acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY & CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE IN CHILDREN
BY- DR. SAMEEKSHYA PRADHANGUIDE- ASSOC. PROF. DR. J .R CHAMPATIRAY
![Page 2: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY
![Page 3: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
DEFINITION
Rapid deterioration of renal function resulting in retention of nitrogenous wastes and inability of kidney to regulate fluid and electrolyte homeostasis.
In year 2000 the acute dialysis quality initiative (ADQI) proposed RIFLE criteria for defining AKI .
Later, Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN)
classified AKI based on the RIFLE system.
![Page 4: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
> 3 months
![Page 5: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
INCIDENCE The precise incidence of AKI in children is not well known. 4-6 % case of AKI seen in general ward and upto 40% in
PICU AGE with dehydration & shock is a common cause. In India, malaria, snake bite are also common causes. In PICU, commonly affects children who have sepsis and
multiorgan failure. Children undergoing major cardiac surgery and organ
transplantation are also at considerable risk. HUS and AGN are important renal causes. Post renal causes of AKI are rare.
![Page 6: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
ETIOLOGY
Pre renal Intrinsic or renal Post renal
- Both pre and post renal aki are potentially reversible in early stages but if prolonged can cause renal parenchymal damage.
![Page 7: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
(A) PRE RENAL
Also called prerenal azotemia, is characterized by diminished effective circulating arterial volume, which leads to inadequate renal perfusion and a decreased GFR .
![Page 8: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
CAUSES OF PRERENAL AKI
Acute gastroenteritis Hemorrhage Shock Congestive cardiac failure Hepatorenal syndrome (renal vasoconstriction) Sepsis (peripheral vasodilaton) Profound third space loss (burns, Ac. Pancreatitis,
nephrotic syndrome, massive ascites) NSAID’s & ACE inhibitors
![Page 9: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Renin
Angiotensin II
Aldosterone
Renal Tubular Na Reabsorption
Vasopressin
Renal Tubular H2O Reabsorption
Urine Volume
Concentrated Urine
Urine Sodium
Decreased Renal Perfusion
Mechanisms of Sodium and Water Conservation in Prerenal Azotemia
![Page 10: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
(B) RENAL CAUSES – Obstruction of renal artery or veins - renal vein thrombosis , renal arterial obstruction, Involvement of renal microvasculature – HUS , HSP, polyarteritis , collagen vascular disease Glomerular causes- AGN ( PSGN ,other infections ), cresentic GN Interstitial causes- acute tubulointerstitial nephritis Tubular causes (ATN) Prolongation of pre-renal insult , intravascular hemolysis , sepsis ,
nephrotoxic agents , multiorgan failure , rhabdomyolysis , snakebite , other envenomations , falciparum malaria , leptospirosis
![Page 11: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
1.OBSTRUCTION OF RENAL ARTERIES AND VEINS
Bilateral renal arterial thrombosis may occur after umbilical artery catheterization in neonates (rarely causes aki usually causes intractable hypertension).
Renal vein thrombosis may be a complication of infant of diabetic mother especially following dehydration.
In older children renal vein thrombosis may occur with nephrotic syndrome with anasarca and dehydration.
Gross hematuria, enlargement of kidney and azotemia are typical manifestation.
![Page 12: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
2.INVOLVEMENT OF RENAL MICROVASCULATURE
HUS is a common cause of AKI in chidren. Causes thrombotic microangiopathy 2 types- D+HUS and D-HUS Common causes of D+HUS – EHEC(in developed
countries),Shigella dysentriae type I (in India) Following dysentery shigella-toxin enters the circulation
and leads to endothelial injury in microvasculature . Localized coagulation and deposition of platelet thrombi
and fibrin occurs in glomeruli causing decrease in GFR.
![Page 13: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
3.GLOMERULAR DISEASES
PSGN, Post infectious GN, Cresentric GN, Renal vasculitis, IgA nephropathy are important causes in this group.
![Page 14: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
4.ACUTE INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS
Usually occurs due to hypersensitivity reaction to some drugs (ampicillin, cephalosporins, sulfonamides,quinolones, NSAID’s, phenytoin etc)
The patient may have fever , arthralgia , rash and eosinophilia : urine often shows eosinophils
Renal biopsy should be done if it is strongly suspected.
![Page 15: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
5.ACUTE TUBULAR NECROSIS
Occurs mostly in critically ill infants and children who have been exposed to nephrotoxic agents and/or prolonged hypoperfusion/hypoxia.
Common causes of ATN include renal hypoperfusion following volume contraction , severe renal vasoconstriction , nephrotoxic agents , sepsis , shock and hypotension.
Renal hypoperfusion prerenal aki(reversible) intermediate stage (slowly reversible) ATN
![Page 16: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
MECHANISM OF ATN
![Page 17: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
(C)POST RENAL
It includes a variety of disorders characterized by obstruction of the urinary tract.
In a patient with 2 functioning kidneys, obstruction must be bilateral to result in AKI.
Relief of the obstruction usually results in recovery of renal function except in patients with associated renal dysplasia or prolonged urinary tract obstruction.
![Page 18: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
CAUSES OF POST RENAL AKI
Posterior urethral valves Ureteropelvic junction obstruction Ureterovesicular junction obstruction Ureterocele Tumor Urolithiasis Hemorrhagic cystitis Neurogenic bladder
![Page 19: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
CLINICAL EVALUATION HISTORY - H/o blood loss, diarrhea, vomitting – prerenal aki. Past h/o pharyngitis with gross hematuria, edema, hypertension –
acute PSGN. Dysentery, petechiae, pallor- HUS. Sudden passage of dark red urine, pallor and jaundice with h/o drug
exposure – acute intravascular hemolysis (G6PD def.). Rash with arthritis – SLE or HSP. H/o prolonged hypotension or exposure to nephrotoxic drugs – ATN. Exposure to certain drugs f/b fever, rash, arthralgia and rising
S.creat – acute TIN H/o poor urinary stream with palpable UB or kidney – obstructive
uropathy. Abdominal colic,hematuria, dysuria – urinary tract stones.
![Page 20: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION - Obtaining a thorough physical examination is
extremely important . Clues may be found in any of the following –
Skin Eyes Ears Respiratory system Cardiovascular system Abdomen
![Page 21: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Skin :- Palpable purpura - Systemic vasculitis Maculopapular rash - Allergic interstitial nephritis
Eye :- Uveitis – interstitial nephritis and necrotizing vasculitis. Ocular palsy - ethylene glycol poisoning or necrotizing vasculitis
Ear :- Hearing loss - Alport disease and aminoglycoside toxicity
Mucosal or cartilaginous ulcerations – Wegener’s granulomatosis
Respiratory system :- rapid and deep breathing – met. Acidosis
basal creps - volume overload
![Page 22: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Cardiovascular examination :• Pericardial friction rub - Uremic pericarditis• Increased JVP, Gallop rhythm, pitting edema - CHF
due to volume overload.
Abdomen :• Renal angle tenderness – nephrolithiasis, papillary
necrosis, renal artery or vein thrombosis.• Distended bladder – urinary obstruction.• F/s/o chronic liver disease with ascites with prerenal
aki – hepatorenal syndrome
![Page 23: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
INVESIGATIONS Urine R/M CBC with CPS 24 hour urinary protien Blood urea and S. creatinine level Serum electrolytes Throat swab C/S ASO titer C3 level Serum calcium Serum phosphate Serum uric acid ANA ABG
![Page 24: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
IMAGING
Ultrasound of KUB - evaluates renal size, able to detect masses, obstruction, stones
Chest x-ray DTPA DMSA
![Page 25: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
RENAL BIOPSY
Indicated in Patient in whom the etiology is not identified. Unremitting AKI lasting longer then 2-3 wks or
in assessing the extent of renal damage and outcome.
Suspected drug induced AKI in a patient receiving therapy with a potentially nephrotoxic drugs.
![Page 26: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
URINARY INDICES
PRE-RENAL INTRINSIC
URINARY SODIUM (mEq/l) < 20 > 40
Urinary osmolality (mOsm/kg) > 500 < 300
Blood urea to creatinine ratio >20:1 < 20:1
Urine to plasma osmolality ratio >1.5 < 0.8 – 1.2
Fractional excretion of sodium < 1 > 1
![Page 27: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
BIOMARKERS FOR EARLY DIAGNOSIS
Biomarkers that indicate renal injury before rise in S.creatinine values would be helpful in pts. at high risk of aki like – children undergoing major surgery or organ transplant, neonates with hypoxia,sepsis or multi organ failure.
Examples are: Neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin(NGAL) Interleukin -18 Kidney molecule–1(KIM -1) Cystatin -C
![Page 28: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
MANAGEMENT
The basic principles of management include Treatment of life-threatening complications Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance Supportive care Dialysis & CRRT Specific management of underlying disorder
![Page 29: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
A. MANAGEMENT OF LIFE THREATENING COMPLICATIONS
Such complications are – Hyperkalemia Fluid overload with heart failure Hypertensive emergencies Profound acidosis Severe anemia
![Page 30: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
1. Hyperkalemia (>6meq/l): ECG changes- peaked T waves, widening of QRS interval, ST
depression, arrythmia, arrest. Emergency measures(>7meq/l with ECG changes) Calcium gluconate 0.5-1 ml/kg over 5 to 10 mins Salbutamol(5-10mg)nebulization Glucose (50%)0.5-1 gm/kg with 0.1-0.2 unit/kg insulin Less urgent(>6meq/l) deplete body potassium( stop exogenous sources of
potassium, sodium polystyrene sulfonate resin-kayexalate, 1g/kg orally decreases S.K+ by 1meq/L)
![Page 31: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
2.Fluid overload : fluid restriction Insensible water loss(300ml/m²)+UO+extrarenal
fluid loss Replace insensible loss by 10%D and UO &
extrarenal loss by N/2D5.
3.Pulmonary Edema Oxygen Dopamine (5-10) mcg /kg /min infusion in min
fluid Frusemide (2-4)mg /kg IV
![Page 32: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
4.Hypertension Symptomatic- Nitroprusside 1-8 mcg/kg/min, Frusemide 2-4
mg/kg IV Asymptomatic- Nifedipine 0.3-0.5 mg/kg PO5.Severe metabolic acidosis pH<7.15, S.bicarbonate<8meq/l Sodium bicarbonate – first IV to ↑pH to 7.2 and S.
bicarbonate to 12meq/l, then orally after correction of S.calcium and phosphorus levels.
Rapid correction can cause tetany.6.Severe anemia Anemia is generally mild (9-10g/dl) If Hb<7g/dl – transfuse PRBCs @10ml/kg slowly over 4-6
hrs.
![Page 33: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
B.MAINTENANCE OF FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE1.Monitor urine output2. Volume resuscitation-• If there is no evidence of fluid overload, then expand
intravascular volume by NS bolus of 20ml/kg over 30min• Repeat boluses may be given in severe hypovolemia• Hypovolemic pts should void within 2hr3.Diuretic challenge-• After volume resuscitation if no urination occurs a single
IVdose of furosemide(2-4mg/kg) and mannitol(0.5g/kg) can be given.
• If still no response occurs stop diuretics and start fluid restriction presuming the pt to be in intrinsic AKI.
![Page 34: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
4.Hyponatremia(S.Na+<130meq/L) Usually cause d/t excessive IV fluids (dilutional
hyponatemia)-t/t is fluid restriction. Sodium correction is only given if there is-
»symptomatic hyponatremia »S.Na+<120meq/L
Meq of sodium required=0.6xWt(kg)x{125-S.Na+(meq/L)}
Vol. Of 3% N.S. required is twice of above value
12 ml/kg of 3% N.S ↑ses S.Na+ by 10 meq/L 5-10meq/L of S.Na+ should be ↑sed over 30-90mins
![Page 35: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
5.Hyperphosphatemia,hypermagnesemia, hypocalcemia
• AKI causes phosphate & Mg ions retention.• Hyperphosphatemia in turn causes hypocalcemia.• T/t: low phosph. diet,oral phosph. binders(sevelamer, calcium
carbonate)• Hypocalcemia is usually asymptomatic d/t associated acidosis,
so hypocalcemia should be corrected before correcting acidosis.• Calcium carbonate/gluconate is given at a dose of 30-50 mg/kg
of elemental calcium.• There is risk of metastatic deposition of calcium phosphate when
S.Ca2 + x S.PO43ˉ >70.If fluid is appropriate,then patient should lose 0.5-1% of his wt. daily and S.Na+ should stay normal.
![Page 36: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
C.SUPPORTIVE CARE1. NUTRITION -maximise caloric intake
because of ↑sed met. need -Protein→infant(1.2-2gm/kg),children(0.8-1.2g/kg) -Energy →min 60kcal/kg
-If on dialysis→protein,fluid & electrolyte intake should be ↑sed. -Vit.B-complex & C & micronutrient supplement2. MANAGE INFECTIONS
-↓sed immunity(azotemia,malnutrition) -maintain asepsis, maintain oral hygeine -avoid long term bladder catheterisation
![Page 37: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
3. DRUGS -Avoid nephrotoxic drugs(esp. aminoglycosides, radiocontrast media,NSAID’S,amphotericin-b) -Dose & dosing interval of other drugs are modified according to severity of AKI. -Dopamine in low dose has no role on outcome of AKI -Fenoldopam(selective peripheral dopamine rec. agonist)-may be helpful in preventing AKI -ANP may be helpful
4. MONITORING -I/O charting,daily wt. measurement, physical exam., S.Electrolytes
![Page 38: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
D.DIALYSIS & CRRT Indication:Anuria/oliguria Uremia(encephalopathy, pericarditis, neuropathy ) Hyperkalemia: K+ > 6.5 meq/l, K+ 5.5-6.5 meq/l with
ECG changes Hyponatremia: Na+ < 120 meq/l if symptomatic Fluid overload: resistant to diuretics, CCF,HTN Metabolic acidosis: pH< 7.2 despite sodium
bicarbonate therapy. Ca:phosphorus imbalance with hypocalcemic tetany Hypercatabolic states(marked tissue injury, burns,
sepsis, crush syndrome)
![Page 39: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Early dialysis is preferred to prevent complication. 3 types of dialysis-a.intermittent hemodialysis(IHD) b.peritoneal dialysis(PD) c.CRRT.
a. IHD: prefferd in patients with relatively stable hemodynamic state. -Highly efficient, 1 session completes in 3-4 hrs -Can be done 3-7 times/week -Complication:hypotension,bleeding,thrombosis,etc
b. P.D: most commonly used in infants & neonates. -For 1 session→1 cycle of 45-60 min needs to be repeated for 8-24 hours/day. -No need for anticoagulation,so ↓sed risk of bleeding,may cause abdominal pain & peritonitis
![Page 40: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
c. CRRT: Indications-hemodynamic instability, sepsis, extensive trauma, MODS,tumour lysis syndrome -continuos removal of solutes ,fluid & electrolytes -3 types: CVVH, CAVH, CAVHD -CVVH:helpful in management of AKI with severe fluid overload -CAVHD:most effective type pf CRRT.
![Page 41: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
E.SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT OF UNDERLYING DISORDER
Prerenal AKI: administer crystalloids, stop diuretics, NSAIDs, ACE inhibitors.
ATN: supportive care, discontinue drugs or toxin, treat cause of circulatory failure.
Glomerulonephritis: supportive care, control hypertension, if its due to shunt infection- removal of shunt & appropriate antibiotics are given.
![Page 42: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
HUS: supportive care, plasma infusion, plasma exchange
Vasculitis: immunosuppressive medication, plasma exchange
Interstital nephritis: discontinue offending drugs, consider steroid therapy.
Renal artery , vein occlusion: anticoagulation, thrombolysis or surgery.
Intrarenal obstruction: discontinue offending drugs, alkaline diuresis for rhabdomyolysis , haemoglobinuria or urate crystal.
Urinary tract obstruction: bladder cathaterization or nephrostomy, surgical treatment of obstruction.
![Page 43: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
OUTCOME Mortality rates from 30-50% have been reported from
developing countries. But the results have markedly improved at tertiary centers with proper expertise and modern facilities.
Outcome depend upon underlying cause. Prognosis is favourable in ATN from volume depletion,
intravascular hemolysis, acute interstial nephritis and drugs or toxin related AKI especially when complicating factor are absent .
In cresentic GN, atypical HUS, and AKI associated with sepsis, multi organ failure the prognosis is less satisfactory .
![Page 44: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
PREVENTION OF AKI
Important measures includes prompt rehydration therapy in acute diarrhea, avoidance or judicious use of nephrotoxic drugs.
Maintenance of proper hydration for patients undergoing diagnostic procedures with radio contrast media.
Forced diuresis along with the use of allopurinol is effective preventing AKI in patient with TLS.
![Page 45: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
![Page 46: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
DEFINITON
Irreversible loss of renal function that eventually requires renal replacement therapy
Patient has CKD if either of the following criteria are present:1. Kidney damage for ≥3 mo, as defined by structural or
functional abnormalities of the kidney, with or without decreased GFR,manifested by 1 or more of the following features:
• Abnormalities in the composition of the blood or urine• Abnormalities in imaging tests• Abnormalities on kidney biopsy2. GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 for ≥3 mo, with or without the
othersigns of kidney damage described above
![Page 47: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
GFR
Schwartz formula: GFR = k x height(cm) (ml/min/1.73m²) S.Creatinine(mg/dl)
k= 0.33 for LBW infants 0.45 for term AGA infants 0.55 children & adolescent
female 0.70 adolescent male
New formula by CKD study: uses k= 0.413,Can be used for GFR between 15-75 ml/min/1.73m²In children between 1-16yr.
![Page 48: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
STAGES OF CKDStage Description GFR
(ml/min/1.73 m²)
1 Kidney damage with normal or ↑ GFR > 90
2 Kidney damage with mild ↓ GFR 60-89
3 Moderate ↓ in GFR 30-59
4 Severe decrease in GFR 5-29
5 Kidney failure <15 or on dialysis
![Page 49: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
ETIOLOGY:-
1. UNDER 5 YR (most commonly congenital abnormalities) * renal hypoplasia * renal dysplasia * obstructive uropathy * congenital nephrotic syndrome* prune belly syndrome * cortical necrosis * FSGS* polycystic kidney * renal vein thrombosis* hemolytic uremic syndrome
![Page 50: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
2.AFTER 5 YRS (acquired and inherited disorders)
* glomerulonephritis * nephronophthisis* alport syndrome
3.THROUGHOUT CHILDHOOD YEARS * cystinosis
* hyperoxaluria* polycystic kidney disease
![Page 51: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
RISK FACTORS FOR CKD H/O AKI H/O V.U.R or recurrent U.T.I Corrected or uncorrected obstructive uropathy H/O A.G.N or N.S Family H/O polycystic kidney disease Past H/O H.S.P k/c/o D.M, HTN,SLE, or vasculitis.
![Page 52: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
PATHOGENESISHyperfiltration Injury
* final common pathway of glomerular destruction
* hypertrophy of remaining nephrons* increase glomerular blood flow* ↑ glomerular filtration in surviving nephrons * progressive damage to surviving nephrons (due
to elevated hydrostatic pressure/toxic effect of proteins)
* sclerosis of surviving nephrons *leads to a vicious cycle of ↑ glomerular filtration
and hyperfiltration injury.
![Page 53: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Proteinuria:* exerts a direct toxic effect* causes infiltration of monocytes / macrophages* enhancing glomerular sclerosis
Hypertension:* exacerbate disease progression * causes arteriolar nephrosclerosis* and hyperfiltration injury
Hyperphosphatemia :* calcium phosphate deposition in renal
interstitium and blood vessels.
Hyperlipidemia:* oxidant mediated injury
![Page 54: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CKD
Accumulation of nitrogenous waste products due to ↓ in GFRAcidosisdue to ↓ed NH3 synthesis.Impaired bicarbonate reabsorption ↓ed net acid excretionSodium retentionexcessive renin production, oliguria Sodium wasting and urinary concentrating defectsolute diuresis,
tubular damage
![Page 55: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Hyperkalemia↓ in GFR metabolic acidosis excessive potassium intake hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism Renal osteodystrophy impaired renal production 1,25-DHCC
hyperphosphatemia hypocalcemia secondary hyperparathyroidism Growth retardation inadequate caloric intake renal osteodystrophy, metabolic acidosis anemia, growth hormone resistance
![Page 56: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Anemia↓ed erythropoietin production iron deficiency, folate deficiency,vit B12
deficiency ,↓ed erythrocyte survival Bleeding tendency defective platelet function Infection defective granulocyte function,
impaired cellular immunity,indwelling dialysis catheters Neurologic symptoms (fatigue, poor
concentration, headache, drowsiness, memory loss, seizures, peripheral neuropathy)
uremic factors, aluminum toxicity, hypertension
![Page 57: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Malnutrition anorexia,nausea,vomitting(uremic gastritis) abnormal taste sensation inappropriate dietary restrictions protein loss due to dialysis Gastrointestinal symptoms (feeding intolerance, abdominal pain)
gastroesophageal reflux decreased GI motility
Hypertension volume overload, excessive renin production
Hyperlipidemia decreased plasma lipoprotein lipase activity
Pericarditis / Cardiomyopathy uremic factors, hypertensionfluid overload
Glucose intolerance tissue insulin resistance
![Page 58: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONFeatures of advanced CKD (stage 3-5)
* lethargy, fatigue,anorexia, vomiting * growth retardation* failure of thrive * anemia* hypertension
* bone diseaseLate features
* itching * severe acidosis* hyperkalemia* LVF, pulmonary edema
* uremic pericarditis * altered sensorium
![Page 59: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
LABORATORY FINDINGS* elevated BUN and creatinine* ↓ GFR* hyperkalemia * hyponatremia * acidosis* hypocalcemia * hyperphosphatemia * elevated uric acid * hypoproteinemia (if proteinuria)* normocytic, normochromic anemia * elevated serum cholesterol and triglyceride * hematuria & proteinuria(glomerulonephritis)
![Page 60: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
MANAGEMENT OF CKD AIMS OF TREATMENT* Retarding the progression of renal dysfunction *Replacing absent/diminished renal function
ROUTINE MONITORING TO BE DONE OF…*Blood studies- RFT, S.electrolytes, S.calcium & phosphorus, S.albumin, alk.phosphatase, Hb%,*S.Parathormone and bone X-rays- to detect renal osteodystrophy*ECHO- To detect LVF & cardiac dysfunction early.
![Page 61: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
STRATEGY TO SLOW THE PROGRESSION * optimal control of hypertension(<75th percentile) * reduce proteinuria(goal<300mg/m²/day) * ACE inhibitors/ ARBs are drugs of choice for both
* maintain serum phosphorus (ca x ph=<55)* prompt treatment of infections and episodes of
dehydration * correction of anemia(erythropoetin/darbepoetin-
alpha)* control of hyperlipidemia * non hypercalcemic doses of vit D analogs * prevention of obesity * avoid use of NSAID and nephrotoxic drugs
![Page 62: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
NUTRITION Assesment of adequacy of dietary intake(3-day diet record) Assesment of nutritional status(wt, wt/age,ht/age, BMI, HC)-
should be done atleast semi-annually. If there is malnutrition- 125% of RDA of calories should be
given for catch up growth Total calories = 55-60%(carbohydrates),30%(fats), 10%
(proteins)Proteins- low protein diet not recommended-diet should contain 100%RDA of protein-of that >50% should be from high biological value proteins-children on dialysis should take extra 0.4-0.8g/kg/day of protein-excessive proein intake should be avoided in children with
metabolic acidosis and hyperphosphatemia
![Page 63: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Fats- there is ↑sed risk of CVD in CKD. -Saturated fats should be <10% of total calories -Diets rich in PUFA,MCT & complex carbs prefered.
Vitamins-100% RDA of Vit A,B1,B2,B6,B12,D,E,K, Folic acid,Cu,Zn should be taken. -Requirements in CKD:B1,B2,F.A→1mg each pyridoxine,pantoyhenic acid→10mg each vit C(50mg),vit B12(5mg),Biotin(300mg). -If GFR<40 then F.A. supplementation is needed in order to prevent hyperhomocycstinemia. -Children on PD need vit C,pyridoxine & F.A supplementation.
![Page 64: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Restriction of dietary phosphorous: -In CKD stage 3 to 5 & 5D, 80-100% RDA should
be given. -foods rich in phosphorous should be avoided, but taking care not to cause inadequate protein intake because such foods are also rich source of proteinFood should be attractive & pleasant.Unnecessary restriction should be avoided.Infants needing top feed should receive special formula with high calorie, low sodium & phosph.If oral feeding is not adequate, supplemental NGT feeding can be given.
![Page 65: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
FLUID & ELECTROLYTE
* most patients maintain normal sodium & water balance*Usual sodium intake is allowed*2g of salt is allowed daily,no extra salt*if BP is high- restrict to 0.8-1g/day*if there is polyuria with urinary sodium loss: give high volume, low caloric density feeding with sodium supplements* high BP, edema or heart failure: require sodium restriction & diuretic therapy * fluid restriction is rarely necessary untill ESRD* hyperkalemia: restriction of dietary K+ intake
oral alkalinizing agent kayexalate
*hypokalemia- due to excessive diuretics- <3meq/l -supplements rich in potassium given*potassium intake is restricted if GFR<10 ml/min/1.73m²
![Page 66: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
GROWTH*Growth impairment occurs when GFR<50%
*Firstly t/t Nutritional deficiencies,acid-base imbalance,correct salt depletion and calcium and vit D deficiency *Short stature is long term sequelae
* growth hormone resistant state (GH ↑, IGF ↓)* abnormality of IGF binding protein
*children who remain<-2SD for ht despite adequate medical support can be given recombinant human GH (0.05mg/kg/24hrs),SC daily
* continue until the pt reaches50th percentile for MPH or achieves a final adult height or undergoes renal transplantation
![Page 67: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE-MINERAL BONE DISEASE
The syndrome of clinical,metabolic and imaging deformities in CKD is termed as CKD-MBD.
The term osteodystrophy should be restricted to description of histological features on bone biopsy.
Most common condition seen in children is a high turnover bone disease caused by secondary hyperparathyroidism
The skeletal finding in this condition is Osteitis fibrosa cystica
![Page 68: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Pathophysiology of CKD-MBD
* When GFR decline to 50% of normal* Decline in 1 hydroxylase activity* Decreased production of activated vit. D* ↓ intestinal absorption of calcium* Hypocalcaemia * Secondary hyperparathyroidism(to correct hypocalcemia) * Increased bone resorption * When GFR declines to 25% of normal * Hyperphosphatemia – further promotes hypocalcemia and increased PTH production
![Page 69: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Clinical manifestations of CKD-MBD * Muscle weakness, Bone pain * Fractures with minor trauma
* Rachitic changes, varus or valgus deformity slipped capital femoral epiphysis.
* s.Ca↓, s. Ph↑, ↑alkaline phosphate, ↑PTH * Subperiosteal resorption of bone with widening of metaphysis
![Page 70: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Treatment of CKD-MBD
* T/t goals-prevent bone deformity and normalize growth velocity *Target phosphorus levels- adolescent(3.5-5.5mg/dl) children(4-6mg/dl) *Low phosphorus diet(similac PM 60/40)
* Phosphate binders- Calcium carbonate & calcium acetate Sevelamer (Renagel) non calcium binder Avoid aluminum based binder * Vitamin D therapy-(Vit D levels
<30ng/ml(insufficiency) <15ng/ml(deficiency) - oral vit D3- 2lakh -4lakhs unit over 2-3 mnths - in CKD stg 5 active vit D analogs are used- paricalcitol,doxercalciferol * Maintain calcium / phosphorus product (Ca x PO4) at < 55
![Page 71: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
ANEMIA
* Inadequate erythropoeitin production * Iron deficiency * Folic acid , Vitamin B12 deficiency * Decreased erythrocyte survival * Erythropoeitin if Hb < 10g/dl dose 50-150 mg/kg/dose S/C 1-3
times/wk* Keep Hb between 11-12g/dl* Darbopoeitin alfa (longer acting) dose 0.45μg/kg/wk
![Page 72: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
HYPERTENSION
* Salt-restriction * Diuretic therapy * Hydrochlorothiazide 2 mg/kg/24hrs* Furosemide 1-2 mg/kg/dose * ACE inhibitors - angiotensin II blockers (Enalapril, lisiopril, losartin) for proteinuric renal disease * Calcium channel blockers (Amlodipin) * B-Blockers (propranolol, atenolol)
![Page 73: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
IMMUNIZATIONS
* Immunization according to the schedule * Avoid live vaccine if on immunosuppressive drugs* Give live vaccine(MMR& Varicella vaccine) before renal transplantation * Yearly influenza vaccine * Suboptimal response
![Page 74: Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease in children](https://reader035.vdocuments.site/reader035/viewer/2022070510/58adfa1b1a28abf0628b59c7/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)