Critical Question 1How do athletes train for improved performance?

Strength TrainingWhat is it?

Strength training is any training done in order to improve an athlete’s muscular strength

The three types of strength training include resistance training, weight training and isometric training

Strength is the ability of a muscle group to exert a force Hypertrophy is the enlargement of an organ or tissue from the

increase in size of its muscle fibres and cells

Strength program variablesRepetitions maximum – the maximum weight that can be lifted a specified number of times. For example, 1RM = the maximum weight that can be lifted only once; 8RM = the maximum weight that can be lifted eight times

Set – a number of repetitions done in succession; for example, one set = 10 repetitions

Resistance – the weight or load

Rest – the period of time between exercises, sets or sessions

Periodisation – the process of varying the training load over discrete periods of time

Exercise specific – adaptations will only occur in the parts of the body that are stressed by the exercise. For example, biceps development will generally have little effect on an athlete’s running ability.

Employs the overload principle – the individual is loaded beyond normal requirements

Uses progressive resistance – resistance is increased as adaptations occur

Resistance Training A form of strength training where any form of resistance is created

during the exercise Resistance increases the intensity of the exercise and requires the

athlete to exert more strength often at a speed to develop power Power is a combination of strength and speed

Elastic Resistance Requires an elastic to create the resistance Used in rehabilitation or with beginners Versatile, low cost and eases transport The resistance is smaller than can be produced through other

methods The resistance increases as the band or spring is stretched Resistance band grading

o Yellow (thin)o Red (medium)o Green (heavy)o Blue (extra heavy)o Black (special heavy)o Silver (super heavy)

Hydraulic Resistance Produced by the compression of an air or liquid Hydraulic resistance machines very expensive Gives a fixed amount of resistance throughout entire

exercise depending on speed of movement Provide resistance in pushing and pulling and lifting and

lowering

Others There are other methods where resistance is created

through friction They are particularly used to improve an athlete’s speed

and power They include exercises such as parachute running, tire

flipping, weight sleds etc.

Weight training The most popular strength training method Includes machine weights, weight plates, dumbbells, barbells Versatile form of strength training Number of repetitions, the length of rest between sets and the exercise

done can all create very specific benefits for sports performance

Concentric and Eccentric Contractions Concentric contractions occur when a muscle shortens,

causing movement at a joint Eccentric contractions occur when the muscle lengthens

under tension

Weight training for muscular endurance

Muscular endurance is the muscle’s ability to repeat the same movement repeatedly push up test

Weight training for muscular endurance involves more repetitions with small rest periods

4-5 sets of 20-30 RM (30 sec-1min rest)Weight training for hypertrophy

Hypertrophy is when there is an increase in muscle cross-sectional area

This increase often results in strength gains, but increases muscle mass

This is beneficial in sport such as AFL and rugby codes 2-4 sets of 12-15RM (2-3 min rest)

Weight training for strength Strength gains are best achieved with lower repetitions and

greater rest periods 2-4 sets of 8-10RM (3-4min rest)

Weight training for power Fundamental for sports such as shotput, high jump, football

etc. Training for increased power requires the athlete to lift

weights at a rapid speed but for short periods of time 1-3 sets of 2-6RM (4 min rest)

Weight training equipment Weight plates, weight machines, barbells and dumbbells

Isometric Training

Strength training method where muscle produces a force without change in muscle length

E.g. gymnast holding an arabesque Similar to isometric stretching where stretch is held in same position

and muscle doesn’t change in length Provides increases in strength for static contraction Require great strength with little movement e.g. martial arts,

gymnastics or dance Different from isotonic and isokinetic contractions muscle length

movement An isometric contraction doesn’t produce movement because the

muscle doesn’t change in length

Isometric Exercises Pushing against a wall Holding push up position

Holding out weights Yoga

How strength training adaptations can be measured 1RM test = athlete lifts weight once only and cannot lift a second time Can be adapted for the various major and minor muscle groups and

should increase with strength training Skin-fold testing and circumference measurements measuring

hypertrophy

Safety in Strength Training Injury prevention Have a person to train with to spot when lifting weights Perform each movement with correct technique Training programmes designed and monitored by professionals Conducting session in professional manner Don’t hold breath but exhale at the point of greatest exertion Exercises are balanced Recovery and rest Cool down and avoid overtraining

Aerobic Training

What is it? A type of training that focuses on progressively overloading the

cardiovascular, respiratory and aerobic energy systems Designed to improve the rate at which the heart, lungs and muscles

can effectively use oxygen during exercise 3 types; continuous, fartlek and long interval Apply principles of training; FITT can be used to ensure physiological

adaptations are measured

Continuous Form Aerobic training involving a single exercise for an extended

period of time without rest Required the heart rate to move into the aerobic training zone

and maintain for 20 minutes 65-85% of maximum HR, depending on individual High-intensity continuous training is performed of 80-100% of HR Strenuous training type and physically demanding Beneficial for marathons, cycling, swimming and skiing

Fartlek Training General running interspersed with periods of higher paced

running over varying terrain Short bursts may continue for 100-200 metres or so followed by

recovery jogging During recovery period, ventilation rate should come back to

where it was before intensity is increased and the jogger should feel that energy stores have been replenished

This period is then followed by another burst, however intensity is increased, challenging the overload principle

This training helps the body remove lactic acid, and recover from high intensities that may be required during competition but can also ensure the athlete continues to perform at a high intensity while recovering

Heart rate will change constantly with the intensity as will their respiratory rates, cardiac output and oxygen uptake

Football and rugby, netball, hockey, AFL

Long Interval Training Athlete has longer periods of higher workloads followed by a

shorter rest period The long periods of higher workload usually extends for 3+

minutes with a short 30-60 second rest period The higher workloads can be in the upper range of the aerobic

training zone or push into the anaerobic training zone Preferred by distance runners, triathletes and footballers in

preparation for competition Practiced on athletic tracks or flat grounds Interval training has specific terminology Intervals when repeated are called repetitions and a group of

repetitions is called a set 400 m, 75-80% pace 3 sets of 3 reps (2 min walk rest) 4

min recovery between sets

How can aerobic training adaptations be measured and monitored? Improved heart strength and efficiency resulting in an improved ability

to pump blood Decreased resting and sub-maximal exercise heart rate Improved lung ventilation Improved glycogen storage Increased number of red blood cells Strengthening and enlargement of skeletal muscle Increased size and efficiency of slow-twitch fibres

Vo2 max testing Beep test Treadmill VO2 max test Blood sampling

Safety in aerobic training Remaining hydrated Using safe environment Wearing correct clothing and footwear Using fitness professionals Overuse injuries are common so it is important to provide rest periods

for recovery Progressive overload in slow, controlled manner Incorporate cross-training to provide variety and load different muscle

groups

Flexibility Training

What is it? Flexibility is defined as the range of motion of your joints or the ability

of your joints to move freely Flexibility training requires that muscles stretch or lengthen safety Stretching and improved flexibility are important for a number of

reasons including injury prevention, injury rehabilitation, improved skill execution and minimising post-workout muscle soreness

All stretching movements must be safe When the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle, which then

acts to register changes in length of the fibre The message is sent to the central nervous system which then

activates the stretch reflex Stretching more often allows for improved flexibility Performance of a safe stretch program on at least three to four

occasions each week Ensure muscles are warmed up before stretching Stretching no further than the muscles will go without pain Not aiming at excessive flexibility, as this causes joint instability and

increased risk of injury

Static Flexibility The use of static stretches to increase a joint’s range of

motion/movement Improves joint range of motion, increasing flexibility which can

improve performance Held 15-30 seconds repeated 3-5 times on each side of

the body

Pain should not be felt and joint should not be taken beyond normal range of motion

PNF Stretchingo Stretching with a partner for 6-10 secondso Fastest and most effective way known to increase static-

passive flexibility o When a muscle undergoes an isometric contraction, it

relaxes more meaning you can lengthen the muscle further

Dynamic Flexibility Stretching with continual movement through the joint range of

motion Growing trend among sports and fitness professionals Go-to stretching method for warm-ups and cool-downs and has

been shown to be highly advantageous for athlete well-being Benefits: endurance, coordination, balance, biomechanical

efficiency, speed of contraction Involves slow purposeful movements that move throughout a

joints full range of motion E.g. walking lunges

Ballistic Stretching Body goes through a bouncing movement E.g. trying to touch your toes whilst bouncing Used in preparation for athletic events in which explosive

movements are required Hurdles, boxing, high kicks in aerobic competitions and certain

movements in gymnastic routines Potentially dangerous; activates stretch reflex that prevents

muscle fibre damage through overstretching Should only be used for athletes and should follow a thorough

warm-up and another form of stretching

Measuring and monitoring flexibility training adaptations Adaptations include: increased range of movement in joints, reduced

muscle tensions, increased muscle elasticity, resulting in less risk of injury, improved posture, enhanced performance in most physical activity, delayed onset of muscle fatigue and muscle soreness following exercise

Sit and reach test

Safe and potentially harmful flexibility training procedures Appropriate to ability choose exercises Warm up to reduce muscle fibre tears Cool down at the end of every session Stretch slowly with control Don’t lock joints

Breathe normally Precede ballistic movements with static stretching

Critical Question 2What are the planning considerations for improving

performance?

Initial Planning Considerations

What are they? The initial planning considerations focuses on the specific sport of the

athlete The sport is broken down to identify specific components of fitness that

are more fundamental Some sports have different requirements, thus a focus on the sport is

needed E.g. a GD in netball does not need to be a good shooter Types of competitions need to be analyses

o Some sports have a 6-month period of competition followed by an off season e.g. cricket

o Some sports have a small number of major competitions at various times and locations throughout the year e.g. tennis

o The schedule of events/competition needs to be examined in the initial planning considerations for improved performance

Performance and Fitness Needs The performance and fitness needs considered are both athlete

and sport specific Components of fitness should be relevant to the sport, and

performance requirements identify the skills and other components used in the sport needing development

Athlete specific so that each individual athlete improves for their specific role in competition and meet their own specific goals and starting points

The athlete’s sport should be broken down into its various components and the key components of fitness identified

Both the skill and health related components e.g. a triathlete would focus on their cardiovascular fitness

In team sports, the sport specific performance and fitness needs are essentially the performance and fitness needs of the team

e.g. an AFL team will need good cardiovascular endurance, power, muscular endurance and coordination

Elite athleteso Have much more detailed and higher level performance

and fitness needso Will complete a wider range of fitness and performance

tests to determine their performance and fitness needs Amateur

o Would not complete as many testso May only need to perform for shorter periods of timeo Their goals may be to develop relationships and remember

everyone’s name, rather than be performance focused

Schedule of Events/Competition Identify when major events and competitions are held Careful planning of training leading up to, during and after

events/competitions is vital for an athlete to perform their best when it counts

No good peaking during the off or pre-seasons A single athlete may have a larger number of scheduled

events/competitions than others International, different times, climates, jetlag? Amateur athletes do not make schedules of competition, they

simply know when they are competing and turn up E.g. elite football player plays in A-league, competes in Asian

championships and in Australia for multiple international games Overlap and form complex travelling therefore the need for a

schedule is high

Climate and Season Many sports have a season in which they are played

o Football (AFL, NRL) is played in wintero Cricket is played in the summer

Sports have major competitions throughout the year and may or may not focus on specific seasons if they play all year round

It determines the type of environmental conditions in which the sport will be played

Elite athleteso Consider a wider range of climates and seasons in their

planningo Have to travel around the world for international

competitions and move into new climates and seasons Amateur athletes

o Do not travel large distanceso Only have to consider climate and season at local level

where they playo Climate may change, but it wont impact them as much as

elite

Planning a training year (periodisation)

What is periodisation? Periodisation is simply planning It gives direction and purpose to training and assists coaches to review

what worked and what didn’t work rather than solely relying on a win/loss record

Effective periodisation will take the athlete/team to a new level It begins with the preseason and ends with the competition To effectively periodise the training year, a number of important

considerations need to be addressed

Phases of Competition Pre- season; period before competition During season; in the competition phase. It can be very short or

quite long depending on type of sport and length of competition Post season; the off season or transition phase of competition

immediately follows the competition phase, and focuses on relaxation and recovery

Subphases Macrocycle

o Training phaseo Broken up into the preparation phase, competition phase

and transition Mesocycle

o Major phase of training within a macrocycle or training phase

o Each mesocycle should aim to elicit significant improvement in a particular area

o Smaller chunk of timeo Consist of a few weeks or a few monthso Often mesocycles match up with the 3 phases of

competition Microcycle

o Weekly training plano Includes details on each individual training sessiono Smaller, often a single week of a training programo Focus on a singular aspect that adds together with other

macrocycles in order to achieve mesocycle goals which accumulates to achieve the macrocycle goals

Sport Specific Subphases Peaking

o Plan to peak for particular race tournament by working hard on skills and fitness then following this up with a taper

o When athlete is performing at their absolute best during competition

o The coach attempts to have the athlete peak for most important competitions

Taperingo A special training period immediately preceding the major

competition during which the training stimulus is reduced in a systematic fashion to achieve a peak in performance

o Fatigue decreaseso Well-restedo Mental confidence increasedo Improved performanceo Decrease in training volume with increase level in intensity

to stimulate race pace

Elements of a training session

What are the elements? Health and safety Providing an overview Warm up/Cool down Skill instruction Skill practice Conditioning Evaluation

Health and Safety Complete risk management plan that identifies any potential

risks (program, participants, environment) and strategies that will minimise the risk

Routinely check equipment for faults Assess the training environment for anything that may cause

injury, such as broken glass, water Know your athletes and their capabilities – plan appropriate

activities Apply the principle of gradual progression – increase volume or

intensity or complexity (not all three at once) Ensure correct equipment Schedule appropriate rest and drink breaks Encourage athletes to be honest

Providing an overview Overview of objectives for session Could relate to previous game or training session

Could relate to the overall season plan It gives focus and expectations from athletes Increases motivation Time Grouping Focus points Goals Strategies

Warm Up & Cool Down Prepares the body physically and mentally Jogging, dynamic flexibility, skills and games Cool; down; jogging, stretch Gives time for the coach to review training session and give

positive feedback

Skill instruction Instructional and practice methods Instructions are relevant, clear and concise Make sure athlete is listening and clarify this Instructional strategies may vary

Skill Practice New skills should be taught immediately after the warm-up Fatigue makes learning skills more difficult Executing skill when fatigued; progressions Small-sided games with modified rules Full practice games

Conditioning If speed, power or acceleration are important, these must be

scheduled into conditioning early Circuits or intervals E.g. suicide runs Increases fitness and skills

Evaluation Evaluating session in relation to athletes learning and

performance Gives feedback to athletes on how they felt they performed Coach can provide feedback Coaches can see what worked and what didn’t work with the

session

Avoiding overtraining

Planning to avoid overtraining Overtraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries,

particularly overuse injuries It is when an athlete does high intensity training, in high volumes Often this comes in the athlete training too often and not including

enough rest between sessions of high intensity This affects their recovery and prevents physiological adaptations from

occurring Athletes who suffer from overtraining become

o Fatiguedo Tiredo Lethargic

This feeling becomes a lack of motivation in the athlete and can also lead to injury through poor technique and overuse

Amount and intensity of training intensity Leads to overtraining when the athlete completes high

intensity training too often/in large amounts.  Particular forms of training (strength training) require 48 hours of

rest for the muscles in order to recover and adapt appropriately to the training.

Large volumes of training at high intensity cause overtraining because the athlete does not have enough time between training sessions to recover from the previous training session.

More likely to suffer from overtraining, leading to poor performance, decreased motivation and higher risk of injuries.

How much training is too much? There are some general guidelines, but everything is always

athlete specific. Individual aspects including:

o Stress from work or familyo Medical conditionso Nutritiono Sleepo Use of recovery strategies

All contribute to an athlete’s risk of suffering from overtraining. As a general rule - athletes should not be completing high

intensity training every day. In order for physiological adaptations to occur - training

intensities should be in the relevant training zones and need to only occur 3 times a week.

Types of training should be examined - ensure the amount and intensity of training does not place too much stress upon the athlete.

o For example, a Rugby League player should not be developing their strength, power, speed, agility and body composition all at the same time. This would require a large amount of high intensity training.

What do you do if you identify an over trained athlete?o Reduce the amount and intensity of training sessions. o May need to take a complete break from training - to

recover fully from their training session. o If overtraining is identified early - a change in frequency,

intensity and time may be adjusted. o Often overtraining is not identified until after injuries begin

to occur – in this case, rehabilitation should occur and testing be done before the athlete returns to normal training and competition.

How can overtraining be avoided Have a good balance in the amount and intensity of training. Planning a training year ensuring the athlete has regular rest

periods (weekly) is vital. Inclusion of recovery sessions and skills or tactical training –

allows recovery from higher intensities. Monitor each athlete closely looking for the signs and symptoms

of overtraining. Physiological Considerations

Two focus areas:o Lethargyo Injury

For Injury – need to understand how it is caused at the muscular level.

o Every high intensity training session causes minor injuries to muscle cells - these are usually micro-tears (often felt as delayed onset muscle soreness or DOMS), and they require time to heal.

o These micro-tears usually stimulate the physiological adaptations that occur from training - but if they have not fully recovered before the next training session the small “injuries” are re-injured and become larger. The longer this goes on the larger the injury and this can lead to other injuries.

For lethargy - the constant low level pain wears the athlete out. o The small tears also cause muscular weakness, decreasing

performance and strength. o As these build up over time, the muscles become

constantly weak, making normal activities draining on the athlete.

o Nutrition – important consideration for recovery. Leads to further feelings of lethargy as there is not enough energy within the body to recover properly

How do you identify an overtrained athlete? SIGNS OF AN OVERTRAINED ATHLETE: Frequent error in performance Poor performance (decreased endurance, strength, power, speed

etc) Illness Injuries Poor technique Increased resting heart rate Excessive thirst SYMPTOMS OF AN OVERTRAINED ATHLETE: Pain Lack of energy (lethargy) Headaches Cramping Loss of appetite

Psychological Considerations- Loss of motivation An over trained athlete will lack motivation. They will be:

o Tiredo No longer feel like trainingo Lose focus of their goals and no longer want to do the hard

work to get there.o Is different to lethargy because lethargy is about a lack of

energy to train, while a lack of motivation is not wanting to train or compete.

Often lethargy will lead to a lack of motivation due to the body being tired and suffering frequent or constant pain. This leads to our emotions become elevated (hence why we are grumpy when tired or hungry).

How do you identify an overtrained athlete? - psychological considerations

SIGNS OF OVERTRAINING: Moody and irritable Responds poorly to criticism/on field banter Gives up when competition gets hard/abandons struggles against

opponents SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING: Lack of motivation Depression Sensitive to criticism Confusion during competition

Critical Question 3What are the ethical issues related to improving

performance

Use of Drugs

Overview The use of drugs in sport is always a hot topic – there are many people

who were considered the greatest athletes of all time, who, due to the use of drugs, have now shamed the sport and their name e.g. Lance Armstrong

For HSC PDHPE use of drugs needs to be considered from an ethical perspective, not just a performance enhancing view point

Requires you to have a general understanding of how performance enhancing drugs work and the risks associated with them, in order to justify the use of drugs is considered unethical

You are also required to understand the role of drug testing and argue issues related to this testing

The dangers of performance enhancing drug use Dangers of performance enhancing drug use are extensive

o To the athlete’s physical healtho Loss of reputationo Loss of sponsorship dealso Loss of income

For an elite athlete the dangers of performance enhancing drug use should be enough to deter them from use

Physical Dangers of performing enhancing drugs The physical dangers of performance enhancing drugs are

specific to the drug The syllabus dictates that you know only 5 drugs

o Human growth hormone= strengtho Anabolic steroids= strengtho Erythropoietin (EPO)= aerobico Diuretics= masking drug useo Alcohol= masking drug use

These five drugs are used for three purposeso Strength gainso Aerobic capacity o Masking drug use

Reputation Dangers of performing enhancing drugs Elite athletes regularly complete drug tests – a positive result in a

drug test of an elite player often hits media pretty quickly and is wide spread

An athlete may have spent a long time building a reputation, not just as a physically dominant athlete, but also off the field as many elite athletes are held up as role models

A positive result in a drug test = athlete lose their reputation overnight

o They will be labelled a liar, a cheat, and many other things as their career spirals downward

This loss pf reputation will affect other aspects of their life as wello Lance Armstrong has lost his stellar reputation because it

was later revealed that he had been cheating.

Sponsorship Dangers of performing enhancing drugs Elite athlete’s often have sponsorship with leading brands in the

industry These sponsors can often bring in large amounts of income for

the athlete – for some this sponsorship is what allows them to continue as a professional athlete

When an athlete loses their reputation and begins to be seen negatively in the media – many companies who sponsor the athlete will stop their sponsorship, and often will fine the athlete for the effect the media has on their brand

Many sponsorship deals have clauses that relate to negative media exposure and the use of drugs, allowing them to remove their sponsorship quickly when an athlete is caught cheating

Other dangers of performing enhancing drugs An athlete caught using drugs runs the risk of being suspended

or excluded from their sport Lance Armstrong was excluded from everything connected with

cycling This results in further loss of income and can affect the entire life

of the athlete, who relies on their athletic career to support themselves and their family

For strength (Human growth hormone & Anabolic Steroids) A chemical hormone produced by the body for growth and

development The levels of HGH increase during periods of large growths such as

in childhood and puberty HGH levels begin to decline as a person ages HGH is used for strength and power development as well as body

composition, because it stimulates muscle growth Also stimulates fat mobilisation for use as an energy source

Physical dangers of HGH The side of effects of using HGH for strength include

o Nerve, muscle and joint paino Swellingo Carpal tunnelo Numb tingling skino High cholesterolo Muscular weaknesso Diabeteso Osteoporosiso Heart disease

o Extensive bone growth

Drugs used for strength Increased muscle size provides additional strength for an athlete

which provides an advantage over opponents Two must used drugs in this category are

o Anabolic steroids o Human Growth Hormone

Anabolic Steroids Anabolic steroids are drugs that resemble testosterone, a

hormone produced in the testes of males and, to a much lesser extent, in the ovaries of females

Testosterone is partially responsible for puberty changes and controlling the development of all tissues, including muscle

Raising testosterone levels can increase muscle size and strength (called the anabolic effect)

Means athletes can train harder and longer, with improved recovery from training sessions

Danger of Anabolic Steroids

Others include increased acne, heart problems, hyperextension, mood swings and stunted growth

Human Growth Hormone Human growth hormone (HGH) is a powerful anabolic hormone

that occurs naturally in the body It is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates

the growth of muscle, cartilage and bone It is taken to increase muscle size Allows muscles to recover more quickly (train harder & longer)

Increases number of red blood cells, boosts heart function and makes more energy available by stimulating breakdown of fat

Strengthens connective tissue and reduces injury

Dangers of HGH Acromegaly (swelling of hands and feet and a coarsened

facial appearance, such as protruding jaw and eyebrow bones)

Organs such as heart, liver and kidneys will undergo excessive growth (life-threatening)

Cardiomyopathy (heart loses its ability to pump blood and the rhythm is irregular

Hyperextension and diabetes Menstrual irregularities and impotence Increased risk of cancer due to abnormal growth of cells

Drugs used for improving aerobic capacity

EPO A naturally occurring protein hormone given out by the

kidneys during low oxygen activities Stimulates added red blood cell production which increases

oxygen delivery and buffer lactic acid Used to increase oxygen absorption, reduce fatigue and

improve performance

Dangers of EPO If EPO levels are too high = too many red blood cells

leads to thickening of the blood, which clogs capillaries, causing blood clotting, heart attack and stroke

Due to being injected there are higher risks of contracting infectious diseases e.g. hepatitis, AIDS

Blood Doping This refers to the methods of increasing oxygen-carrying capacity of

blood to boost aerobic performance Methods includes withdrawing blood, isolating o2 cells and then re-

transfusing them back into the blood

Pregnancy or Abortion Doping A woman’s body has an increase in blood

volume (due to supply two people) during pregnancy and this continues for a short period after the baby is born

Also there is a rise in testosterone meaning better oxygen delivery to muscles (blood) and increased muscle strength (testosterone)

Rumours developed around 1970s & 80s

Testing for abortion doping Virtually impossible to test for There is no ban for getting pregnant and if caught many

athletes would claim the pregnancy was not for improved performance

USSR gymnastics? The victorious USSR women’s gymnastics team on the podium at the

Mexico Olympics in October 1968, just two months after Soviet tanks rolled into Prague

In 1994, one of the team, Olga, said that officials who feared losing to the Czechs in Mexico had forced gymnasts to become pregnant and then to have an abortion to produce more blood cells

Drugs used as masking agents The two groups of drugs used as masking agents are diuretics and

alcohol A masking agent is one that hides something being used

Diuretics Increase the rate of excretion of water from the body via

urination are used by some athletes as they speed up weight loss, and may eradicate traces of banned substances from the body

Can cause dizziness, fainting, headaches, cramps, kidney failure and heart damage

Found where weight is critical; gymnastics, boxing, weightlifting

Alcohol Alcohol is prohibited during competition only It slows down bodily functions and is contained in many

cough elixirs Some athletes have been known to take cough elixirs to

mask dug abuse

Benefits and limitations of drug testing Before the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, drug testing was purely done

with urine samples Blood samples can also be requested of individual athletes and

checked using an Australian-developed test At the 2004 Athens Olympics, the laboratory receive 2926 urine

samples and 691 blood samples

In Beijing in 2008, 5000 tests (including 1000 blood) were taken, resulting in eight positive results

39 athletes didn’t arrive in Beijing because they tested positive in pre-Olympic tests 9april-August 2008)

The testing procedures Blood tests has increased ability to test for elevated levels of

hormones that occur naturally within the body such as EPO As time goes by, more and more tests are being developed by

scientists to catch those using banned substances But as quickly as new tests are developed, new designed drugs

are also being released It is a continual cycle of new drugs and new tests that keep the

millions of dollars pouring into their eradication Test samples are now being kept for up to 8 years when they are

taken This enables older samples to be retested when new tests have

been developed

Drug testing benefits & limitations Necessary if sporting

regulators are to make any improvements in the war against drugs

Some elite athletes feel the strict protocols around drug testing are an invasion of privacy, but they also believe that competition should be fair and clean of any banned substances

This is the moral and ethical dilemma confronting the World Anti-Doping Agency and sporting associations around the world

Reasons for testing Reasons against testing- Performance enhancing

substances allow athletes to go beyond their natural abilities

- Drugs give cheating athletes an unfair advantage

- The long-term health of the athlete is put at risk by taking performance enhancing drugs

- Drug testing “hopeless”, unjust or a failure

- The cat and mouse game of ‘new drug followed by new test’ is never ending

- Genetic engineering may not be really testable

- Drug tests invade the privacy of

- Drug taking undermines the purity of the competition

- Acts as a deterrent- Fairness in celebrating real

winners- Clears allegations

athletes, especially in the case of recreational drugs

- Authorities should not have the right to police our private lives e.g. medical info for illnesses

- Policies on drug testing differ from sport to sport

- Cost of the testing- Random selection creates loop holes- Length to return test- Use of masking agents

Use of Technology

How is technology used? Through improvements in training (called training innovations) or

through equipment

Training innovations New training innovations develop every year Coaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have support staff

to investigate the latest training methods and vices to improve athletic performance in power, distance and accuracy, and to prevent injury or aid in rehabilitation

o Lactate threshold testingo Body system testing (Max Vo2)o Biomechanical analysiso Motion analysiso Performance analysis packageo Underwater cameraso Swing analysiso GPS tracking systemo 3D athlete simulationo Drop in cricket pitcho Wind tunnel – cyclingo Hawk eye tenniso Snicko cricketo Altitude swimming pool tentso Cooling vestso Dual content drink bottles & carbohydrate liquids

What are the reasons why technology is unethical? Cost Stealing ideas from video analysis Unfair pressure on umpires through hawk-eye Focus on entertainment for spectators rather than just playing (third

empire)

Taking away home ground advantage with video data Access to technology Cultural acceptance of technology Technology replacing the actual human ability (cheetah-foot) Changing the rules of tennis &cricket with challenges Slowing the speed of the game Placing athletes at heightened levels of injury or illness (not being

able to access cooling vests or working harder to beat GPS tracking)

Positive developments from technology making sport enjoyable to the public through closer competition and

the thrill of extreme abilities increasing revenue for big business through sponsorship, media

coverage making sport more enjoyable for less advanced or younger athletes

(e.g. by making it easier to connect with a golf ball, tennis ball, softball, etc.)

bringing opportunities to physically challenged athletes through special wheelchairs, skis and prosthetics

increasing the comfort of athletes in some sports (e.g. seat design in cycling, shock absorbers on mountain bikes, riding boots for equestrians, golf buggies, etc.).

Negative developments from technology Pushing to the limit could result in increased chance of injury. Higher technology costs could result in not all athletes in all

countries being able to afford the new technologies. Athletes may experience increased pressure to get the edge they

need through performance-enhancing drugs. Athletes may rely on technology instead of skill development. Some technology may result in a decrease in activity levels (e.g.

golf buggies, ski lifts, etc.)