acute sinusitis and rhino sinusitis in adults

8/3/2019 Acute Sinusitis and Rhino Sinusitis in Adults

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Acute sinusitis and rhinosinusitis in adultsAuthors

Peter H Hwang, MDAnne Getz, MDSection Editors

Daniel G Deschler, MD, FACS

Stephen B Calderwood, MDDeputy Editor

H Nancy Sokol, MD

Disclosures

Last literature review version 19.3: September 2011 | This topic lastupdated: November 4, 2011(More)

INTRODUCTION Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) is defined as symptomatic

inflammation of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses lasting less than four weeks.

The term "rhinosinusitis" is preferred to "sinusitis" since inflammation of the sinuses

rarely occurs without concurrent inflammation of the nasal mucosa [1].

Classification of rhinosinusitis is based on symptom duration.

Acute rhinosinusitis symptoms for less than four weeks

Subacute rhinosinusitis symptoms for 4 to 12 weeks

Chronic rhinosinusitis persists greater than 12 weeks (figure 1)

Recurrent acute rhinosinusitis four or more episodes of ARS per year, with

interim symptom resolution [2]

Acute rhinosinusitis is further specified as acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) or

acute viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS).

The most common etiology of ARS is a viral infection associated with the common

cold. Viral rhinosinusitis is complicated by acute bacterial infection in only 0.5 to 2.0percent of episodes [3]. Uncomplicated AVRS typically resolves in 7 to 10 days.

ABRS also is most commonly a self-limited disease, with 75 percent of cases

resolving without treatment in one month. Rarely, patients with untreated bacterial

disease may develop serious complications. (See "Orbital cellulitis".)

Distinguishing AVRS of colds and influenza-like illnesses from bacterial infection is a

frequent challenge to the primary care clinician. Antibiotics may be indicated for

ABRS, but are ineffective and not recommended for AVRS. Despite the overwhelming

prevalence of a viral etiology, however, 92 percent of patients in the United Kingdom

[4] and 85 to 98 percent of patients in the United States (US) [5] are prescribed an

antibiotic when seen for an upper respiratory or sinus infection.

This topic will address the diagnosis and treatment of acute rhinosinusitis. Chronic

rhinosinusitis is discussed separately. (See "Clinical manifestations, pathophysiology,

and diagnosis of chronic rhinosinusitis" and "Medical management of chronic

rhinosinusitis".) Diagnosis and management of the common cold is also discussed

separately. (See "The common cold in adults: Diagnosis and clinical

features" and "The common cold in adults: Treatment and prevention".)
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EPIDEMIOLOGY Sinusitis affects more than 30 million adults in the United States

annually [2].

Direct costs of sinusitis in the US, resulting from medications, outpatient and

emergency room visits, and ancillary tests and procedures, are estimated at $3

billion per year [2,6]. The socioeconomic impact is further magnified by indirect costs

from decreased productivity, days lost from work, and impaired quality of life.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY The vast majority of cases of acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) are

due to viral infection. As noted above, acute bacterial infection occurs in only 0.5 to

2.0 percent of episodes. The most common viruses, determined by maxillary sinus

puncture and aspiration, are rhinovirus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza virus [7].

Acute viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS) begins with viral inoculation via direct contact with

conjunctiva or nasal mucosa. Viral replication in a nonimmune individual leads to

detectable viral levels in nasal secretions within 8 to 10 hours. Symptoms, if they

develop, usually present in the first day after inoculation.

Viral rhinitis spreads to the paranasal sinuses by systemic or direct routes. Nose

blowing may be an important mechanism; positive intranasal pressures generated

during nose blowing may propel contaminated fluid from the nasal cavity into the

paranasal sinuses [8]. Inflammation follows, resulting in sinonasal hypersecretion

and increased vascular permeability, followed by transudation of fluid into the nasal

cavity and sinuses. Viruses also can exert a direct toxic effect on nasal cilia,

impairing mucociliary clearance. A combination of mucosal edema, copious thickened

secretions, and ciliary dyskinesia results in sinus obstruction and perpetuates the

disease process [9].

Community-acquired acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) occurs when bacteria

secondarily infect the inflamed sinus cavity. Though usually occurring as a

complication of viral infection, other predisposing conditions associated with acutebacterial sinusitis include allergy, mechanical obstruction of the nose, swimming,

odontogenic infection, intranasal cocaine use, impaired mucociliary clearance (eg,

cystic fibrosis, cilial dysfunction), immunodeficiency, and other factors that impair

sinus drainage [10].

Normal respiratory flora in adults typically includes coagulase-negative

Staphylococci, Corynebacterium, and Staphylococcus aureus. The most common

bacteria associated with ABRS are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus

influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis, with the first two comprising approximately 75

percent of cases of ABRS (table 1). When ABRS is due to extension of dental root

infection into the sinus cavity, microaerophilic and anaerobic bacteria may be

identified.

Community-acquired ABRS is typically caused by a single pathogen in high

concentration (>100 colony-forming units [CFU]/mL), although two distinct

pathogens in high concentrations are isolated in approximately 25 percent of patients

[11].

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS Symptoms of acute rhinosinusitis include nasal

congestion and obstruction, purulent nasal discharge, maxillary tooth discomfort,
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and facial pain or pressure that is worse when bending forward [12-14]. Other signs

and symptoms include fever, fatigue, cough, hyposmia or anosmia, ear pressure or

fullness, headache, and halitosis.

Indications for urgent referral Patients with high fever, acute facial pain,

swelling, and erythema should be treated for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, even if

symptoms have not been present for seven days. Patients with high fevers andsevere headache warrant immediate evaluation and probable imaging.

The finding of any of the following should lead to urgent referral to a specialist for

the possibility of complications of sinusitis, including intracranial and orbital

extension [15]:

Abnormal vision (diplopia, blindness)

Change in mental status

Periorbital edema

DIAGNOSIS Analysis of the predictive value of multiple signs and symptoms has

identified the following as most highly predictive of acute sinusitis, whether viral or

bacterial [2]:

Purulent rhinorrhea

Nasal congestion and/or facial pain/pressure

The diagnosis is further supported by the presence of secondary symptoms, including

anosmia, ear fullness, cough, and headache.

Clinical presentation is unfortunately of limited accuracy in distinguishing pure viral

rhinosinusitis from secondary bacterial infection [16]. Several clinical criteria have

been suggested to distinguish bacterial and viral infection, based on studies withmethodological flaws including lack of gold standards for establishing diagnosis and

response and heterogeneous patient selection criteria [5,12,17,18]. Berg and

Carenfelt criteria for bacterial sinus infection are based on symptom correlation with

bacterial cultures from antral puncture [19]; these criteria, however, may not be

applicable to a primary care population.

Symptom duration and progression The diagnosis of viral rhinosinusitis is

based primarily upon history of the quality, duration, and progression of symptoms.

Partial or complete resolution of symptoms within seven to 10 days following the

onset of an upper respiratory tract infection is indicative of acute viral rhinosinusitis

(AVRS) [2,19-23]. In comparison, the probability of identifying a bacterial infection

by sinus aspiration is about 60 percent for patients with symptoms persisting beyond10 days [24].

A panel organized by the Centers for Disease Control, including representatives of

the American Academy of Family Physicians, American College of Physicians,

American Society of Internal Medicine, and the Infectious Diseases Society of

America, identified the following symptoms as suggestive of acute bacterial

rhinosinusitis (ABRS) [5,25,26]:
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Rhinosinusitis symptoms lasting seven or more days and any of the following:

Purulent nasal discharge, or

Maxillary tooth or facial pain, especially unilateral, or

Unilateral maxillary sinus tenderness, or

Worsening symptoms after initial improvement

Worsening of rhinosinusitis symptoms after an initial improvement (double

worsening) is particularly suggestive of ABRS [2,23].

Physical examination Physical examination should encompass the usual

evaluation for respiratory infections, including assessment of vital signs, eyes, ears,

pharynx, teeth or sinus tenderness, lymph nodes, and chest. While direct

visualization of the sinuses is not possible, a handheld otoscope or nasal speculum

can be used to perform anterior rhinoscopy.

Notable exam findings may include diffuse mucosal edema, narrowing of the middle

meatus, inferior turbinate hypertrophy, and copious rhinorrhea or purulent

discharge. Polyps or septal deviation may be noted incidentally and may indicate

pre-existing anatomic risk factors for the development of ABRS. Pain localized to the

sinuses when the patient is asked to bend forward may be more reliable than pain

provoked by direct percussion in the diagnosis of rhinosinusitis [27].

Transillumination of the sinuses has limited value as a diagnostic technique [28]. It is

of potential use only for examining the maxillary and frontal sinuses and does not

distinguish viral from bacterial acute rhinosinusitis.

Microbiologic culture Viral culture of nasal secretions is impractical and

unnecessary, given the self-limited nature of AVRS.

Bacterial culture of material from blind swabs of the nasal cavity or from purulentnasal secretions is not recommended, as results are not reliable. Therefore, patients

who require antibiotic therapy will generally be treated empirically in the primary

care setting, with antibiotic choice based on likely pathogen and susceptibility.

(See 'Treatment' below.)

Endoscopic cultures can be performed with minimal morbidity in the

otolaryngologist's office (figure 2) and are better tolerated than classic antral

puncture with a large bore trocar or needle passed through the canine fossa or

inferior meatus [29-31]. Endoscopically-guided middle meatal cultures correlated

with cultures performed during maxillary antrostomy in 86 percent of patients in one

study [32] and with maxillary punctures in 90 percent in a small prospective series

[33].

Endoscopic or sinus aspirate culture, while not indicated in routine medical practice,

should be considered if there is a suspicion of intracranial extension of the infection

or other serious complications. Culture may also be helpful in patients where atypical

pathogens may be suspected, including patients with nosocomial sinusitis,

immunocompromise, cystic fibrosis, or recent hospitalization. Cultures are also

indicated in patients with documented sinusitis who are not responding to empiric

antibiotic therapy.
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Radiologic tests Radiography is generally not indicated in the initial evaluation of

acute rhinosinusitis (ARS). Plain sinus films and sinus CT may show sinus fluid levels

in patients with both AVRS and ABRS and cannot distinguish between viral and

bacterial etiologies. Common findings of sinusitis on CT include air-fluid levels,

mucosal edema, and air bubbles within the sinuses (figure 3).

Some form of mucosal abnormality on CT scan may be observed in as many as 42percent of asymptomatic healthy individuals [34,35]. In one study of 31 patients

with self-diagnosed "colds" confirmed by viral culture, mucosal thickening, or air-

fluid levels of the maxillary sinuses were found on CT scan within two to three days

of symptom onset in 87 percent [36]. CT abnormalities were also documented in

ethmoid, frontal, and sphenoid sinuses (65, 32, and 39 percent, respectively).

Resolution of radiographic abnormalities occurred by two weeks, and no subject

received antibiotic therapy.

While not helpful in differentiating between viral and bacterial etiology, CT imaging is

useful in refuting sinusitis as a diagnosis. Diagnoses such as allergy or non-allergic

rhinitis, or atypical facial pain, might be considered in the absence of radiologic

evidence of sinonasal mucosal edema or an air-fluid level. It is reasonable to

consider CT imaging in patients with persistent symptoms in whom rhinosinusitis is

not clearly suspected and one hopes to avoid a trial of empiric antibiotics.

Imaging studies are indicated in patients with clinical signs or symptoms of

complicated ABRS including diminished visual acuity, diplopia, periorbital edema,

severe headache, or altered mental status. Imaging may also be helpful in recurrent

or treatment-resistant sinusitis to help delineate anatomic blockage of the

osteomeatal complex [37].

Noncontrast CT scan is generally acknowledged to be the imaging procedure of

choice for the sinus. CT is preferable to plain films for its ability to discern bony and

soft tissue detail. Additionally, the sensitivity and specificity of plain sinusradiography is poor for detecting mucosal thickening of the paranasal sinuses (76

and 79 percent, respectively) [38,39]. The high false-negative rate is attributable to

poor visualization of the ethmoid sinuses in plain films and the high false-positive

rate to artifact and the inability to distinguish polyps and nasal masses from fluid or

mucosal edema.

MRI is not indicated for routine evaluation of ABRS. It provides complementary soft

tissue detail and is used in conjunction with CT for the evaluation of complications of

acute rhinosinusitis, when extra sinus involvement is suspected.

Ultrasonography is of limited use in the diagnosis of ABRS, due to its high operator

variability and inferior accuracy relative to other modalities [40,41].

TREATMENT Treatment of viral rhinosinusitis aims to relieve symptoms of nasal

obstruction and rhinorrhea; treatment does not shorten the clinical course of the

disease. Treatment of acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) may include antibiotics to

eliminate the infection and prevent complications, although 40 to 60 percent of

patients with ABRS will clear their infection spontaneously [42].
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It is generally not possible to distinguish acute viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS) from ABRS

in the first 10 days of illness based on history, examination, or radiologic study.

Since AVRS is expected to resolve within 10 days, and ABRS may also resolve

spontaneously within the first 10 days, patients who present with fewer than 10 days

of symptoms in general should be managed with supportive care [43]. Exceptions

would be patients who experience clinical worsening after initial improvement("double sickening"), patients with severe symptoms and clearly worsening clinical

course, and immunocompromised patients.

Acute viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS) AVRS is a self-limited process. Treatment is

supportive, aimed at symptom relief.

Analgesics such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories and acetaminophen are

recommended for pain relief.

Mechanical irrigation with buffered, hypertonic saline may reduce the need for

pain medication and improve overall patient comfort, particularly in patients

with frequent sinus infections (table 2) [2,44]. In another study, however,

hypertonic saline spray administered three times daily was not superior tonormal saline spray or no spray in improving the nasal symptom scores or

day of resolution in patients with acute rhinosinusitis [45].

Topical glucocorticoids (corticosteroids) have been shown to be beneficial as

monotherapy for AVRS [46]. A randomized trial ofmometasone furoate 200

mg twice daily was superior to placebo and toamoxicillin in 981 subjects

without acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS), with symptom relief reported

following two to three days of use.

Topical decongestants, such as oxymetazoline, have been shown to

significantly reduce edema but should be used sparingly (no more than three

consecutive days) to avoid rebound congestion [47]. When compared to

systemic decongestants, topical therapy appears to be as effective, if not

more effective, and has the advantage of fewer side effects [2,48].

Oral decongestants are frequently used to reduce edema and facilitate

aeration and drainage. Consistent reports on their efficacy are lacking,

however. Some [49,50], but not all [51], studies have demonstrated

improved patency of the nasal airway and sinus ostia. One randomized trial

compared several decongestants (ephedrine sulfate 25

mg, pseudoephedrine HCL 60 mg,phenylephrine HCL 10 mg, and

phenylpropanolamine HCL 25 mg) with placebo; only ephedrine was superior

to placebo in this trial [52]. When eustachian tube dysfunction is a significant

confounding factor, a short course (3 to 5 days) of oral decongestants may be

warranted. Oral decongestants should be used with caution in patients with

cardiovascular disease, hypertension, or benign prostate hypertrophy due tosystemic adverse effects with oral alpha adrenergic preparations [53].

Rhinorrhea associated with the common cold and allergic rhinitis results from

parasympathetic stimulation of the submucous gland of the paranasal

mucosa. Topical ipratropium bromide 0.06 percent has been shown to

significantly diminish such rhinorrhea [54].

Antihistamines are frequently prescribed for symptom relief due to their

drying effects; however, there are no studies investigating their efficacy for
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this indication [2]. Additionally, over-drying of the mucosa may lead to

further discomfort. Use in nonatopic patients should thus be limited to avoid

potential side effects at the expense of little potential therapeutic benefit.

Mucolytics such as guaifenesin serve to thin secretions and may promote ease

of mucus drainage and clearance. However, no published trials exist to

definitively support their use [2]. Zinc preparations including lozenges, nasal sprays, and nasal gels have been

used to hasten recovery in the common cold [55,56]. However, these

preparations may cause anosmia, and their use is not recommended. The US

Food and Drug Administration issued a public health advisory in June 2009

advising that three over-the-counter cold remedy products containing zinc

(Zicam) should not be used because of multiple reports of permanent

anosmia [57]. (See "The common cold in adults: Treatment and prevention",

section on 'Zinc'.)

Community-acquired acute bacterial rhinosinusitis For patients who present

with 10 or more days of symptoms (purulent rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, and facial

pressure), the likelihood of a diagnosis of ABRS increases. There are two acceptable

treatment options for patients with mild symptoms for 10 or more days: observation

or empiric antibiotic therapy.

Observation Observation is considered a viable option due to a high rate of

spontaneous resolution in community-acquired, uncomplicated rhinosinusitis, as

evidenced by randomized, controlled studies of antimicrobials versus placebo

[58,59].

Watchful waiting with assurance of follow-up has been recommended in 2007

guidelines from a multidisciplinary expert panel for selected patients with symptoms

suggestive of mild ABRS [2]:

Mild pain

Temperature


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A 2008 meta-analysis based on individual patient data (n = 2547) from nine

randomized trials found that 15 patients with rhinosinusitis would need to be

treated with antibiotics before one additional patient would be cured [16].

Clinical signs and symptoms did not define a patient subgroup that was more

likely to benefit from treatment or distinguish viral from bacterial infection.

Another 2008 meta-analysis pooled results from 17 randomized trials in whichacute sinusitis was variably diagnosed (the majority by clinical criteria, but

also imaging, microbiology, and inflammatory markers) [60]. There was

variability in choice of antibiotic, use of ancillary therapy, and inclusion of

children (three studies). Compared to placebo, antibiotics were associated

with a higher rate of cure or symptom improvement at 7 to 15 days (OR 1.64,

95% CI 1.35-2.0), but the magnitude of effect was moderate (cure or

improvement in 77 percent with antibiotics versus 68 percent with placebo).

The 9 percent difference in cure/improvement rate with antibiotic therapy was

at the expense of an 8 percent increase in adverse effects, mostly

gastrointestinal (30 percent versus 22 percent for placebo-treated patients).

A meta-analysis that analyzed data from five trials comparing antibiotics to

placebo, defining failure as lack of cure or improvement at 7 to 15 daysfollow-up, found an increased response rate for antibiotics (RR 0.66, 95% CI

0.44-0.98) [61]. 80 percent of the participants not treated with antibiotics,

and 90 percent of the antibiotic group, improved within two weeks. No one

antibiotic was superior to another in the review of 51 studies comparing

antibiotics.

When antibiotics are administered, treatment is most often initiated empirically. An

antimicrobial with the narrowest spectrum against the most probable pathogen(s) is

advised to minimize the risk of promoting drug resistance. Although culture-guided

therapy is optimal, obtaining suitable cultures requires endoscopy or antral puncture

and is generally reserved for patients with complications. (See 'Microbiologicculture' above.)

Four meta-analyses have concluded that newer and broad spectrum antibiotics are

not significantly more effective than narrow spectrum antibiotics in patients with

acute bacterial sinusitis [61-64]. A retrospective cohort study of 29,102 adults found

nearly identical results with amoxicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole,

or erythromycin compared with broader spectrum antibiotics [65]. We prefer a 10 to

14 day course of amoxicillin (500 mg three times a day) for its narrow spectrum,

relatively low cost, and low side-effect profile.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, doxycycline, and macrolides are cost-effective

acceptable alternative first-line therapies in penicillin allergic patients [2]. Macrolidespossess anti-inflammatory properties that may add additional therapeutic benefit.

Local and regional histograms of bacterial resistance should be referenced to

understand resistance trends in the local community.

Increasing rates of penicillin resistance among S. pneumoniae, mediated by an

alteration in one of the penicillin binding proteins, have led to higher dosing

regimens ofamoxicillin or a change in class of antimicrobial. Resistance rates vary

regionally and range from 15 to 30 percent for intermediate- or highly-resistant
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pneumococci in the US [6,66]. Higher-dose amoxicillin (1 gram four times daily)

could be used to treat intermediate-resistant S. pneumoniae. However, beta-

lactamase producing M. catarrhalis and H. influenzae cannot be overcome by higher

dosing [2] and may require combination therapy with amoxicillin-

clavulanate. Cefpodoxime, cefdinir, cefuroxime, or levofloxacin are also acceptable

choices for alternative coverage [67].Topical glucocorticoids Topical glucocorticoid (corticosteroid) therapy reduces

inflammation and edema in the nasal mucosa and may be beneficial in the setting of

acute inflammation and bacterial infection.

Published reports investigating topical glucocorticoids should be interpreted with

caution, as they often contain both heterogeneous patient populations (acute,

chronic and/or viral rhinosinusitis) and treatment regimens (concomitant

decongestant, saline irrigation, antibiotic). A meta-analysis of three studies,

involving patients with ABRS diagnosed by symptoms and confirmed by radiological

or endoscopic studies, found that use of intranasal steroids, alone or as adjuvant

therapy to antibiotics, increased the rate of symptom response compared to placebo

(RR 1.11, 95% CI 1.04-1.18) [68]. One randomized study of patients with ABRS did

not demonstrate benefit for intranasal glucocorticoids [69]. Subgroup analysis of this

study, however, found that patients with less-severe symptoms did benefit, possibly

because thicker nasal secretions and closed ostia in patients with more severe illness

limit penetrance of the topical steroids [69].

Systemic glucocorticoids Unlike topical glucocorticoids, systemic glucocorticoids

possess a significant side effect profile, including hyperglycemia, hypertension,

increased appetite, mood changes, and insomnia, as well as effects on bone

metabolism and cataract formation with more chronic exposure. There are no

controlled clinical trials of systemic glucocorticoids available in the treatment of ARS

and we suggest not using them in the outpatient treatment of acute rhinosinusitis.Adjunctive therapy Symptomatic relief measures, including analgesics, nasal

saline irrigation, and topical and systemic decongestants, are appropriate for patients

with ABRS and are discussed in the section on acute viral rhinosinusitis. (See 'Acute

viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS)' above.)

Treatment failure Treatment failure is defined as progression of symptoms at

any time during treatment or failure to improve after seven days of therapy. Patients

who fail first-line therapy require alternative antibiotic selection. Ideally, an

endoscopically-guided culture could be performed to redirect antibiotic therapy. If no

material is available on endoscopy for culture, a broader antibiotic choice can be

empirically started and monitored for improvement. Levofloxacin (500 mg every 24

hours) or high-doseamoxicillin-clavulanate (two 1000 mg XR tablets twice daily, dose

based on amoxicillin component) for 10 to 14 days has been recommended [6].

A CT scan of the sinuses may be performed if symptoms worsen or fail to improve,

to verify that symptoms are in fact due to acute sinusitis, and not to concomitant

allergy or other noninfectious etiologies.

Relapse after treatment Recurrence of symptoms within two weeks of response

to initial treatment usually represents inadequate eradication of infection. Patients
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who had a good response to initial therapy and who have mild symptoms of relapse

can be treated with a longer course of the same antibiotic.

Patients who had only minimal symptom response with the initial antibiotic or whose

relapse is moderate to severe, however, are more likely to have organisms resistant

to the initial empiric antibiotic and would require a change in the drug selected.

(See 'Treatment failure' above.)

Surgery There is no indication for surgery in patients with uncomplicated ABRS.

However, surgery may be emergently indicated in patients experiencing extra-sinus

complications of ABRS including periorbital and orbital abscess, epidural abscess,

meningitis, and brain abscess.

Nosocomial bacterial rhinosinusitis Patients with extended stays in the

intensive care unit (ICU), burn victims, and those with prolonged intubation,

particularly nasotracheal, are at increased risk of developing ABRS [70]. Acute

sinusitis affects 1 to 8 percent of patients in the ICU and usually presents as fever of

unknown origin.

Gram-negative organisms including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Enterobacter species, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens and some

gram-positive cocci, in particular S. Aureus, predominate in nosocomial infections

[1,71].

Most patients will respond to conservative therapy with removal of nasal foreign

bodies and treatment with nasal decongestants and culture-directed antibiotic

therapy. If these measures fail, surgery may be indicated [71].

Acute invasive fungal rhinosinusitis Acute, fulminant invasive fungal

rhinosinusitis (IFRS) is a disease of immunosuppressed patients or patients with

poorly controlled diabetes. The rapidly progressive and life-threatening nature of

such an infection makes early diagnosis of paramount importance. If a diagnosis ofIFRS is entertained, immediate consultation of an otolaryngologist is mandated.

Diagnosis is made by endoscopic examination and biopsy. Rhinoscopy may show

either pale, ischemic mucosa or dusky, purplish mucosa with crusting.

Histopathology demonstrates intravascular tissue invasion by fungal organisms. The

most common species are Mucor, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Absidia, and Basidiobolus

[72]. Radiographic studies are ancillary and should not be relied on for treatment

decision making.

Treatment is primarily emergency surgical debridement and, if possible, correction of

the underlying immunologic derangement. Secondary treatment includes systemic

anti-fungal therapy. Despite timely surgical debridement, and appropriate adjuvantmedical treatment, mortality rates remain upwards of 50 percent. (See "Fungal

rhinosinusitis".)

COMPLICATIONS Complications of acute viral rhinosinusitis (AVRS), aside from

acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS), are uncommon. While transient hyposmia is

frequent, permanent anosmia occurs rarely. Viral-induced anosmia is more common

in women and may be associated with a more severe antecedent viral infection

[73,74].
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Complications of ABRS, which now rarely occur, are related to local extension into

the central nervous system (meningitis), orbit of the eye (orbital cellulitis), and

periorbital tissues (osteitis of the sinus bones). (See "Orbital cellulitis".) Acute sinus

infection may also be a precursor of chronic sinus disease, although this relationship

is not well studied. (See "Clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, and diagnosis of

chronic rhinosinusitis".)INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS UpToDate offers two types of patient education

materials, The Basics and Beyond the Basics. The Basics patient education pieces

are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer

the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These

articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short,

easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more

sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade

reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are

comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage

you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient

education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on patient info and the

keyword(s) of interest.)

Basics topics (see "Patient information: Sinusitis in adults (The Basics)")

Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient information: Acute sinusitis (sinus

infection)")

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS), inflammation of the nasal cavity and paranasal

sinuses lasting less than four weeks, is subdivided into acute viralrhinosinusitis (AVRS) and acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS). ABRS occurs

in 0.5 to 2.0 percent of episodes. (See 'Introduction' above

and'Pathophysiology' above.)

The diagnosis of ARS is based on the presence of (1) purulent rhinorrhea and

(2) nasal congestion and/or facial pain. Symptoms do not accurately

distinguish viral from bacterial infection. ABRS is suggested by the presence

of symptoms for seven or more days, especially if symptoms initially improve

and then worsen. Cultures from nasal swabs or secretions are inaccurate.

Radiography is generally not indicated in the initial evaluation of ARS.

(See 'Diagnosis' above.)

AVRS is expected to resolve within 10 days; ABRS may also resolvespontaneously within the first 10 days. Patients who present with fewer than

10 days of symptoms, in the absence of high fever or symptoms suggesting

complicated illness, should be managed with supportive care. We suggest

mild analgesics, systemic or limited-duration topical decongestants, and fluid

(Grade 2C). We suggest treatment with intranasal glucocorticoids (Grade

2B). We suggest not treating symptoms with antihistamines or zinc (Grade
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2B). (See 'Indications for urgent referral' above and 'Acute viral rhinosinusitis

(AVRS)' above.)

We suggest that patients with mild symptoms lasting more than 10 days be

treated with observation and supportive therapy (as above) for an additional

seven days (Grade 2C). (See'Observation' above.)

We suggest treatment with an antibiotic for patients with moderate to severesymptoms of ABRS (T >101, severe pain) or for patients whose symptoms

worsen during observation (Grade 2B). We recommend a narrow spectrum

antibiotic for empiric therapy (Grade 1A). Our preference is

foramoxicillin 500 mg three times a day for 10 to 14 days; trimethoprim-

sulfamethoxazole, doxycycline, and macrolides are alternatives. We suggest

topical glucocorticoids as adjunctive therapy (Grade 2B).

(See 'Antimicrobials' above and 'Topical glucocorticoids' above.)

Nosocomial ABRS is relatively common in patients with prolonged

nasotracheal intubation and often involves gram negative organisms. Nasal

foreign bodies should be removed and patients treated with culture-directed

antibiotic therapy. Immunosuppressed patients are at risk for acute fulminant

invasive fungal rhinosinusitis; treatment involves endoscopic biopsy,emergency surgical debridement, and systemic antifungal therapy.

(See 'Nosocomial bacterial rhinosinusitis' above and 'Acute invasive fungal

rhinosinusitis' above.)

Complications of ABRS occur rarely and include orbital cellulitis, osteitis, and

meningitis. (See'Complications' above.)

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