter 11) and deliver meaningful results (S78).

Finance for small and medium-sized enterprises

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and micro-enterprises are the backbone of the economy in many developing countries, but often do not have the capacity to address climate change because they are informal and excluded from government support (S56). Microfinance can provide financial services to SMEs to scale up adaptation at

29Chapter 7: Finance and funding

community level with small projects, where real adaptation is most often needed, particularly if concessional loans are offered at lower than market interest rate (S239). This provides banks with opportunities to access new markets and to become agents of positive change rather than just financiers. Financial support for SMEs to adapt to climate change could contribute positively to the national economy. Donors can extend funding through banks – funds are drip fed to the community while the remaining funds gain interest – an effective way to de-risk microfinancing. Women are gaining agency and are another growing customer base, with lower risk of default (S239).

Recommendations to funders

Funders should be accountable to communities and not the other way round (S108)

Many nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) in Africa experience problems and challenges in applying for and implementing small grant funds. NGOs require a lot of ‘hand-holding’, or capacity-building, to develop and implement grant projects.

� Grant recipients and funders should co-develop proposals and simplify the process. To support fundraising proposals from NGOs, a simple, demonstrative video could be used rather than a complicated form (S108).

� Long-term funding is required for successful adaptation (S314). Projects should be longer than four years to foster beneficiary organisational capacity.

� Innovative reporting methods should be explored to reduce the burden on local organisations to be well skilled in Excel spreadsheets and financial language. Innovative ways to report on projects should be found and capitalised on (Suggestion: use Facebook or a video).

� Government extension officers need to be integrated into small grant projects to foster government involvement and potential integration into the country’s budget.

� Develop a community of practice through workshops and webinars.

� Integrate indigenous knowledge when responding to local challenges to ensure sustainability and uptake of projects. There is a scarcity of scholarships for students who are the future generation of solution-seekers. Collaboration with local universities should be a required component of all funding proposals from large funders (S143).

Adaptation funding sources

There are several adaptation financing opportunities for developing countries, as follows.

Adaptation Fund

With over US$532 million allocated, the Adaptation Fund gives developing countries full ownership of adaptation projects, from planning right through implementation, while ensuring monitoring and transparency at every step (S153, Daouda Ndiaye). (https://www.adaptation-fund.org/project/taking-adaptation-to-the-ground-a-small-grants-facility-for-enabling-local-level-responses-to-climate-change/)

African Development Bank (AfDB) Adaptation Benefit Mechanism (ABM)

Governments can use the ABM to support national goals and country nationally determined contributions (NDCs). The ABM is a new mechanism designed to mobilise private-sector investment into adaptation. It certifies transfers of grant funds for adaptation projects and reports on the leverage of private-sector co-finance blended with donor funds (S21, Louise Brown). (https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/adaptation-benefit-mechanism-abm/)

African Women’s Development Fund

This fund caters for projects ranging from US$1,000 to US$500,000. It mobilises financial, human and material resources to support initiatives for transformation led by African women, women’s rights organisations and African women’s movements. (http://awdf.org/)

30 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Extreme Climate Facility (XCF)

XCF is an insurance scheme established under the African Union and African Risk Capacity mechanism to support states with access to private capital should climate volatility increase in Africa (S318). (http://www.africanriskcapacity.org/2016/10/31/extreme-climate-facility-xcf/)

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

GEF support is provided to government agencies, civil society organisations, private-sector companies, and research institutions to implement projects and programmes in recipient countries. The Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) have already provided US$1.37 billion in funding and US$6.88 billion in co-financing (S137, Carlo Carugi). (https://www.thegef.org/about/funding)

Green Climate Fund (GCF)

GCF does not implement projects directly itself, but rather through partnerships with Accredited Entities. Investment criteria include demonstrated impact, paradigm shift, country ownership, sustainable development potential, and integration into broader domestic and international agendas. GCF has multiple entry windows for transformative financing. Countries can access up to US$3 million for climate change adaptation (S153, Jason Spensley). The GCF aims to support transformational pathways to climate-resilient development, intends to reach those most vulnerable, and commits to a gender-sensitive approach. (https://www.greenclimate.fund/home)

Green Climate Fund (GCF) Small Grants Facility

The Small Grants Facility provides enhanced direct access finance for communities to build on local initiatives and improve them. It aims to be the channel between large international institutions and local communities that are adapting. Enhanced direct access can bridge the gap between communities and donor funds. Project proposals should factor in the key criteria for GCF, including how local people at the community level can get better access to resources (S78, S314, S201).

Recommendations to the GCF Small Grants Facility: � Make sure funding is accessible to the

community and allow for as many investment windows as possible.

� Increase the amount for financing small community projects.

� Proactively promote and support accreditation of small grants funds.

� Adapt the accreditation process so that it is appropriate for the size and scale of small grants funds and offer tailored assistance.

� Allow communities to co-design funding criteria.

World Bank Pilot Programme for Climate Resilience (PPCR)

PPCR aims to pilot and demonstrate ways in which climate risk and resilience may be integrated into core development planning and implementation by providing incentives for scaled-up action and initiating transformational change (S239). (https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/topics/climate-resilience)

31Chapter 8: Governance

Chapter 8: Governance

Governance is not only about government or institutions – it is an engagement and inclusion of all players (S314)

Within government, adaptation to climatic impacts is often seen as solely an environmental issue. Other departments within governments are too frequently not involved in addressing climate impacts. Reframing adaptation as a developmental imperative could help decision-making, governance and practice at the local level (S400, S38).

Successful adaptation requires an integrated governance approach, both horizontally (across departments and sectors) and vertically (through all levels of government, from local to national), to eliminate typically ‘siloed’ practices. This will lead to better coordination and accountability, and greater efficiency and effectiveness in preparing to avoid climate impacts.

In addition to vertical and horizontal government integration, successful adaptation efforts require the active participation of a broad range of stakeholders, including the local community, local institutions and the private sector.

Enabling factors include the following. � Public–private partnerships that enable

funding and more integrated implementation of adaptation responses, as well as the sustainability and longevity of adaptation responses through having enough resources to sustain the adaptation process beyond the lifespan of a project.

� Openness to integrating different types of knowledge and perceptions in a transparent process (S406). A values, rules and knowledge approach is critical in developing an effective governance framework. Transparency entails understanding and sharing all stakeholder values (S46).

Politicians and traditional leaders have a major role to play in the adaptation space: they could minimise many unnecessary disputes if they were well-informed and able to understand the complexity of the challenges. Often there are hidden reasons behind resistance to change, and those need to be uncovered. Information sharing and interpretation is thus crucial (S306).

Adaptation inaction raises inequity (S68)

There is a need for an integrated strategy that addresses climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR). Fragmented approaches to DRR and CCA result in coordination challenges for governments, and lead to lack of efficiency and effectiveness in preparing for and responding to extreme weather events. CCA and DRR organisations must stop operating in isolation from each other. Multi-stakeholder participation is a key to achieving durable results (S38). It is crucial to plan in advance, so that when disaster strikes, resources are available (S128) [see Case study 16]. Then, once an emergency happens, these flexible programmes can support an initial response. However, it is important to note that assumptions are often made about beneficiary groups’ aspirations, what they ‘want’ versus what outside groups think they ‘need’. A crucial question is: who gets to decide what is ‘good’, and for whom (S55)?

People on the ground need to be involved in adaptation processes to avoid non-optimal projects that may result in mal-adaptation, tension and power struggles (S311). However, it is critical to link the local adaptation strategies to national and subnational plans (S406).

Vertical integration: Vertical integration is the process of

creating linkages between the national and subnational levels, through which coordination, capacity-building and communication between different levels occurs, to ensure implementation of effective local-level adaptation (S116).

32 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Case study 16: Socio-ecological resilience and

adaptation governance in marginalised livelihood systems, Ghana

Coastal erosion – a whole village was washed away. The village was relocated to higher land. The process of moving the entire village was stressful. Relocation of an entire village is very new in Ghana. As the villagers wait for the resettlement, their livelihoods come to a standstill and the community continues to live in water. The villagers had seen the sea level rise every year. In the face of disaster, they moved to higher ground but the issue of climate change is not well known (S314, Bob Offei Manteaw). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1UR-NYisMiQB95MTuhxpL_vRC8OMgKY8u

Photo © ASSAR

make the changes needed to survive, adapt and grow in the face of adversity (S352). Vertical integration across different government levels will improve the flow of accountability, improving policy relevance and implementation. This will help to bring the priorities of local-level actors to the fore, as the local level is where adaptation really needs to happen (S116).

Rural climate governance

There seems to be a disconnection between national-level adaptation planning and discourse, and what pertains in rural and marginalised places (S314)

There is often a disconnection between government plans and the experience of those ‘on the ground’ in rural areas. Rural livelihoods are often subsistence based, and communities are trying to survive from day to day. Community capacity to adapt is often limited, even if they know what to do. Ad-hoc decision-making often does not improve the existing patterns of vulnerability (S313). The unique context of each community needs to be considered and communities should be involved in all adaptation processes, starting with a vulnerability assessment [see Case study 18].

Urban climate governance

There is sometimes an assumption that cities control policies and vital systems, such as infrastructure management and development, and natural resource management. However, the level of control a city has over its own resources and future might not be sufficient to

33Chapter 8: Governance

Case study 18: Palmiet River Rehabilitation Project,

South Africa The Palmiet River Rehabilitation Project (PRRP) brought role-players together. Stakeholders produced the PRRP Action Plan to deliver meaningful integrated interventions that address the critical issues, and to undo the dire consequences of past and present human development practices. The PRRP has a shared governance community of practice: different stakeholders guiding and driving project implementation together with community (S182). http://biodiversityadvisor.sanbi.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/palmiet-Catchment-Rehabilitation-Proj.-presentation.pdf

Case study 17: Joint principles for adaptation,

Malawi

Joint principles have been used for dialogues and inputs to policy, and have also been used to influence strategy and national adaptation programme (NAP) processes (including vulnerability analysis). The tools were also used to assist the government with the NAP readiness funding proposal (S186, Fiona Percy). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1HqR9AwUHZvYqT7-POkzEo2C4wqQg01JF

Joint principles for adaptation (JPA). The JPA can help to shape

national adaptation plans to ensure they reach vulnerable people in local communities effectively. The JPA tools can be used in different ways: to analyse gaps that exist in policies; to develop advocacy strategies within the networks; or to dialogue with policy-makers. Focus is national and local levels (S186) [see Case study 17].

Cross-boundary governance

Cross-boundary governance will become increasingly important, particularly with regard to contested water sources, and requires context-sensitive, community-based management approaches to build regional capacity for climate adaptation.

34 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Chapter 9: Climate information services

Successful adaptation depends on reliable and accurate climate data (S165), but there is currently a lack of high-quality data across Africa. Proxy data options, such as satellite data, and emerging technologies are necessary to bridge the current gaps in climate information services (CIS) (S402).

Producers of CIS need to ensure that information is user-relevant. Co-creation of climate information by researchers, data providers and decision-makers from various sectors and disciplines would ensure better usability of data (S317). Active involvement of the user in the design and production of CIS is key in enhancing the usability and effectiveness of the information.

Climate information services (CIS): The packaging and dissemination of climate

information to specific users.4

Data provision in Africa

Data is missing over Africa and the available data is questionable (S165)

Scientific knowledge and services, such as geographic information system (GIS) mapping, is essential to help map drought- and flood-prone areas and to understand the vulnerability of hotspots. However, the lack of sufficient weather-station data in Africa limits the usefulness of these tools in many areas. National weather service stations require greater investment in infrastructure, technology and capacity. Currently, most data stations are in cities, with insufficient services for the poor in rural areas (S165).

There is a need to use proxy data options, such as satellite data, and to explore emerging

4 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. https://www.uneca.org/acpc/pages/climate-information-services-supporting-africa%E2%80%99s-development

technologies to bridge the current gaps in CIS (S402). Data from Earth observation systems (EOS) can be applied to fill gaps in traditional weather-station systems in some areas (S43). EOS can feed into decision-making and can be used to aid the insurance industry in its risk models, to produce risk maps, and similar. Scaling up the use of EOS to different areas of Africa and across sectors is a good trade-off against having to update and improve land-based weather stations (S402).

A sustainable approach to investments in weather/climate information equipment and continental observation networks tailored for African requirements is required.

Need for free and sustainable access to quality data

National governments have a duty to provide reliable, quality climate information services (S317)

Climate information services should be a human right (S143)

Data provision is a serious issue with financial implications, as data is not always freely available. Who receives and who does not receive data services? Who pays the cost for the creation of CIS, given that local government and communities are often unable to afford these services? It is vital to make data more accessible and less costly for stakeholders, otherwise the stakeholders will lose access to the data once the project ends. The progress made will also be lost.

CIS should be considered in a value-chain approach that integrates all considerations for sustainability of services (S319). Better coordination between national government and CIS providers on the ground is also sought. NGOs have strong links to communities and

35Chapter 9: Climate information services

could be used to provide better climate services for communities (S317). There is a need to create an enabling environment for data access and cross-sector, regional collaboration (S43). A discussion on how to arrange sharing systems, and to define which are essential and who provides these services is needed.

Barriers to uptake by end users

We have set up a climate information shop, but we did not build a shopping window (S154)

Depending on how science and technology is used, it can either empower or hamper uptake and decision-making. CIS information should be provided in a way that local communities understand. There is a potential risk when communicating climate change, as decision-makers can incorrectly interpret information and then make poorly informed decisions. Decision-makers – including communities, governments and businesses – need to understand the uncertainties inherent in climate projections. Support in using the information should be improved (S132).

Some of the barriers to uptake by community end users of CIS include the following. � Climate information services are often not

well contextualised to the local situation. � Meteorological agencies often rely on

third-party-owned communication channels (private organisations) to communicate weather-related information to the users (S319).

� Traditional, cultural and/or religious beliefs can hinder the adoption of CIS.

� Inability of end users to interpret technical information (S317). Technocratic approach may exclude community voices (S51).

� Climate information overload due to poorly coordinated provision of weather services.

Producers of climate information need to ensure that information is user-relevant and local. Be clear – are you communicating information or actually advocating for a particular action?

Co-production of climate information services

Successful adaptation depends on effective design and delivery of climate information services (S319)

Open Access tool: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

offers data sharing and models of regional collaboration. Observational data, information and derived products are freely exchanged in real-time or near real-time between WMO centres and national meteorological and hydrological services of members around the world. https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/what-we-do/data-exchange-and-technology-transfer

Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) is a useful resource

provided by the UK Met Office, which strives to simultaneously improve availability, access and use of climate data. In conjunction with the Met Office, it controls the quality of all available station data and combines them with satellite and re-analysis products; it also trains institutions on data management, analysis and communications. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/what/international/projects/wiser/enacts

The Partnership for Resilience and Preparedness (PREP) provides an

open-source, global-scale data platform with climate change projections. The overall goal is to make it easier for people around the world to access, share and use climate data. PREP has the potential to create data transparency and improved decision-making in Africa and beyond. www.prepdata.org

36 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Co-production of knowledge by both scientific and local actors/users (including traditional/ religious leaders where appropriate) may create credibility, salience and legitimacy in CIS (S317). Combining scientific and indigenous forecasts is key for uptake of climate information. This includes engaging end users right from the design stage in participatory approaches (S125).

The process of developing decision-driven CIS is challenging. There is sometimes tension around the roles of the various actors who generate climate information. Most meteorological departments have the mandate of producing knowledge in the public interest. Adaptation practitioners need to move from providing useful information to usable information by asking the right questions and packaging it appropriately (S132). Participatory scenario planning (PSP) enables producers and users to collectively share and interpret the weather and climate information [see Case study 19].

Decision-makers, including communities, governments and businesses, need to understand the uncertainties inherent in climate projections. There is an ethical responsibility to produce robust information that is transparent about its limitations (S154)

Co-production focuses on process as well as content. There is a difference between a user-informed design and real co-production which involves a relationship of trust and participation. A knowledge co-creation framework to enhance coherence and effectiveness of knowledge co-creation initiatives is of the utmost importance. Effective governance structures that can enable multi-sector and multi-disciplinary working groups to co-create knowledge are required (S317). Additional funding may be required to build structures and relationships to enable the co-creation and provision of CIS. Co-production involves high levels of engagement and extensive deliberations, as getting people ‘on the same page’ takes time (S317). Transdisciplinary approaches are essential in the design of climate sciences and should include experts from the natural and social sciences,

affected communities and other stakeholders (S319) [see Case study 20].

Recommendations for enhanced co-production for climate information services include the following. � Taking a blended learning approach where

people can access information about climate change and then also engage with experts around further learning and understanding.

Case study 19: Participatory scenario planning for

creating useful and useable weather and climate information, Malawi For weather and climate information to be useful and usable at the grass-roots level, it needs to be effectively interpreted and communicated. Malawi has been experiencing significant impacts of extreme events such as droughts because weather and climate information has not been effectively shared with users such as farmers. Participatory scenario planning (PSP) enables producers and users to collectively share and interpret the weather and climate information, with the aim of adapting to climate conditions. PSP is implemented as soon as a seasonal climate forecast is available from meteorological services. Findings from Malawi show that PSP creates useful and useable weather information for farmers to make adaptive decisions regarding seasonal activities. PSP is also an efficient and effective method for addressing the current gaps in communication between producers and users at national and local levels. Collective interpretation of weather and climate information allows contextualisation and improves credibility at local level, and there is scope to further investigate integration of indigenous knowledge. PSP has largely been facilitated by NGOs, with the participation of government, because of limited resources within government departments (S124, Dorothy Tembo). https://adaptationfutures2018.capetown/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Abstract-book.pdf (Abstract A337)

37Chapter 9: Climate information services

� Capacity-building workshops to explain where the climate data comes from, how it works, the impacts and the point of decision-making.

� Shape the information around the audience’s local context to make it more accessible to them (S104).

The success of CIS communication depends on the degree of system integration, and local actor embeddedness [see Case study 21]. Farmer-to-farmer knowledge systems have the greatest impact in terms of decision-making compared with research, commercial and formal knowledge systems. An innovative solution for farmers is that of a communication system that brings together community radios and commercial radio channels for climate service communication (S317).

Weather and Climate Information Services for Africa (WISER) has the

aim to continually engage stakeholders to co-produce new knowledge. Using co-produced research, it increases accessibility and enhances responses to climate variabilities, but extra skills are needed for stakeholder engagement – for example, analysis of how people deal with past extreme events and how to prepare for future extreme events, and identifying needs to avoid maladaptation (S318).

Climate Adaptation Services provide an interactive map (including climate

change projections, and photographs or videos capturing local narratives of people describing climate-related events and impacts) for decision-makers to use to plan for the future in their municipality. https://www.climateadaptationservices.com/en/ Case study 20:

Co-creation of urban climate risk narratives: transdisciplinary knowledge production, Future Resilience for African CiTies and Lands (FRACTAL) project Unpacking and interpreting climate data/science is not an objective process and is interpreted subjectively. The research project Future Resilience for African CiTies and Lands (FRACTAL) uses an experimental ‘embedded researcher’ approach to facilitate the co-production of climate information by researchers and city decision-makers. Researchers decided to present climate information as a story, describing the city, the climate impacts and the socio-economic impacts. They integrated different kinds of knowledge, perspectives and values from different disciplines, sectors and communities to develop the narratives. Stakeholders then have a common language with which to communicate, discuss and contest the narratives (S50, Christopher Jack). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1QkOkl5RAjSn7M0zYdJbA0c1KkrTS2_mK

Case study 21: Co-creating climate knowledge and

services to influence decision-making at farm and country levels, Southern Africa Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL) is the regional driver for innovation and knowledge exchange to enhance adaptation and land use and sustainable economic development in a highly vulnerable region of Southern Africa. SASSCAL could be used to cover a wider area across Africa and could become an integral planning tool for adaptation in Africa, bridging the information gap. SASSCAL uses factsheets, newsletter, information, policy briefs and books. With translation of these into African languages it will be an even more effective adaptation communication tool (S317, Jörg Helmschrot and Jane Olwoch). https://drive.google.com/drive/u/2/folders/ 1JuHx6F1f5sHQ_Pd0uGSGXd_tGctXbPLy

38 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Chapter 10: Co-design and co-production

There is an urgent need for the co-design and co-production of research in climate change because of a legacy of failed projects (S311)

The varied communities within Africa are a huge resource to tap into and involve in the development and implementation of climate responses. Bottom-up approaches have legitimacy and gain acceptance at a local level and create opportunities for social learning in the process. Knowledge production and research must aim to integrate scientific and indigenous information.

There is a critical need to effectively engage with stakeholders in the design and planning of climate change adaptation interventions. Co-design and collaboration has the potential to significantly improve climate change practice in Africa.

Community-level capacity development

People do not understand a one degree change in temperature. Therefore, the best strategy is to create scenarios, use their own language and engage them in how they explain and quantify risk in their daily discourses (S148)

It is important to involve people living in the system to think creatively about the potential future of the system. Scenario planning can help people to visualise the future and the changes they need to make (S124).

It is vital to undertake extensive groundwork and build relations among the various stakeholders, especially the target groups, prior to the design of interventions. These processes should include identifying key issues and needs related to potential adaptation solutions. For effective community-level engagement, people need to be more educated about climate change causes

and responses. Climate change education should be integrated into the curriculum at all levels. Academic and research institutions should take a leading role to increase the capacity of teachers to teach climate change mitigation and adaptation effectively (S354). Adaptation tends to be regarded as a technical process, hence there is a need to demystify it. The dialogue between researchers and users must be improved. Researchers should be flexible and innovative, and package research findings in a way that is best understood by communities. This will increase community involvement and uptake (S354).

Co-design brings about effective participation and capacity development of communities, government and business in adaptation practice. When establishing cooperation, long-term implications should be considered. It is important to avoid doing damage to relationships and avoid stakeholder fatigue and exclusion. Whenever a toolkit/guideline is developed, the affected sector must be involved from the beginning to build capacity. In mostly inactive or unaware areas, start with the top-down approach to create awareness and inform people. Improve the policy narrative by asking the stakeholders what they want; then try to deliver it. There is a need for continuous relationship between scientists, decision-makers and stakeholders to identify and develop solutions that are socially acceptable (S322).

Harnessing local and traditional knowledgeScientific and traditional systems need to be woven together as there are gaps in both systems and the gaps need to be answered within the same system. For example, much food production in Africa is from smallholdings and many of them share heritage seed. In the past, this could feed a family, but much of the land has become degraded and, with increasing population, the plot size is too small. This can result in negative attitudes towards traditional

39Chapter 10: Co-design and co-production

knowledge: ‘Traditional seeds are poor yield’; ‘Traditional ways are backward methods of farming’.

Scientists should recognise local communities as experts – their knowledge has been ‘peer reviewed’ through many generations. The community sees the problem and the scientist can explain why the soil is degraded and suggest remedies. Communities are very good at solving problems, but science can help them to trial different approaches. Communities in Africa should be involved in co-designing research questions (S174).

Idea for community meetings: start meetings with a relevant picture, and talk about it, and build from there (as opposed to a slide with lots of text). Community-level insights can be powerful in shaping adaptation interventions (S104).

Engaging faith-based communitiesSpiritual and cultural organisations have a role to play in solving environmental problems in Africa. Churches and other faith-based organisations have a large footprint in Africa, including in remote areas, and are often highly regarded in their communities – such institutions can be used effectively to promote sustainable environment and resource use. Faith-based organisations are generally acceptable in

society, have audiences (often on a weekly basis) and can have a positive role in facilitating positive behaviour change.

However, some churches view environmentalism as a secular issue. To this end, there is a need to reach out to these leaders to convince them of the importance of the environment and value of sustainable practices. Capacity-building programmes should be put in place by faith organisations to develop, empower and encourage people to actively participate in issues relating to climate change (S6).

Building trust within co-production processes

There is a need to ... reflect on our own value systems and how they connect, or don’t, with the communities we’re working with (S54)

It can be difficult to engage different stakeholders within a single process and have everyone on the same page. Yet this is essential, as different expectations only emerge through the engagement process (S54). Stakeholders may have conflicting agendas. Often there are hidden reasons behind resistance to change or non-cooperation that need to be uncovered. Sometimes there is a mismatch between the funding objectives and what is actually needed (S311).

Photo © FRACTAL

40 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

It is important that adaptation processes are not conceptualised as one-off interventions, but rather as part of an ongoing engagement, which is more likely to succeed (S104). Being explicit about the process is important: the length of time it really takes to see change versus how long projects run for are often two different things (S54). It is important to be clear from the beginning about what a project can and cannot control (S36). Explore what people value, what they identify as the issues, and what success would be like for the people involved. Narratives can be an important part of explaining concepts, as opposed to presentation slides with lots of text (S104).

It may also be more important to spend more on a good facilitator than on hi-tech tools. A good facilitator will help to clarify concepts and avoid mistranslations. For example, a miscommunication of the word ‘monitoring’ in ‘monitoring and evaluation’ led to some communities interpreting monitoring as being intrusive and meddling in other people’s business (S114). Collaboration and buy-in can be fostered by using participatory learning and tools. A range of participatory tools is available – selecting the most applicable is crucial.

Large transdisciplinary projects

Large transdisciplinary projects depend on familiarity and trust to achieve collaboration between members of the project team. It may be difficult to build trust with partners from different institutional cultures or different disciplines. This needs to be considered and facilitated at the start of any project, before problems arise (S139). Face-to-face meetings may be expensive but are far more effective for creating joint engagement within a project team than online meetings. However, the transaction cost is high – it is expensive to travel and get everyone physically together. Ideally, familiarity and trust should be in place before the initiation of a grant project to ensure that the project goals are agreed by all the partners [see Case study 22].

Participatory Adaptation Handbook. A comprehensive tool that will

support practical adaptation interventions for practitioners who are engaged in supporting members of communities affected by rapid environmental or other forms of disruptive change. This book provides useful insights and practical approaches and tools that can be used to enable communities to adapt more effectively. http://www.adaptationnetwork.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Participatory-Adaptation-Handbook.pdf

Roleplaying for effective communication between diverse

stakeholders. Engage an experienced facilitator to use roleplay methodology to learn conflict resolution and solution finding between diverse stakeholders. Participants take on the roles of different stakeholders (e.g. academia, small business, community member, government, big business). Participants are invited to step outside their usual role and see things from another perspective. Fun but informative; breaks down barriers. It is possible to talk about the ‘elephant in the room’ amicably. It opens spaces and brings honesty to conversations, building trust (S17 and S143, Daniel Morchain). https://drive.google.com/drive/u/2/folders/ 1d3OKtKkaXf89mnSKLXcTQHYtE8OfuwIl

Case study 22: Research into Use: Collaborative

Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA) project Several presentations describe the process and impact of embedding different research-into-use approaches, through the experiences of four international collaborative adaptation research consortia in Asia and Africa. Different approaches in various contexts – challenges and lessons, as well as the transferability and scalability of the approaches (S195, multiple). https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ 1LT3_Z1fGv-Rip4NLm7wOKQeAk_vebAGx

41Chapter 11: Decision-making for climate-resilient development pathways

Chapter 11: Decision-making for climate-resilient development pathways

Rather than focusing on the poorest and most vulnerable, consider assisting the groups that will most likely leverage change from the assistance (S59)

It is vital that African countries plan for and implement development pathways that will create processes, social resilience and economic infrastructure that will be able to withstand the anticipated impacts of a warmer climate and more extreme climatic events. These climate-resilient pathways should ensure that developmental processes will not contribute to further global warming by reliance on non-renewable forms of energy or excessive consumption. Manufacturing and mining industries must off-set their impacts on the atmosphere and the land. Agriculture and forestry must sequester more greenhouse gases than they release into the atmosphere.

Climate-resilient pathway: A climate-resilient pathway for development is a

continuing process for managing changes in the climate and other driving forces affecting development, combining flexibility, innovativeness and participative problem-solving with effectiveness in mitigating and adapting to climate change.5

Decision-making for adaptation at local, national and regional levels is complex and implementing adaptation plans is costly. In addition, there is a high level of uncertainty and risk regarding adaptation decisions, how these interact with development goals, and how to measure success. Adaptation choices can be contentious and it is difficult to satisfy all stakeholders. The following tools can assist with sound decision-making:

5 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Working Group II, Chapter 20. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap20_FINAL.pdf

� Adaptation pathways � Adaptation metrics � Improving gender equity � Learning from adaptation processes.

Adaptation pathways

A single-minded focus on climate resilience might be incorrect. Rather focus on appropriate development (S314)

Mainstream approaches to adaptation are often overly simplistic and can lead to mal-adaptation when research results or practices are wrongly framed. Adaptation requires flexibility; a linear approach may not work. Reflection and refocusing of projects must be built into the processes. Time must be taken to consider whether the project will build resilience (S314).

A pathways approach provides a useful tool for a decision-focused approach for adaptation to climate change. Adaptation pathways sequence measures over time and allow for progressive implementation depending on how the future unfolds. Adaptation pathways account for future uncertainties, map different stakeholder perspectives, help to identify ‘low regret’ interventions, and avoid lock-in and mal-adaptation, to map different stakeholder perspectives and help to build capacity for long-term planning (S200) [see Case study 23].

Case study 23: Adaptation pathways

How are adaptation pathways being used in developing country contexts? The examples explore the utility of approaches to adaptation pathways applied in different contexts, at different scales, and with different target audiences (S200, ASSAR and Saskia Werners). https://drive.google.com/drive/u/2/folders/ 1T9UPL0etnd685CSt7nuy03zwhacbbjVf

42 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

Adaptation metrics

The overall picture of how much progress a country has made on adaptation is often missing (S310)

Monitoring and evaluation (M&E): M&E ‘is a process that helps improve

performance and achieve results. Its goal is to improve current and future management of outputs, outcomes and impact. It is mainly used to assess the performance of projects, institutions and program[me]s set up by governments, international organisations and NGOs. It establishes links between the past, present and future actions.’6 M&E aims to enhance the transparency, progress and effectiveness of adaptation projects.

There is a lack of clarity around what constitutes successful adaptation and how to measure it. Success is dependent on perspective – researchers, donors and communities may have different agendas. Methodologies for determining success are not yet clear and may be perpetually ambiguous. An understanding of linkages and cascading effects is crucial to fully understand long-term success. Defining adaptation success is difficult to measure because the indicators are very specific to each particular project, context, discipline, sector, etc. (S54).

6 Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moni-toring_and_evaluation&oldid=868879276

However, there are certain essential elements of adaptation success. � Community needs should be identified

first before conceptualising an adaptation programme (S59). Projects should be community driven – often the community is approached with the ready-made package and the community has to fit in, whether their needs are met or not (S306).

� Adaptation success is not a one-off but an iterative, ongoing process (S54). The programme should be reviewed and modified on a continuous assessment basis to be responsive (S59).

� Transformative adaptation success includes greater socio-economic equity within the community and long-term enhanced climate resilience.

Being able to define, measure and track climate adaptation success is an imperative for states, local government, donors, implementers and researchers (S54).

M&E for adaptation aims to enhance the transparency, checking progress and the effectiveness of the adaptation actions. But there are methodological challenges: lack of consistency, no agreed methods, metrics or frameworks. It is important to set up a baseline, develop indicators of success and assess progress. Data must be aggregated, collectable, coherent and transparent, and globally comparable (S237).

Photo © ASSAR

43Chapter 11: Decision-making for climate-resilient development pathways

Resilience metrics are complex. Metrics can incentivise short-term results instead of long-term changes, if the wrong indicator is used. Resilience indicators need to be clarified to consider all potential impacts. Quantification is not always a good measure for deliverables such as good governance and quality of a service. A process-based approach, incorporating a theory of change, may be better. Resilience rating systems should include rating the M&E of projects (S21).

There is often a mismatch between what metrics are expected to do and what they can actually deliver. They do not explain why or how things have changed, only that things have changed. Indices alone are not sufficient to guide resource allocation. Questions include whether metrics are comparable, accountable, certifiable. There is no set of indicators that can simultaneously fulfil all M&E purposes – and what works for developing countries may not work for developed countries. Measuring only what is being done or how much is being spent may lead to misleading conclusions on progress. Simple quantitative numbers cannot account for important shifts about progress made. Indicators are only one part of measuring and evaluating effectiveness. Indicators should be tailored to specific contexts (S310).

Useful information: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is currently drafting several standards related to climate change adaptation. One size does not fit all, but the standard can describe a common ground and best available technique despite the local characteristic of adaptation (S159).

Innovation: Consider using social media for M&E of community-based adaptation projects (S108).

Improving gender equity

Gender issues need to be tackled vigorously since they play a major role in ensuring harmony at the home level and beyond. A better world could not be had with women at the marginal boundaries of adaptation decision-making (S7)

Climate change affects both men and women; however, some cultural traditions reduce

women’s participation in adaptation decision-making (S342). Women often lack bargaining power, land rights and control in decision-making, even where there are laws on gender equality. Often, communities choose to stick to their traditional practices rather than adhere to formal regulations and legislation, particularly where new legislation is contrary to tradition. Therefore, it is essential to make an extra effort to have all the right people in the room (S303).

Learning from adaptation processes

We often learn more from sharing failures than from sharing successes (S36)

Learning is key in adaptation processes. Learning informs the ongoing, evolving planning of a project. We need to open the space for learning by sharing successes and failures. This requires a change in mindset about acknowledging failure. These approaches need considerable resources but are worth additional investment. It is worth investing effort in explaining to funding agencies that social learning is essential during the implementation of a project (S164).

Tools for measuring learning in participatory planning: Knowledge,

attitude and practices (KAP) survey. A KAP survey is a quantitative method (predefined questions formatted in standardised questionnaires) that provides access to quantitative and qualitative information. KAP surveys reveal misconceptions or misunderstandings that may represent obstacles to the activities that we would like to implement and potential barriers to behaviour change. Note that a KAP survey essentially records an ‘opinion’ and is based on the ‘declarative’ (i.e. statements). In other words, the KAP survey reveals what was said, but there may be considerable gaps between what is said and what is done. https://www.spring-nutrition.org/publications/tool-summaries/kap-survey-model-knowledge-attitudes-and-practices

44 Adaptation Futures 2018 Insights from Africa

List of Rapporteurs

Ababale Mahamane Sanoussi

Abraham David Khakhane

Agwu Ekwe Agwu

Ahmed Khan

Alex Johnson

Alinah Mthembu

Ancois de Villiers

Andy Nyamekye

Beverly Mushili

Bob Manteaw

Bono Nemukula

Celina Xavier de Mendonça

Charlotte Kabaseke

Christo Marais

Constansia Musvoto

Cristina Paulino

Cryton Zazu

Deborah Muricho

Donald Chungu

Dudu Sibiya

Fairuz Gassiep

Faith Nkohla

Farai Hove

Francois Engelbrecht

Frederick Dapilah

Genito Maure

George Kordzakhia

Hugo Retief

Ignatius Madu

Irene Karani

Issah Justice Musah Surugu

Jack Dyer

Jan Hugo

Jane Olwoch

Janet Selato

Joachim Bonkoungou

John Kaganga

John Nzira

Kasongo Benjamin Malunda

Kouassigan Tovivo

Krishna Denver Naidoo

Kwasi Appeaning Addo

Lenice Ojwang

Leocadia Zhou

Leopold Buhendwa

Lerato Mphahlele

Lisa Ranahan Andon

Lorraine Dimairho

Louise Vaughan

Lucy Njuguna

Luis Manuel Alves

Lyndon Mardon

Magezi Mhlanga

Maria Soledad Moreiras

Mariana Xavier Nicolletti

Meryl Jagarnath

Michael Braack

Michael Bankole

Mikateko Sithole

Mike Jennings

Mohammed Yacoubi Khebiza

Mzukisi Gwata

Neema Kitasho

Nicola Hyde

Noah Chongo

Nongcebo Hlongwa

Ntando Mkhize

Ntokozo Ngubo

Obed Ogega

Olawale Olaniyan

Olawale Julius Aluko

Olipa Zulu

Omagano Shooya

Peter Boluwaji Oyedele

Kwasi Appeaning Addo

Rachel Mash

Ratunku Gabriel Lekalakala

Raymond Mugandani

Rebecca Ilunga

Repaul Kanji

Rex Gerchie

Ruan de Wet

Saadatu Baba

Salma Hegga

Sandra Bhatasara

Sarah Polonsky

Segun Michael

Séka Régis Fidèle Anon

Shem Wandina

Sibonelo Mbanjwa

Sinethemba Peter

Sonwabo Mazinyo

Stanley Jawuoro

Stephen Yeboah

Tahany Selit

Tara van Ryneveld

Tefera Belay Endalamaw

Thabang Phago

Thandizo Malaidza

Thanduxolo Mtshizana

Tharina Boshoff

Thizwilondi Rambau

Thomas Mbeyela

Trevor Mphahlele

Tshifhiwa Munyai

Valeria Petrone Mendoza

Varaidzo Chinokwetu

Vhalinavho Khavhagali

Victor Abegunde

Vikhaya Nongcula

Wagayehu Bekele

Yogeshwari Pooja Rago

Photographs:

Copy-editing, graphic design, layout and proofreading: Green Ink (www.greenink.co.uk)

Contact: Leslie.Ashburner@uct.ac.za