academic writing ii: grammar, style, editing, proofreading
DESCRIPTION
This is a presentation from an ANLTC Workshop on Academic Writing, hosted by the Library at the National University of Ireland Maynooth. Participants have already participated in an introductory workshop.TRANSCRIPT
Academic Writing II
Helen Fallon, Deputy Librarian, National University of Ireland Maynooth
GrammarStyleEditingProofreading
Themes
Voice – active versus passive Verbs Adverbs Adjectives Tense Adjectives
Grammar
Active Voice◦ Subject + verb + object or just subject + verb◦ The Library introduced self-service
borrowing at the start of the academic year
Grammar - voice
Object + verb + subject or object + verb e.g. mistakes were made◦ Self-service borrowing was introduced by the
Library at the start of the academic year
Passive verb is a form of the verb “to be” and the past participle of the main verb. The main verb must be a transitive verb (take an object)
Passive Voice
To turn the passive voice to the active voice: Ask: “Who does what to whom?”◦ Increased seat occupancy was observed in the
months leading up to the examinations◦ We observed increased seat occupancy◦ A recommendation was made by the Library
Committee that a survey be carried out◦ The Library committee recommended that a
survey be carried out
Passive to Active
Write with Verbs Use Strong Verbs Use verbs rather than their noun equivalent
◦ The author makes the suggestion that...◦ The author suggests that...
Don’t bury the main verb◦ Keep the subject and main verb (predicate) close
together at the start of the sentence. Use “to be” verbs purposefully and
sparingly – is are was were be been am
Grammar - verbs
Minimise use of There are/There is◦ There are many ways in which we can arrange the
collections◦ We can arrange the collections in many ways◦ There are many librarians who like to write◦ Many librarians like to write◦ The data confirm that there is a link between
library usage and exam results◦ The data confirm a link between library usage and
exam results
Verbs – There is/There are
The following verbs are frequently used, particularly in abstracts:
addresses, asks, argues, concludes, covers, critiques, demonstrates, describes, discusses, elucidates, examines, evaluates, expands, explains, explores, identifies, maps, outlines, presents, proposes, promotes, reports, reveals, reviews, shows, suggests, summarises.
Verbs
Adverb – describes or modifies a verb
expresses manner or quality◦Very◦Easily◦Terribly◦Slowly◦Quickly
Grammer - adverb
Describes or modifies a noun long/new/old/difficult/late/terrible
Compound adjectiveWhen you join two or more words to describe an
object e.g. An up-to-date collection
Adjective
Tense Contributes to tone
“ Forceful writing results from writing concisely, actively and positively. The present tense is usually more active and therefore more forceful than the past tense.” (Henson, p. 48)
Grammar - Tense
The American Psychological Association ( APA) suggest:
using past tense to describe results and action or a condition that occurred at a specific, definite time in the past;the present tense to discuss implications of results, to present conclusions and to express a past action or condition that did not occur at a specific, definite time or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing to the present.
Grammar - tense
Use punctuation to vary sentence structure and support meaning
Punctuation marks contribute to continuity (flow) by showing relationships between ideas
Punctuation should mirror speech
Grammar - punctuation
Semicolon Colon Comma Apostrophe Dash Hyphen Quotations marks Parentheses
Grammar – Punctuation
The semicolon connects two independent clauses
It was the best of times; it was the worst of times
She knew a lot about the Library; she had worked there for twenty years
The book on academic writing is very useful; it is full of interesting ideas
Semicolon
The semicolon is also used to separate items in lists that have internal punctuation◦ The number of books issued has reduced
dramatically: in 2008 25,000 books were borrowed; in 2009, 19,000; by 2010, when the new library was built, only 15,000 items were issued
Semicolon
Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a quote, a list, an explanation or conclusion
QuoteFormal quotations are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marksThe Library policy states: “Journals may not be borrowed by undergraduates.”
Colon
ListThe committee now includes the following people:librarianundergraduate student postgraduate studentmature student Part-time student
Colon
Use for items in a list, except the penultimate one◦ She ordered three books, a journal, a thesis and
an article Where you have inserted a clause to
provide extra information◦ She liked the Library, where she had worked for
some time, but left to take up a post in a different town
Introductory phrases◦ However, borrowing increased during the period
Comma
Use for a missing letter in a word◦ The Library isn’t open today◦ Where’s the journal kept?
Use to denote possessive◦ The student’s books◦ The Library’s stock (one library)◦ The Libraries’ stock (means the stock of more
than one Library)
You don’t need to add the possessive “s”
when the name ends in “s” – unless it is common usage: Mary Jones’ book/St. James’s hospital
Apostrophe
Use for time phrases when the time modifies a noun◦ The Library will open in one day’s time◦ Six months’ ban on borrowing
Don’t use apostrophe for possessive pronouns or for plurals of words or for dates◦ The book isn’t hers; the departments stock, 1970s
Apostrophe
“A dash is a mark of separation stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than parentheses. Use a dash only when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate.”—Strunk and White
to add emphasis to insert a definition or description almost
anywhere in the sentence to announce a long explanation or summary
Dash
Use to connect compound words It’s a little-know fact that the book dated from the early-
Eighteenth Century◦ Use for figures written out and when you use figures
as adjectives◦ Twenty-four; a three-year old book; a 20-minute
presentation Use for titles
◦ Vice-President Use for prefixes
pre-Christian, post-natal
Hyphen
Generally double quotation marks for direct speech and single ones for speech within speech.◦ He said: “I meant to say ‘The Library will close in one
hour’.” Punctuation goes inside the quotation marks if
the whole sentence is a quotation He said: “The Library was closed when I arrived.”
Punctuation goes inside the quotation marks if the punctuation refers only to the words quoted
“I was forced to steal the book,” he said
Quotation Marks
Use parentheses to insert an afterthought or explanation (a word, phrase or sentence) into a passage that is grammatically complete without it. If you remove the material within the parentheses, the main point of the sentence should not change.◦ She travelled to Nigeria in 1964 (having
completed a science degree in UCC) and remained there for over thirty years.
Parentheses
shows a relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence – to/on/over/up/through/among/between/
with/for/in/over/besides
Omit needless prepositions“that” and “on” are often superfluous◦ The meeting happened on Monday◦ The meeting happened Monday◦ They agreed that it was true◦ They agreed it was true
Prepositions
Affect and effect Affect = Verb; effect = noun
Will the financial cuts affect service?What was the effect of the financial cuts
on service? Practice (noun) practise (verb) Precede (go before), proceed (continue) Stationary (adjective – still), Stationery (noun) Dependent (adjective) She is dependent...,
dependant (noun)
Commonly Confused Words
Writing as storytelling Beginning, middle and end (not necessarily in
that order) What makes a story interesting? A story has a theme A story has movement A story has a flow Something happens/changes Perhaps try to write your piece from start to
finish before beginning editing
Narrative/Story
There are different ways to structure articles Study the structure of articles in your target
journal Model articles on other articles that work
well (template) Different structures can achieve the same
results ways Be aware of your audience
Outlining/Structuring
Sentences Paragraphs Headings and subheadings Transitions
Structure
There needs to be a unity of thought in a sentence. This may be achieved with one main clause; generally there is only one subsidiary clause
Place the subject towards the beginning of the sentence
Sentences
New paragraph signals a move from one clear idea to another or change of direction
Should relate logically to the previous paragraph and relate to the overall theme of the text
The first sentence or two usually present the topic or theme and the following sentences expand on this
Short paragraphs, surrounded by white space, can be very effective in keeping attention and creating a visually attractive manuscript
Paragraphs
Act as signposts Break up text Make the structure clearer Allow the reader see at a glance the main
themes of the paper Help organise ideas Help readers anticipate key points and track
the development of the article
Headings & subheadings
Create connections between the different parts of the paper
Can make a manuscript visually more attractive
Endings of sections that hark back to what has gone before or opening sections that indicate what is to come act as unofficial signposts
Headings and subheadings
Transitional words ◦ help maintain flow of thought
time links (then, next, after, while, since)◦ cause-effect links (therefore, consequently, as a
result)◦ addition links (in addition, moreover,
furthermore, similarly) ◦ contrast links (but, conversely, nevertheless,
however, although)◦ Provide signposts for readers
Transitions
Use positive rather than negative constructions◦ The nursing team did not believe the drug was
harmful◦ The nursing team believed the drug was safe◦ Not important/Unimportant◦ Did not remember/Forgot
Use concise language◦ A majority of/most◦ Due to the fact that/because◦ Gave rise to/caused
Language
Drafting and Redrafting
All writing is rewriting Draft and redraft Number, date and save drafts Refer back to your abstract Ask a critical colleague to read Revise title, abstract & article Check references against journal guidelines
All writing is rewriting Draft and redraft Number, date and save drafts Read aloud Wordiness
◦ Cut unnecessary words and phrases; delete repetitive words
Delete unnecessary adjectives◦ Helpful tips, terrible tragedy
Delete unnecessary adverbs ◦ very, really, quite, basically, generally
Editing
Verbs ◦ Underline the main verb in each sentence. Watch for: (1)
lacklustre verbs (2) passive verbs (3) buried verbs
Does each paragraph contain one main theme?◦ It can be helpful to write down the main topic of the
paragraph in the margin or at the top of the paragraph ◦ If the paragraph contains more than one main idea,
divide it
Editing
Prepositions◦ Omit unnecessary prepositions – that, on
Delete unnecessary adjectives◦ Helpful tips, terrible tragedy
Delete unnecessary adverbs ◦ very, really, quite, basically, generally
Does your writing have movement, coherence, clarity?
Editing
This requires concentration; proofread when you are alert
Try to allow some time between writing the piece and proofreading it
If possible have a colleague proofread it first Take breaks Consider using “track changes” function in
Word
Proofreading
If correcting manually make changes in the body of the text and on the margin
Use a red pen to make your corrections stand out
Mark each page that has to be changed After proofreading and making changes
save version with a new date
Proofreading
Read aloud slowly Read each word Watch out for widows and orphans Check hierarchy of headings Check paired items such as brackets and
speech marks Check type font is consistent Check grammar and use of English Check punctuation is consistent Check abbreviations
Proofreading
When finished put aside for a period then reread
Spell check Date and File preprint Let go If you have already sent a query e-mail to
the editor refer to that in your submission
Let it Go!
Kenneth T. Henson, Writing for Publication: Road to Academic Advancement, 2005, Boston: Pearson
Strunk and White’s Elements of Stylehttp://www.bartleby.com/141/
References and Useful Resources