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Academic Writing, Norms and Ethics

Hongkai Xiong

Institute of Media, Information and NetworkShanghai Jiao Tong University, P.R.China

Autumn, 2019

Pro.f Xiong (M.I.N, SJTU) Academic Writing, Norms and Ethics Autumn, 2019 1 / 39

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Outline

1 What is Academic Writing?

2 Academic Writing Structure

3 How to Incorporate Evidence?

4 Use Concise and Clear Language

5 Demonstrate Balance in Your Writing

6 Build Your Arguments


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What is Academic Writing?

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State your facts as simply as possible, even boldly. No one wants flowersof eloquence or literary ornaments in a research article.

—– R. B. McKerrow


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Academic writing is to convey thoughts and share ideas in an academicsetting. It’s quite different from personal writing because it

is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by evidence.

is to aid the reader’s understanding.

has a formal style but not complex, e.g. long sentences andcomplicated vocabulary.

has different writing conventions, vocabulary and types of discourseaccording to different subject discipline.


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Characteristics of academic writing

Planned and focused: establishes the motivation, answers thequestion and demonstrates an understanding of the subject.

Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and bringstogether related points and material.

Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supportsopinions and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.

Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses,and is clear, concise and balanced.


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Academic Writing Structure

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An academic paper generally contains 6 distinct sections:

Abstract

Introduction

Related work

Proposed method

Experiments

Conclusions and further work


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Create overall structure

Once you start your writing, you can create a overall structure.

Introduction: outline the main direction that the writing will take,and give any necessary background information and context. Theproblem and motivation should be expressed explicitly and specifically.

Main body: includes your method and experiments. Each point ispresented, explored and developed in a logical order.

Conclusion: brings together the main points, and highlights the keymessage or argument. You may also identify any gaps or weaknessesin the arguments or ideas presented, and recommend further researchor investigation where appropriate.


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Arrange your points in logical order

You can follow the common orders:

create a list of your main points and think about what the readerneeds to know and in what order they will need to know it.

select appropriate evidence that you will use to support each mainpoint.

grouping your points in a logical order.

put these groups into a sequence that the reader can follow and useto make sense of the topic or argument.


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Writing in structured paragraphs

The paper should be written in structured paragraphs, for examples:

use paragraphs to build and structure your arguments, and separateeach of your points into different paragraphs.

make your points clear in the first or second sentence of yourparagraph to help the reader to follow the line of reasoning.

explain the point in great detail in the rest of the paragraph, andprovide your necessary evidences and examples when necessary oruseful.

at the end of the paragraph, show how the point you have madesignificant to the overall argument or link to the next paragraph.


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Using signalling words

Using signalling words will help the reader to understand the structure ofyour work and where you might be taking your argument. Use signallingwords to:

add more information eg. furthermore, moreover, additionally.

compare two similar points eg. similarly, in comparison.

show contrasting viewpoints eg. however, in contrast, yet.

show effect or conclusion eg. therefore, consequently, as a result.

emphasise eg. significantly, particularly

reflect sequence eg. first, second, finally.


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How to Incorporate Evidence?

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The importance of evidence

Academic writing must be supported by evidence such as data, facts,quotations, arguments, statistics, research, and theories. The evidencewill:

add substance to your own ideas.

allow the reader to see what has informed your thinking and how yourideas fit in with, and differ from, others’ in your field.

demonstrate your understanding of the general concepts and theorieson the topic.

show you have researched widely, and know about specialist/nicheareas of interest.


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Several methods to incorporate evidence

There are several methods that you can use to incorporate other people’swork into your own written works. These are:

paraphrasing

summarising

synthesising

quoting

You are likely to use a combination of these throughout your writing,depending on the purpose that you are trying to achieve.


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How to paraphrase others works

Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone else’s ideas.When paraphrasing, make sure that you:

identify a relevant theme or point, depending on your purpose.

write the point in your own words.

focus on the meaning of an idea or argument.

include a reference to the original author.


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Pitfalls in paraphrasing

Common pitfalls include:

describing an author’s idea/argument but not explaining thesignificance to your own argument, or the point that you are trying tomake.

using too many of the original author’s words, this includes using thesame structure.

not distinguishing between the author’s point and your own viewpoint.

providing too much detail.


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How to summarise other’s works

Summarising is providing a condensed version of someone else’s keypoints. When summarising other people’s work, make sure that you:

identify the relevant points of the idea or argument,depending on yourpurpose.

write a shortened version, in your own words, to show yourunderstanding.

include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.


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Pitfalls in summarising


describing an author’s idea/argument but not explaining thesignificance to your own argument, or the point that you are trying tomake.

providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessarybackground information rather than being selective and applying theinformation to the question you are trying to answer.


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How to synthesise other’s works

Synthesising involves combining different information and ideas to developyour own argument. When synthesising others’ work, make sure that you:

group sources into relevant categories, for example, authors withsimilar viewpoints or research that reveals the same results

write about these in your own words. Do not discuss each authorseparately; you must identify the overall points you want to make

include references to all the original authors


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Pitfalls in synthesising


not distinguishing clearly which viewpoint/s belong to which author/s

listing authors separately or one by one, thus not grouping relevantauthors or points together.

giving too much details about different perspectives.

not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you aretrying to make.


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How to quote from others’ work

Quoting is where you copy an author’s text word for word, place quotationmarks around the words and add a citation at the end of the quote. Whenquoting others’ work, make sure that you:

copy the quote exactly from the original, as the author has written it,taking care to include quotation marks.

show where you have made any changes to the text.

include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.


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Pitfall in quoting


using too many quotes throughout your work

incorporating a quote without explaining the significance to your ownargument or point you are trying to make.


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Use Concise and Clear Language

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Be concise

In formal academic writing it is important to be concise. This helps yourreader to understand the points you are making. Here are some tips tohelp you:

only include one main idea per sentence.

keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally not more than25 words). Long sentences can be difficult to follow and this maydistract from your point.

avoid repetition.


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Be concise

Avoid using redundant words. For example:

use “because” instead of “due to the fact that”.

use “alternatives” instead of “alternative choices”.

use “fundamentals” and not “basic fundamentals”.

use “concisely” instead of “in as few words as possible”.


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Use formal language

In academic writing you are expected to use formal language.:

avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as ’sort of’ or’basically’. Instead you could use ’somewhat’ or ’fundamentally’.

Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For example,instead of writing “don’t” or “isn’t” you would be expected to write“do not” or “is not”.

The use of cliches is not appropriate in academic writing. These arephrases such as “at the end of the day” or “in the nick of time.”Instead of this you might write finally or at the critical moment.


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Use a blend of active and passive verbs

Most verbs can be used in either an active or passive form. It is usuallyappropriate to use a mixture of passive and active forms within academicwriting.The active voice places the subject of the sentence in charge of the action.

It is usually more direct and easier to read than the passive voice.

However, sometimes you may want to emphasise what is happeningrather than who is doing it. To do this you can use the passive voice.


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Use a blend of active and passive verbs

The passive voice places the subject at the end, or may leave it outcompletely.

The passive voice is more formal than the active voice. It is oftenused in academic writing as it is seen as more impersonal andtherefore more objective.

However, it is not always easy to read and it may add unnecessarywords.


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Demonstrate Balance in Your Writing

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Hedges

When writing, be careful of using words such as ”definitely” or ”proves”.Ask yourself whether your statement is a fact or whether there may besome doubt either now or in the future.Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work are:

”This suggests...”

”It is possible that...”

”A possible explanation...”

”Usually...”

”Sometimes...”

”Somewhat...”


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Boosters

You might want to express a measure of certainty or conviction in yourwriting and this is when ’booster’ language can help. Some useful boosterwords and phrases to use in your work are:

”Clearly” (only use if you are certain it is clear)

”There is a strong correlation...”

“Results indicate...”


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Choose the correct tense and voice

It is important to use the correct tense and voice in your written work.You will probably need to use different tenses throughout depending uponthe context.

Only use first person voice in reflective writing.

Use past tense to speak about your method

Use present tense to conclude or discuss established knowledge


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Build Your Arguments

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The most important voice to get across in your writing is your own; it ishow you can show the reader (usually your tutor) what you are thinking,what your views are and how you have engaged critically with the topicbeing discussed. You can do this by building an effective and persuasiveargument for your reader.


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Make an argument

Your argument is how you express your viewpoint and answer thequestion you have been set, using evidence.

Your argument can help you plan the structure of your work andguide you to find the evidence you need to support it.

Make sure that your argument runs throughout your writing and thateverything you include is relevant to it.

Try to sum up your argument in a few words before you start writingand keep checking that it remains the focus as you research and writeyour work.


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Structure your argument

Guide your reader through your argument in a logical way. Thinkabout what questions your reader might have. If you can answerthese questions through your argument, it will seem more convincing.

Present both sides of the debate, along with your thoughts, linkingtogether the different elements.

You can then work towards a conclusion by weighing the evidence andshowing how certain ideas are accepted and others are rejected. Yourconclusion should make clear where you stand.


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Develop your argument

Develop your argument by considering the evidence and drawing yourown conclusion.

If you are considering a range of opinions, try to group them togetherunder different headings.

Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the different sets of evidenceand present these clearly and in a critical way.

Take the evidence into account in developing your own argument andmake clear what your viewpoint is. Perhaps your argument hasstrengths and weaknesses as well – it is fine to acknowledge these.


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Include your own voice in your writing

Your voice will emerge through your discussion, interpretation, andevaluation of the sources.Here are some ways you can establish your voice in your writing:

Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start ofparagraphs followed by evidence, findings, arguments from yoursources.

Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.

Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between thosesources and your main assertion.

Use language to show your strong agreement/disagreement/cautiousagreement with sources.

Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at theend of paragraphs.

Using different verbs in your writing will show your understanding ofthe sources.


academic writing, norms and ethics - sjtumin.sjtu.edu.cn/courses/academic/lesson2.pdf · 2020. 7....

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