A PERFORMANCE EDITION AND CRITICAL REPORT

OF THE SIX SONATAS FOR VIOLIN AND HARPSICHORD

BY CHARLES CHABRAN (CARLO FRANCESCO CHIABRANO)

by

DOROTHY OVERN RANDOLPH, B.A., M.A.T., Ed.D.

A DISSERTATION

IN

FINE ARTS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial FulfiUment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Chairperson of the Committee

Ac9epted

May, 1997

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Copyright 1997, Dorothy Ovem Randolph

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank all the people who have so graciously given of their time to help

me accomplish this project.

Dr. Michael Stoune, chairman, has helped me immensely in directing my

research and in writing this dissertation. He gave unselfishly of his time and

effort. I felt I could depend on his help at any time.

The other members of the committee. Professors C. R. Meek who

graciously checked the music score, and Dean Wilcox, J. A. Stinespring, amd

especially C. Scully, for their assist£uiee in writing the text.

Mr. Kevin Bushee, formerly with the Colonial WiUiamsburg Foundation,

started me on this joiuney with the Baroque violin, and even sold me his

violin, a tremendous contribution, for I would not have been able to reach this

point without it.

Patience and kind understanding describes Dr. Virginia KeUogg for her

help as my first advisor and for working with me in both solo and ensembles.

Dr. Judson Maynard shared his viol with me and included me in ensembles.

Dr. Richard McGowan and Dr. James Barber helped set up the research and

encouraged me in pursuing the project.

Professor Marilyn McDonald and the other members of the faculty of the

Baroque Performance Institute, Conservatory of Music, OberUn College,

Oberlin, Ohio, provided much guidance for performance in both private lessons

11

and master classes. Dr. Ronald Broude, Broude Brothers, assisted me to verify

the manuscripts.

Ceirol Roberts of the Texas Tech University Library was most helpful in

getting the microfilms and other materials.

Finally, this would not have been possible without the loving

encouragement of my husband, Paul Randolph.

m

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES viii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. SOURCES AND EDITORIAL PRACTICES 3

The Composer: Charles Chabran 3

The Early Editions 3

Comparison of the Sources 4

Editorial Considerations 6

Realizations of the Figured Bass 6

in. PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS 8

IV. THE VIOLIN IN MID-EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

PERFORMANCE 19

The Instnmients of the Baroque Period 20

The Physical Difference Between the Baroque

and Modem Violin and Bows 22

Eighteenth Century Performance Practice 25

The System of Pitch, Intonation, and Temperament in the Baroque Era 36

V. CONCLUSIONS 41

IV

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 42

APPENDIXES

A. THE FULL SCORE 50

B. THE CRITICAL REPORT 163

C. LECTURE RECITAL 168

ABSTRACT

Charles Chabran (1723 - ?), violinist-composer, was bom in Tiuin,

Italy. Following study with his uncle, Giovanni Battista Somis, he moved

first to Paris and finally to London. Chabran pubfished this set of six vioUn

and harpsichord sonatas in Paris in 1751, and repubfished the coUectipn in

London in 1763. These works have not been available for performance since

that time. A copy of this set of sonatas was located and has been

transcribed using the "Finale" music notation computer program into a

publisher-ready format. A reaUzation of the figured bass in a simple chordal

style is included. In addition, a critical report containing material about the

historic£d backgroimd, comments on the sources, editorial practice, and

performance suggestions has been completed to be included with the edition.

The dissertation contains information about the violins of the period

and performance practice. The procedures necessary to find the music of an

earlier time as weU as some editorial problems is included.

VI

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Title Page. Six Sonatas a violon seul et basse continuo: ler oeuv. Paris 52

2. First half page. Sonata 1. Six Sonatas a violon seul et basse continuo: ler oeuv. Paris 53

vu

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

1. Wide range of melody Une from Sonata VI, Movement 4 10

2. Scalar and arpeggio figurations from Sonata V, Movement 1 . . . . 10

3A. Melody line without harmonics from Sonata II, Movement 3 . . . . 14

3B. Melody line with harmonies from Sonata II, Movement 3 14

4. Natural harmonies using double stops in Sonata V, Movement 1 . 14

5. Difficult double stops from Sonata III, Movement 2 15

6. Cadenza indicated by a fermata from Sonata V, Movement 2 . . . . 16

7. Suggested cadenza for Example 6 16

8. Suggested bowings from Sonata V, Movement 1 16

9. Original edition: Sextuplets. Sonata I, Movement 1 17

10. This edition: Sextuplets, Sonata I, Movement 1 17

11. Rhjrthmic Inequality as written in Sonata V, Movement 2 18

12. Rhythmic Inequality as it would be played 18

viu

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this research was threefold: to find all of the extant

compositions of the composer, Chgu-les Chabran, to transcribe these works into

modem notation, and to prepare a practical edition of these compositions for

publication. Only one set of six sonatas for violin and harpsichord has been

foimd, and is the basis for this dissertation.

The second step of this research was to transcribe these compositions

into modem notation. The complete score and the Critical Report form the

greatest part of the dissertation. Transcribing the score required an expansion

of the score from two staves to three. In 1750 the score consisted of the violin

line and the bass line with a set of figures to indicate the harmony to be

played. Keyboard players were able to play from the bass line and figures

alone. Most modem keyboard performers, however, need a realization of the

figured-bass written down in order to perform it. The realization is the new

middle staff.

Toda/s marketplace expects an edition to be camera-ready for

publication. To accompHsh this task the computer music notation program.

For this edition the music notation program "Finale" was used. The set of six

sonatas, complete with suggested keyboard realization is included as Appendix

A.

The Critical Report containing information about the sources,

clarification of the editing process, and performance suggestions is not only

customary, but mandatory for the standards of today's early music performer.

It is included as Appendix B.

These compositions will enrich the collection of fine Baroque

compositions available for violinists and harpsichordists to perform. Therefore,

the principsd scope of this research is the production and addition of more

music to the repertory of violin and harpsichord sonatas. While the primary

users may be the players of period instruments, this music is not limited to

any single group of performers.

This document includes detailed information about the instruments,

both the violins and harpsichords, and the performance practice that was

available for Chabran to use, which is necessary background for the performer

for the maximum imderstanding of the music and its presentation.

CHAPTER II

SOURCES AND EDITORIAL PRACTICES

The Composer: Charles Chabran

Charles Chabran was bom Carlo Francesco Chiabrano in Tmin, Italy,

in 1723. He was the pupil and nephew of Giovanni Battista Somis (1686-

1763), a violinist who had studied with Arcangelo Corelli and may have

studied also with Vivaldi. Somis gave a concert in Paris in 1721, but returned

to Turin. Chiabrano also went to Paris where he gave a concert at the

"Concert Spirituel" (a concert society foimded in 1725) in 1750 where he

received rave reviews. In Paris, he changed his name to Charles Chabran.

While there he published the set of six sonatas for violin and harpsichord

which is the subject of this study. He next went to London and had the same

set published in 1763. Finally the circumstances and date of death are

unknown.

The Earlv Editions

The edition of six violin sonatas by Charles Chabran was first engraved

by Vendome and sold by the composer and others in Paris in 1751. The same

six sonatas were published in London for P. Welker in 1763. In addition, four

of these sonatas were included in Carlo Campioni's Six Favorite Solos for a

Violin with a Bass for the Violoncello and Hamsichord. pubUshed in London

by John Walsh in 1760. The three editions, although apparentiy made from

different plates, differ very little. While the Paris edition contains the six

sonatas plus a composition named "La Caccia," the London edition includes

only the six sonatas. One of the sonatas, "Sonata No. 5 in G," and "La Caccia,"

were included in the collection in L'Art du Violon published by Jean-Baptiste

Cartier in Paris m 1798. In 1974, Broude Brothers reprinted the second

edition of Cartier's L'Art du Violon in the series Monuments of Music in

Facsimile. Broude Brothers also included "Sonata No. 5" in its Performer's

Editions in 1989, but not "La Caccia." "Sonata No. 5 in G" was also included

in a coUection edited for vioHn and piano by Delphin Alsu-d in Les Maitres

Classiques du Violon, published in Leipzig by B. Schott's Sohne in about 1868.

There have been no other modem publications of this work.

Comparison of the Soinrces

There is very little difference among the three editions that have been

examined. The differences among the editions concerning pitches, rhythms,

figured bass, and the like, are noted in the Critical Report and the choices of

the most probable correct notes have been made and marked.

Search for the Sources

"Sonata V" was broadcast over a national classical music network and

heard over the local classical station. It was played by Sergiu Luca, violin,

5

with Barbara Bogatin, Cello, and James Richman, harpsichord. Catalogs of

music recordings including the National Union Catalog, published by the

Library of Congress were searched to locate a copy of this recording. A copy

of the recording was foimd 2uid obtsdned; however, the material with the

recording did not give any information about the score from which it was

played. An intense search was begun in the other Ustings of music, in Heyer,

Historical Sets, Collected Editions, and Momnnents of Music, a book by book

search of all the anthologies from different coimtries, and the Dictionary

Catalog of the New York Public Library Music Collection. The copy of "Sonata

V" was foimd in J. B. Cartier, L'Art du violon. photo-reproduced in the

Mommients of Music in Facsimile.

Since this sonata was the fifth sonata in the first group of works, the

search was continued to find a set of either six or twelve sonatas, the most

common publishing practice in 1750. It took a computer search in the

"WorldCat" database to find the location of the microfilms of the six sonatas.

A search in R.I.S.M. for any library copies, led to the correspondence with the

Swedish Royal Library to determine whether the copy they held was the same

as the one from the French Bibliographie Nationale. The Swedish Royal

Library sent material that confirmed that the copies came from the same

source and thus were identical. It was concluded that there were no other

copies of these sonatas.

Editorial Considerations

Two microfilmed editions of the complete set and the microfilmed edition

of the partial set published by Campioni have been examined, and few

differences have been foimd. A modem edition has been transcribed using the

computer and "Finale" music notation software. The violin part has been

transcribed with exactly the same notes as the original. There are a few

instances where the original bass notes and figures have been in obvious error.

Any additions or corrections have been marked by standard methods such as

smaller noteheads, parentheses, dotted slvirs, or accidentals placed above the

score.

Realizations of the Figured Bass

The score includes a reaHzed keyboard part derived from the figured-

bass numbers. It is written in an appropriate eighteenth century style of

simple chordal practice, and contrapimtal textures. Baroque keyboard artists

were expected to accompany vocaUsts, string and woodwind players from the

given bass line with or without figures. Rules for the realization of figured

bass line were very specific. Some of these included the avoidance of parallel

fifths and octaves in harmonic progressions. The solo line could never be

doubled exactiy. The third of any chord appearing in the solo line could not be

doubled in the reaUzation. The notes of the realization must always be below

the solo voice. Because the harpsichord technically could not change dynamics,

various ways were used to give the iUusion of changed dynamics. To make the

illusion of soft dynamics, notes in the chords were dropped or played in a lower

register. Notes were added to chords to make the sound louder. Because the

tone of a harpsichord dies away quickly, the reaUzation contain repeated and

rolled chords to extend the sound.

Harmony and hannonic rhythm were the principal featm*es realized.

Actual notes and extra ornamentation was entirely up to the harpsichordist

who rarely wrote out parts that they played. J. S. Bach was one of the first

who composed and wrote out psirts for the right hand of the keyboard

accompaniments, and in so doing actually composed trio sonatas for only two

players, such as Six Sonatas for VioUn and Hamsichord, BWV 1014-1019.

CHAPTER III

PERFORMANCE SUGGESTIONS

Performers consider obtaining an acciu'ate edition to be the first and

single most important featiu^e of an authentic, historically informed

performance practice. Editions are available today of many of the important

works of the 17th and 18th centiuies. Scholars have done extensive research

into determining the authenticity of the compositions-they have compared the

handwriting, the paper, the locations and history of ownership of the

manuscripts-and have tried to pubHsh the editions with the original markings

whenever possible. When many copies of a single work have been available,

the musicologists have tried to determine which markings are most likely the

ones made by the composer. Marks commonly used in the eighteenth centmy

included slurs, dots, various ornamentation marks such as trills, mordents,

turns, vibrato, and dynamic marks. The published editions frequently include

editorial reports explaining the various marks, dynamics, dots and slurs, to be

as accurate and as true to the intentions of the composer as humanly possible.

Any marks and all additions inserted by an editor should be clearly

marked in the copy. Editorial marks include parentheses, dotted Hues for

slurs, accidentals placed above the staff, and noteheads in a different size. In

the edition accompanying this document the realization of the figured bass is

in smaUer size noteheads.

8

9

After obtaining the edition, a performer must be careful to foUow all

markings that were put there by the composer. In the eighteenth century,

performers agreed that each note should be different from its neighbor in its

nuance, its dynamic, or its length. There is a sUght pause between each note,

giving the effect of pearls on a string.

Slurs, for example, indicate not only phrasing and expression, but are

bowing directions for string players. In general, a slur directs a violinist to

play all the notes under the slur with a single bow stroke. The first note

under a slur is played with the greatest volimae, the next note is softer, then

the last note is played lightiy and with less than its notated rhythmic value (L.

Mozart, 1756, p.125-126).

Dots over notes usually imply a shortening and Hghtening of the bow

stroke, usually called "staccato." It can be played either on or off the string.

Using a baroque bow, most notes are played separately, and have a natural

staccato sound.

The Original Format

Chabran's original compositions were pubUshed written with the two

principal parts, violin and basso continuo, together. The basso continuo

includes figures for the harpsichordist to reafize. It is obvious from the music

that the violin is the main voice, and the basso continuo, while it is

contrapuntal, is mainly accompanimental.

10

We do not know the exact notes that the harpsichordist played to reedize

the figured bass when Chabran played these sonatas, but if the practices of the

time were followed, the notes were most Ukely different in each performance,

and tailored to the type of audience present and venue.

Melody

The solo part of the six sonatas includes the entire range of the violin

from the open G string, (g) up to C above High C (c4).

Example 1. Wide range of melody Une from "Sonata VI, Movement 4," Measures 179-181.

In addition, there are also natviral and artificial harmonics in the music,

extending the range above the normal range. The melodic line also includes

many scalar and arpeggio passages especially in the first and last movements,

typical of Italian vioHn music of the mid-18th century.

^ ^ ^

^

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Example 2. Scalar and arpeggio figurations from "Sonata V," Movement 1, Measm-es 9-12.

11

Musical Forms

Foinr of the sonatas have only three movements, and two have four

movements. The practice of composing only three movements continues the

work of Somis, his teacher, who graduaUy moved from foiu* to three movement

works. All but two movements are in rounded binary form with both sections

repeated. The two exceptions are "Sonata V," Movement 3, which is an AUegro

Rondeau (ABACA) and "Sonata VI," Movement 4, which is a theme with four

variations. The time signatiu-es used in all the sonatas include 4, 4, C, and (p.

Harmony

All but two movements are in major mode. The tempo titles and keys

for the sonatas and their movements are in the foUowing table.

The first section of the movements in major mode always modulates to

the dominant key, and the first section of the movements in minor mode

modulates to the relative major key. There are no modulations to distant keys.

Chabran apparently was not daring in his use of harmonization, and therefore,

complex harmony is not the principal interest in these pieces, but rather the

experiments in the melodic line.

12

Table 1. Tempo and Keys for each Sonata movement.

Sonata

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

Movement 1

Allegro D Major

Adagio A Major

Allegro F Major

Allegro B flat Major

Allegro G Major

Allegro non tanto E flat Major

Movement 2

Largo A Major

Allegro A Major

Largo f minor

Largo F Major

Largo D Major

Largo c minor

Movement 3

Allegro Moderato D Major

Allegro ma non troppo A Major

Allegro Grazioso F Major

Allegro B flat Major

Allegro Rondeau G Major

Allegro E flat Major

Movement 4

Presto A Major

Non tanto Allegro E flat Major

Ornamentation

Chabran wrote plus signs on many individual notes in the melody

indicating that the performer was to embellish that note. The plus sign stands

for any appropriate ornament, in most cases a trill. Performers in that day,

however, were not limited to embellishing only the indicated notes, but were

free to add appropriate ornaments to any note (Geminiani, 1751, p.6). In most

of the fast movements, however, there are so many notes already written out,

that there is littie opportvmity for performer's discretionary embelHshment.

13

Adagio melodies, however, are simpler, often a mere skeleton of melody so

performers could embellish in their own personal style. The composer-

performer, such as Chabran, did not need any signs for his ovm. performances,

and he left the choice of ornaments up to future performers.

Special Effects

Though harmonics were used in violin music before 1750, Chabraui was

an innovator in including natural harmonics as part of the melodic structmre

in both the second and the fifth sonatas. It was for this feature that "Sonata

V" was included by Jean Baptiste Cartier in the anthology L'Art du violon.

Since harmonics were new to violin music, the sign used to tell the violinist to

play these notes as harmonics was put on the front page of the music with the

explanation. The following example. Example 3A, comes from "Sonata II,

Movement 3," and illustrates the first phrase to be played normally. Then in

Example 3B, the repeat of the first phrase eight measures later uses the

natural harmonics which are exactly two octaves higher in pitch than the

original phrase. The bass line is identical for both phrases and does not sound

correct in the repeat section if the harmonics are not played. This may be

considered a test of the authenticity of the harmonic notation.

14

^ ^

^ ^m V ' M ^ J ?

^ i

6 6

m 9

S

Example 3A. Melody line without harmonics, "Sonata II," Movement 3, Measures 1-4.

i a o o n ji n

^

o o o o ° - ° i ^f#^ /? o <* ° i 221

^ ^ i S P f 6 6

Example 3B. Melody line with harmonics, "Sonata II, Movement 3," Measm-es 9-12.

In exEunple 4, natm-al harmonics used in double stops are shown from

"Sonata V". What may appear as simple open string D and A actually are

played in third position on the D and G strings.

97 , o 0 0 o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 o o

97 . UJU r O 0 0 0 O 0 m m i 1=F

^ ^ ^ m ^

^

: ^

^ ^

Example 4. Natural Harmonics using double stops in "Sonata V," Movement 1, Measures 97-100

15

Double Stops

Double stops appear in almost every movement. While many of the

instances of double stops include the use of at least one open string and are

relatively simple to perform, there are several which are technically very

difficult for the violinist especially on a Baroque violin. The following example

demands that the vioUnist use fourth position on the D and G strings.

¥'^^'^^Suu^^§ljl}^^§l}[}^''§f}fi f

Example 5. Difficult double stops, "Sonata III," Movement 2, Measures 1-5.

Cadenzas

During the period in which Chabran wrote, performers were free to add

a cadenza to any adagio movement. However in two sonatas, Chabran used

a fermata to indicate that the performer must play a cadenza in the measure

before the end of the movement. This occurs in the second movement of both

"Sonata IV" and "Sonata V." "Sonata V," Movement 2, is illustrated in

Example 6.

16

M W 'C

W : ^ ^ g

r\

m n

S ^

% i P ^ ^

I S 5 6 7 I I

Exeunple 6. Cadenza indicated by a fermata "Sonata V," Movement 2, Measures 28-31.

^m

Example 7. Suggested cadenza for Example 6.

Bowing

Several suggested bowings have been put in the music by the editor

(shown by a dotted slur) to indicate some of the styles of bowing which are

possible with a Baroque bow. Some of the bowing suggestions also simplify the

technical difficulties.

V - - - - . v ^ - - - -

Example 8. Suggested bowings, "Sonata V," Movement 1, Measures 116-119.

17

Rhythm

Rhythm in this transcription has been notated as in the original.

However, in the original, sometimes the rhythm was broken into parts, such

as in "Sonata I," Movement 1. Here sextuplets were split into two groups of

three notes each. That was the common practice then (L. Mozart, 1756, p. 104)

as shown in Example 9. However, today the group of six is retained to agree

with the time signature, as in Example 10.

Example 9. Original edition: Sextuplets, "Sonata 1," Movement 1, Measiu-es 10-13.

Example 10. This edition: sextuplets, "Sonata I," Movement 1, Measures 10-13.

Since Chabran first published these sonatas in France, he expected a

performer would use rhythmic inequality, as in "Sonata V," Movement 2,

measures 1 and 3, in descending stepwise progressions of sixteenth notes in a

slow tempo. Example 11 shows how the notes were written. Example 12

indicates how it would be played.

18

fh-jr]Jtf'riii'frTyr rciL'C,f|i:,...

Example 11. Rh3rthmic Inequality as written in "Sonata V," Movement 2, Measures 1 -4 .

Example 12. Rhythmic Inequality as it would be played

Rhythmic flexibility is a feature throughout all the sonatas. The main

rhythmic pulse would be kept by the measinre, but within measures the

performer would take Hberties with the exact notation of the rhythm. This

would be more obvious in the slower moving movements.

CHAPTER IV

THE VIOLIN IN MID-EIGHTEENTH

CENTURY PERFORMANCE

Instruments called "vioUns" with approximately the same body

specifications of the modem violin were in use by the year 1600. Compositions

that were written specifically for the violin appeared soon after that. The most

common title was "Sonata" meaning to be played with an instrument rather

than sung. Some of the first Italian composers of violin sonatas were Giovanni

Battista Fontana (d.l630) and Biaggio Marini (1587-1665).

The violinist's technique developed rapidly and was well on the way

towards the standards of today by the time of Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)

whose Opus 5 was published in 1700.

Most compositions for guiy instruments were gradually dropped from the

performance repertories since the custom was for composers to write new

compositions for every occasion. Only after the time of George Frederic Handel

(1685-1759) have compositions remained continuously in the repertory.

Therefore, Chabran's once popular compositions were gradually no longer

played and were replaced with more cmrent pieces. That practice accounts for

the small number of prints of his music.

19

20

The Instrmnents of the Baroque Period

Instruments of the Baroque period have been the subject of much study

in the last fifty years. Arnold Dolmetsch, in England, was a pioneer in this

endeavor (Cohen, 1985). The types of instrtunents that have been revived

include aU sections of the orchestra, strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion,

vauious keybo£ird instruments, and in addition, the viol and recorder famihes

from the seventeenth centiuy.

Performers have been primarily interested in the instruments' sound

and their performance capabilities. Many instrmnents, found both in musetims

and in private collections, have been restored to plajdng condition, which

implies, in the case of viohns, regluing if necessary, resetting the soundpost

and the bridge, and the addition of a fresh set of gut strings.

Unfortimately, very few fine viohns and other string instruments made

before 1800 escaped the modernization process of the late nineteenth century.

Some of these original violins that were modernized have been restored to their

original specifications. A violin made by Van der Sjide in the early 1700s in

the Netherlands is one that has been restored to the original playing conditions

which this researcher has been privileged to own and play. In addition,

excellent reproductions of both string and woodwind instruments have been

built modelled after the original instruments.

This research project is concerned principally with violins and

accompanying instruments such as viols and harpsichord. Information telling

21

about both instruments and performance practice used in playing these

Baroque instruments is foimd in treatises by Leopold Mozart, Francesco

Geminiani, Johann Quantz, and C. P. E. Bach (see Bibliography). While these

treatises were written primsuily for instruction in playing the violin, the viols,

the flute, £ind the harpsichord, performance practice for all Baroque music is

included. Additional information comes from the excellent artwork depicting

performers on these instruments copies of which are fornid in the series of

books in Musikgeschichte in Bildem.

The Phvsical Difference Between the Baroque and Modem Violin and Bows

The Baroque Violin

The basic shape of the violin is illustrated by a series of photographic

plates in the comprehensive history of the violin, A History of VioUn Playing

from its origins to 1761 by David Boyden, the primary in-depth study of all

aspects of the early history of the violin (1965, p. 120). The design of the body

of the violin has remained the same since its developmental perfection in Italy

and Germany in the 1600s. The body consists of two pieces of oval shaped

wood. The top is made from spruce, and the back is made from maple. They

are connected aroimd the edges with a two inch piece of wood called the ribs.

A partial circle cutout called a "c bout" on either side in the middle allows the

bow to pass over the strings without touching the body. The interior of the

violin body has a bass bar, a long slender piece of wood that reinforces the top

22

located imder the lowest string, and a soimdpost, a roimd post with a diameter

of one-fourth inch, that connects the top to the back.

Outside the violin the neck was short, wide, and thick throughout its

length, and was connected to the body of the vioHn using a special nail. The

neck extended out from the body on the same level in a straight line. The

fingerboard was made of ebony inlaid in softwood which was wedge shaped in

order to have the correct height adjustment for the strings. The bridge was

thick and flat with considerable cutout open space.

Strings were short and were made from natural gut from lambs, the

same material that is presently used in medical sutures. For the lowest string

the gut was covered or wrapped with silver. This practice of using metal

wrapped strings began about 1600 but was not adopted by all viohnists for

many years.

The soimd ideal of the Baroque violin was that of a transparent clarity

with a soft sweetness which was most effective in small halls and stone

churches typical in the Baroque period.

The Modem Violin

When the modem violin is compared to the earUer Baroque violin, it is

foimd to have several differences. The modem violin body, while it has the

same basic shape of the Baroque viohn on the outside, has been reinforced to

withstand the increased tension of the strings with a thicker, longer and stiffer

23

bass bar, and a stronger, larger soimdpost. The neck is narrower, longer, and

mortised into the endblock at a descending angle from the level of the body.

The fingerboard, made entirely of ebony, is longer and closer to the bridge to

enable the player to reach even higher pitched notes. The bridge is taller and

stronger to withstand the pressure of the strings and to transfer strong tones

to the soundpost and then the body.

Strings are longer than the earlier strings and are made from gut

wrapped with metal, synthetic gut (nylon or perlon) wrapped with metal, or

simply all metal strings. Frequently the highest pitched string is made of steel

and gold-plated to produce a smoother soimd. The sound ideal is a brilliant,

consteuitly vibrated, high volume soimd that projects to the farthest seat in a

huge auditoriimi or theater.

Nikolaus Hamoncoiu't (1984) writes about the differences in sound as

follows:

If we compare the tone of the Baroque violin with that of the modem concert instrument, we see that the tone of the former is soft, but has an intense, sweet clarity. Variety is achieved primarily by a richly differentiated articulation rather that by meems of dj^namics. In contrast, the modem instrument has a round, smooth tone with a very broad dynamic range, so dynamics are now the dominant shaping factor, (p. 103)

The Baroque Bow

The violin bow evolved from its earliest form when it resembled an

archery bow about 22 inches long. The bow became significantiy longer about

24

every fifty years. The wood used during most of the Baroque was

predominantly snakewood, a wood with a curly pattern. The shape of the stick

changed from concave in the sixteenth century, to almost straight in 1700. The

head or point of the bow was a pointed-shaped pike with the hair almost

touching the stick. The frog gradually evolved from being non-existent to its

present shape using various ways to tighten the hair. Throughout the Baroque

period, there was no additional metal used at the frog, such as the ferrule, to

maintain the flat shape of the hair. The ribbon of Siberian horse hair

gradually increased in amount of hair and length also.

Bows were sold with the violins as an integral part of the instrument,

and therefore were not signed as a sepsu-ate work by their makers as a regular

practice until the nineteenth century. Since a violinist would replace a bow if

and when it no longer served his artistic purposes, very few bows have

survived from that time. Chabran would have used a bow similar to the one

in the British museum that was made about 1730. This bow was made from

snakewood and had about half the amount of hair of the modem standard. It

had a screw mechanism for tightening the hair, but there was no femde to

keep the ribbon of hair flat.

The Modem Tourte Model Bow

Franfoise Tourte developed bows at the end of the eighteenth century

that are still in use today. Presentiy the overall length is 29.5 inches with a

25

ribbon of horse hair of 180 hairs with a length of 25.5 inches. Pemambuco

wood that is heat-treated to produce an inward curve is most common.

(Student bows are frequentiy molded from fiberglass). The point of the bow

makes a right angle holding the hair away from the stick. A silver or gold

trimmed frog made with ebony or tortoiseshell is fitted with a metal ferrule

which holds the hair firmly flat. Artist bows are stamped vrith the maker's

name.

Eighteenth Century Performance Practice

The term "Performance Practice" refers to such topics as the choice of

instrument model and the physical techniques employed by the musicians

including use of such aids as chinrests and shoulder supports. It also includes

the overall differences in sound, pitch and intonation systems as well as style

and methods of articulation and phrasing. Lastly, there are dynamics,

embelHshments and ornamentation, treatment of rhythm, and choices of

tempo. This was the age of "Affekt" (Emotion), and there was a variety of

ways of producing these. In Baroque sonatas there were usually three or four

movements, and each movement had one and only one "affekt" per movement

in the strictest sense.

26

Choice of Violin Model

The violinists of the Baroque period could choose from several models

of vioUns from different makers. The majority of the violinists of that day

preferred the tone quality of violins made by the Amati (Italian) family,

founded by Nicola Amati (1696-1684), and Stainer (German) family, founded

by Jacob Stainer (1617-1683). While these violins were only slightly shorter

(approximately one-fourth inch) than the viohns made by the Stradivarius

family, the top was much more highly arched. Chabran would most likely

have used an Amati model violin since he came from Turin near where these

violins were made.

Baroque Violin Plajdng Position

The pla5dng position with no chinrest is quite different from today's

position with a modem violin (Brown, 1990, pp. 241-242). The Baroque violin

rests on the shoulder and is held by the hand. The vioHn is held toward the

front of the violinist with the left arm securely imder the violin and the left

elbow close to the body. When the chin is used for support, it rests to the right

of the tailpiece. While shifts toward the upper positions are accomplished

rather easily, the descent to the lower positions is more difficult and is

accomplished through a combination of quickly putting the chin down on the

violin and a crawUng motion of the left hand and fingers. The use of the

27

Baroque posiiton enables a relaxation of both shoulders which positively affects

the quality of sound produced.

Bowing

Techniques of bowing are different using the Baroque bow. The early

straight and short bows could produce a very staccato effect and was good for

music of the early seventeenth century in which viohnists used slurred bowing

very sparingly, even using separate bows for different notes of a trill.

With the longer and more flexible "Corelh" type bows of 1700, (Stowell,

1985, pp. 15-16) violinists could produce a more legato sound, and some

violinists tried to see how many notes could be played on one bow stroke.

However, there still was a definite difference between sounds produced using

the bow in an upbow compared to downbow direction. "CorelH" bows are

excellent for the production of transparent, incisive sound. In addition, this

bow enabled the violinist to produce a large variety of effects.

With the bows perfected by Franfoise Tourte in 1790, it was possible to

produce the complete catalog of effects used today in toda/s vioUn music.

Present day violinists can choose which bow to use for specific music.

According to Nikolaus Hamoncourt (1984):

The bow created by Tourte at the end of the 18th century produced an "equally strong" tone along its entire length. Further an almost inaudible bow change can be executed almost completely masking the difference between up-bow and down-bow. In addition, the violinist can play extremely loudly with this bow, while the bouncing bow technique soimds hard and drum-

28

like. These qualities, which make it ideal for rendering the "broad sound surfaces" of music after 1800, must be paid for by the loss of many other qualities. With such a bow it is very difficult to create an elastic, bell-shaped tone, to shorten a tone so that it does not sound chopped off, or to give a different sound quality to the upbow and the downbow, something required in early music and easy to execute with the Baroque bow. Of coiu-se a violinist may say that this is precisely what is wrong, that one "should" make up and downbows as similgu' as possible; that the modem bow is better than the old Baroque bow because it alone can produce £ui even sound. But when we proceed from the premise that music can be best performed when it is properly interpreted, we discover that all the apparent disadvantages of the Baroque bow are actually advantages. The tones that are usually pzdred sound different on the upbow and downbow; the individual tone has a bell-hke d3niamic, innumerable intermediate levels from legato to spiccato play themselves, as it were. We see that the Baroque bow is ideal for Baroque music-so there are good reasons for using it. (pp. 94-95)

In conclusion, a Baroque bow was superior to the modem bow in

meeting some of the requirements of the earlier music, such as string crossings

and bow vibrato.

Fingering

Because the violin is held with the hand instead of the chin, first

position is the preferred location for passages. In the early sonatas of the

seventeenth century, that was all that was necessary for what was written.

As the melodic range extended farther and farther up the fingerboard, various

methods of shifting were used. The most common was what is caUed crawling.

The hand is compressed and the first finger slides up to the next position.

Moving upwards from lower positions is fairly easy to do without any support

29

from the chin on the body of the viohn. Shifting down without the use of the

chin is possible, but difficult. The thumb moves back before the fingers, and

a system of crawling backwards is initiated. After descending to the first

position, the hand resumes its normal shape. Most violinists, however, use

pressure from the chin to avoid dropping the viohn, but release the chin as

soon as it is no longer needed. From examination of old violins, it is obvious

from the state of the vauiiish to the right side of the tailpiece that viohnists

used chin pressure when needed.

With both modem and baroque technique, fingers move to the place

where they are needed in preparation for rapid passages. It is even more

important for Baroque violinists to prepare by barring two strings (putting

fingers on two strings at once) in preparation because the gut strings are

stiffer and less responsive than synthetic wrapped strings.

Tempo

The tempo chosen by an artist is the most individual characteristic of

any performance. Composers have tried to recommend tempo for performance,

but sometimes even a composer has changed the markings in subsequent

editions. Editors have also suggested tempo markings so that it is frequently

impossible to know definitely whether the tempo indications were put there by

the composer or by an editor.

30

There has been a big change in the tempi of the performance of the

works of the Baroque period as the body of research in this field has grov^i.

Experiments with some of the older bows and instruments have proven that

faster tempi are possible, and therefore are being used for modem historically

informed performances. It is thought by many performers today that the

music of the Baroque was indeed played at a greater variety of tempi than

formerly thought possible. The six most common speeds in the music of

Corelli, Handel, Bach and Vivaldi are adagio, largo, andante, allegro, vivace,

and presto (Le Huray, 1990).

In the eighteenth century, Johann Joachim Quantz (1984) used the pulse

rate of a healthy person (p. 284) as a basis of tempo, equal to 80 beats per

minute (p. 288). He tried to quantify the tempi according to the Itahan terms

that were often used. However since these terms also were used to indicate

the "affekt" of a movement (the type of emotional effect the movement was

expected to evoke), a precise indication was extremely difficult, if not

impossible.

It was not until the nineteenth century (1812), that the mechanical

device called the metronome was invented by Dietrich Nicholaus Winkler and

named by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, which enabled musicians to compare

their tempi with a mechanical (or today's electronic) piilse. This idea evolved

from the pendulum used since 1600. Beethoven is thought to be the first

31

composer who used metronome markings. Chabran would not have had such

a device available for his use.

In the twentieth century, Richard Efrati suggests (1979, p. 215) "it is

pointless to try to estabhsh the 'right' tempo in every case since contemporary

views differ widely in this respect." Dance music, in particular, when it is no

longer used for actual dancing, may change both its tempo and character.

Efrati (1979) also quotes Virgil Thomsen, Wanda Landowska, Johann

Forkel, and Albert Schweitzer, all of whom say that tempo is not as important

as clean phraseology, exact rh3d;hmical articulation, perception of polyphony,

and the correct accents which make the music sound like speech. Efrati (1979)

concludes with the statement that

In actual performance, the tempo chosen depends on a variety of factors, external (e.g. the size of the hall and its acoustic properties), as well as emotional. To Saint-Saens the foUowing remark is attributed: "...the correct tempo is the one which one does not notice." (p. 219)

Rhyihm.

"FlexibiUty" is the term used most frequently in a discussion of rhj^thm

of the Baroque period. The concept of strong and weak beats, good and bad

notes, primarily in Germany, continued for many years. While some

musicologists think that rhj thm in the Baroque period was relentiessly even,

others note that there was considerable flexibiUty with agogic accents and

rubato particularly in regard to cadences. Performers used rhythmic

32

inequaUty and overdotting. Inequality is the practice of playing stepwise

descending pairs of notes whether slurred or not with unequal time, the first

note being longer and the second shorter. Overdotting is the practice of

playing a dotted note longer than its value and the following note only half its

value especially in a French Overture movement. There are stiU debates

whether these techniques were mandatory or optional, limited to music of one

national background, or used by composers and performers of all countries

during the Beuroque period.

Dance rhythms of vauious dsince forms of the sixteenth through

nineteenth centuries present a different problem since much music of the

period was originally composed for dsincing. When this music was no longer

used for actual dancing, the character of the rhythm may have changed,

especially of the stately French court dances. Knowledge of these dances and

their most probable tempi is essential for accurate interpretation. (See Little

and Jenne, 1991, Dance and the Music of J. S. Bach)

Articulation

Articulation was extremely important for Baroque music. There was a

great emphasis on music being dialogue, and it was compared to niles of

rhetoric and rhetorical discourse. Since Baroque instruments were not capable

of wide dynamic ranges, articulation was the principal way of projecting the

mood and expression.

33

Accents were produced by bow articulation and lengthening of notes.

Hans Vogt (1981) describes the importance of articulation:

We have devoted so much space to the question of appropriate phrasing because we consider it to be the most important part of interpretation, more important then dynamics or tempo. Well-thought-out and convincing articulation is the fundament of any good Bach performance, (p. 64)

Articulation includes use of slurs, dots, and direction of bowing. Some

of the rules for phrasing included using a down-bow for the first beat of every

measure since the downbow produced a stronger tone than upbow. This rule

was gradually modified for two measure phrases. The first note under the slur

was always the loudest with the others gradually softer. The last note under

the slur was played shorter than its value. Single notes note were begun on

time, played with a nuance such as the messa di voce, a swelling from the

beginning of a note and a diminuendo toward its end, ending with a slight

pause between notes.

John Butt (1990) in his book. Bach Intemretation: Articulation Marks

in Primary Sources of J. S. Bach, wrote about the markings that indicate how

Bach's music is to be articulated. Bach used slurs, ornament symbols,

dynamics and articulation marks in his scores and parts. The evidence

suggests that Bach rarely altered markings in subsequent editing of both

scores and parts, but rather, added more marks particularly in works

composed during the 1730's. While there have been inconsistencies reported

in the sources, Butt points out there are many more consistencies than

34

inconsistencies. He concludes that these marks were intended both for

technical and interpretive instruction.

The single genre that contains the greatest number of £u:i:iculation

marks is the coUection of sonatas and partitas for unaccompanied violin. The

slurs in Bach indicate motifs, imply a rhythm which is different from that of

the harmony or barline, and suggest tempo £uid dynamics. Slurs teU the

performer which of the following musical elements is to be emphasized at any

one time, the metrical £Uid haurnonic rhythm, or the figural and melodic

consistency (Butt, pp. 113-115).

Dots (above or beneath notes) are also used as articulation mau'kings,

but to a much smaller degree than slurs. The dots usually suggest more of the

lightening of the pulse and shortening of notes while slurs indicate accent­

uation, voice-leading and general coloring of the Une (Butt, p. 140). Dots tend

to clarify rather than interpret textures in the music (Butt, pp. 115-118). Slurs

and dots are only one part for proper interpretation, and therefore clarity of

polyphony, voice-leading, metrical and harmonic momentum should all be

studied when decisions of interpretation are to be made.

Dynamics

Producing different dynamics for Baroque music was a problem that was

spedfic to each instrumental fanuly, strings, woodwinds and keyboards. While

violinists could vary the dynamics by nuances and gradual crescendos and

35

decrescendos, they could not produce the range of dynamics that can be made

by modem violins. On Baroque vioUns pla5dng passages with double stops (two

notes on two strings simultaneously), would increase the volume. Playing in

the lower registers on the D string would be softest. Using the upper part of

the bow stroke would be lighter and softer. Composers would use words to

indicate these styles of pla5dng as well as the more common forte and piano

marks.

Harpsichords with single meuiuals could not produce any djmamic

changes unless there were two sets of strings with an octave doubler

mechanism. Harpsichords produced an Ulusion of d5niamic changes by adding

or dropping the number of notes, by changing the register, or by coupling sets

of strings. Recorders £ind flutes were very Umited in d3mamic range.

Therefore, dynamic changes for ensembles of instruments were largely

produced by adding or deleting instruments rather than trying to get large

differences with single instruments or smaU ensembles.

EmbeUishment and Ornamentation

EmbeUishment of an adagio movement was considered mandatory by the

composers of the Baroque age. Frequentiy the composer wrote only a skeleton

of the melody that he wished to perform along with the bass line and figured

bass. Embellishment was added according to the custom of the time and by

following the examples such as the elaborate set of directions written down by

36

writers such as Telemann (1681-1767) in the Methodical Sonatas for flute and

violin, by Quantz in his method for flute, by Leopold Mozart in his writings for

violin, and later in studies by Howard Mayer Brown (1976). The ornaments

were developed to give specific "affekt" to the music and included triUs, slurs,

vibrato, and others. However, embelUshment was always supposed to be

accompUshed according to the rules of good taste (L. Mozart, 1756, p. 123).

"Good taste" refers to the prevaiUng style of the period as well as to following

the example of the leading violinists of the day.

Ornamentation was later completely written out by such composers as

Couperin and J. S. Bach. Couperin (1716) wanted performers to foUow his

directions exactly, but since performers had developed their ovni set of prior

conventions of improvising, they did not always follow Couperin's directions.

David FuUer (1990) points out that ornaments also differed dependent upon

the specific instrument played or the voice.

An excellent listing of both words and sjnnbols used by composers to

indicate ornamentation may be foimd in Neumann, Frederick. Ornamentation

in Baroque and Post-baroque Music (1978, p. 577).

The Svstem of Pitch, Intonation, and Temperament in the Baroque Era

Htch

Most scholars feel that the pitch level used was somewhat lower in the

Baroque period. The most commonly used Baroque pitch was A=415 Hz.

37

(roughly a semitone lower than A=440 Hz.), although there is evidence of

pitches varying from A=410 Hz. to A=450 Hz. Evidence of the higher pitches

comes from wind instruments and church organs that still exist as well as from

the treatises. Using the lower pitch produces a more mellow tone from both

voices and instruments. The pitch of A = 440 Hz. was not officially adopted by

an international conference of standards untU 1939, and then it was confirmed

again in 1955 and 1975. Today major orchestras, particularly in Europe, are

pushing for an increase to A = 442 Hz. to produce greater brilliance of tone.

Instruments in the day of Chabran would have been tuned to A=415.

Intonation and Temperament

Intonation, defined as playing with accurate pitches within a system,

has been a major problem for violinists and other string players who have a

flexible system. Violinists usually play only one note at a time and have the

responsibUity to play that note at the correct pitch to fit into the harmony used

in the total group. It is especially difficult within an ensemble consisting of

different instruments, some with flexible systems such as violins, and keyboard

instruments, which have a fixed intonation system.

In the intonation system used in the Baroque period, the string players

were taught to tune the strings to perfect fifths. C-sharp was lower than d-

flat, and f-sharp was lower than g-flat. The pure intervals of fifths and thirds

38

would be played without any noticeable pulsation or beats. Leading tones

were played as pure thirds within the chord.

Temperament is the system for altering sizes of intervals in order to

preserve perfect octaves from the lowest end of the scale to the highest. Some

system of temperament has been in use for centuries in tuning schemes for the

keyboard instruments. The problem is that if keyboards were tuned to the

natural harmonic series of sound, the octaves and especisdly the fifths would

eventually widen so that they would no longer be in tune with the beginning

intervals. Temperaments that have been widely used are classified as "just

tunings, mean-tone temperaments, well temperaments, or equal temperament"

(Jorgensen, 1991, p. 2). Each of these systems has its unique characteristics.

These can be further grouped into two classes, restricted and

unrestricted, depending upon which, if any, tones can be used as both a sharp

and a flat. Restricted refers to those systems in which only a Umited number

of keys could be used either for the composition or for modulation within a

composition. These include several mean-tone and just-intonation schemes.

Before 1800, most keyboard instruments such as harpsichords and clavichords,

were tuned to restricted mean-tone and just intonation schemes.

Gradually several unrestricted systems were developed which allowed

transposition into any key (the keys, however, would have slightiy different

color). These systems were named from the musicians who developed them,

such as Werckmeister, Kimberger, and Young. The "WeU-tempered," an

39

unrestricted system used by J. S. Bach, was a weU-tempered but not an equal

semitone system. Bach composed his WeU-Tempered Clavier to take

advantage of the different colors the temperament gave to the different keys.

Mathematicians figured out a system of equal temperament, in which every

semitone is exactly the same size, and advocated using it for keyboards as

early as 1577. Francisco SaUnas, and in 1585, Simon Stevin calculated the

intervals and mathematics of equal temperament (Jorgensen, 1991, p. 7), but

the idea was rejected as unmusical. Although the musical establishment in

Europe and the Broadwood Piano Compgmy finally adopted the system of equal

tempereunent by mid-nineteenth century (Jorgenson, 1991, p. 6), equal

temperament was not used by all tuners for some time. Equad temperament

enabled unlimited transpositions into every key (every key was equally out of

tune), which then led to the development of late nineteenth century

chromaticism and impressionism. Equal temperament, an unrestricted system,

is acceptable to modem ears because modem listeners have grown up never

hearing the delightful sounds of a different system.

Equal temperament, as an intonation system for vioUnists, was not

taught before 1830, reports Robin StoweU (1985). Tuning violins to equal-

temperament fifths produce thirds that wiU be more closely in tune, especially

for ensemble playing. Today, because of the use of equal temperament, the

difference between flats and sharps is no longer recognized. In addition to

this, the system of intonation has changed (Podnos, 1981) so that in the

40

twentieth century the leading tone of a major scale (b-natural in the key of c)

is raised. The practice is that if a note is preceded by a sharp sign, the note

is pushed up slightly, and if a note is preceded by a flat sign, the note is

lowered sUghtiy. When playing chords, the third of the chord may be changed

slightly to insure that the modality of the chord is definitely major or minor.

Octaves are the only interval which are presently played with no obvious beats

or pulsation.

In the eighteenth century Chabran would have tuned his violin and

adjusted his intonation to play with a harpsichord tuned in meantone

temperament. This implies that the leading tone and the third would be lower

than in modem practice.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The final results of this research is an edition of six sonatas of Chabraui

that is ready for performauice, and has also been put into camera-ready format

for publication. It includes the scores for the six sonatas for violin and

haupsichord. The score includes three staves for violin, basso continuo, and

realization of the figured bass. There is also a Critical Report which contains

historical information and performance suggestions. The score is given in

Appendix A and the Critical Report is given in Appendix B.

It is hoped that these works wiU be a welcome addition to the violin

repertory. They explore the possibilities of the instrument in a light-hearted,

interesting manner. These are good compositions from a young master

violinist. It is unfortunate that other works have not been found. With such

a promising beginning, later works could have been of great value to the

repertory of vioUn compositions.

41

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dictionaries and Encvclopedias

Bachmann, Alberto. An Encvclopedia of the Violin. New York, 1925. tr. F. H. Martens, and ed. A. E. Wier. Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1966.

Enciclopedia della musica. Milano: G. Ricordi and Company, 1963.

The Harvard Biographical Dictionary of Music. Ed. Don Michael Randel. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1996.

The New Grove Dictionarv of Music and Musicians. 1980. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: MacnuUan, 1980. 20 vols.

The New Harvard Dictionarv of Music. Ed. Don Michael Randel. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986.

The Oxford Dictionarv of Music. 2nd edition. Ed. Michael Kennedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Treatises

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Versuch er die wahre Art, das Claveir zu spielen. 1753. Essav on the true art of playing keyboard instruments, tr. W. J MitcheU. New York: W. W. Norton, 1949.

Couperin, Francoise. L'Art de toucher le clavecin. 1716. Paris: Editions de rOiseau Lyre, [19331 Facs. ed.. New York: Broude Brothers, 1969.

Geminiani, Francesco. 1751. The Art of Playing on the Violin. London. Facs. ed. by David D. Boyden. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952.

42

43

Moz£u:t, Leopold. Versuch einer griindlichen VioUnschule. 1756. A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Plaving. tr. Editha Knocker, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951.

Quantz, Johann Joachim. On Plaving the Flute. The Classic of Baroque Music Instmction. 1752. 2nd Edition. 1985. Tr. Edward R. ReiUy. New York: Schirmer Books. 1985.

Books

Apel, WilU. Italian VioUn Music of the Seventeenth Century, ed. Thomas Binkley. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.

Arnold, F. T. The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass. London: Oxford University Press, 1931.

Berger, Melvin. Guide to Sonatas. Music for One of Two Instruments. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1991.

Borgir, Tharald. The Performance of the Basso Continuo in Italian Baroque Music. Ann Arbor, MI: U.M.I. Research Press, 1987.

Boyden, David D. The Historv of Violin Plaving from its origins to 1761. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Brown, Howard Mayer and Stanley Sadie, ed. Performance Practice. Music after 1600. New York: W. W. Norton, & Company, 1990.

Brown, Howard Mayer and Stanley Sadie, ed. Performance Practice. Music before 1600. New York: W. W. Norton, & Company, 1989.

Brown, Howard Mayer. EmbelUshing Sixteenth Century Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.

Butt, John. Bach Interpretation. Articulation marks in primary sources of J. S. Bach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

. Music Education and the Art of Performance in the German Baroque. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Caldwell, John. Editing Earlv Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.

44

Chanan, Michael. Musica Practica: the Social Practice of Western Music from Gregorian Chant to Postmodernism. New York: Verso, 1994.

Cohen, Joel and Herb Snitzer. Reprise. The Extraordinary Revival of Earlv Music. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1985.

Dolmetsch, Amold. The Intemretation of the Music of the XVII and XVIII Centuries. London: NoveUo & Company, 1946.

Donington, Robert. Baroque Music: Style and Performance. A Handbook. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1982.

. The Intemretation of Early Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1989.

. String Plaving in Baroque Music. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1977.

Efrati, Richard R. Versuch einer Anleitung zur Ausfuhrung und zur Intemretation der Sonaten und Partiten fiir VioUne solo und der Suiten fur Violoncello solo von Johann Sebastian Bach = Treatise on the Execution and Interpretation of the Sonatas and Partitas and the Suites for Violoncello Solo by Johann Sebastian Bach. Zurich: Atiantis, 1979.

Fuller, David. "The Performer as Composer." In Performance Practice: Music after 1600. Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sadie, ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. Pp. 117 - 146.

Grout, Donald Jay, and Claude B. Palisca. A Historv of Western Music. 4th ed. shorter. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988.

Hamoncourt, Nikolaus. Baroque Music Today: Music As Speech. Ways to a New Understanding of Music, tr. Mary O'NeiU. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988.

. The Musical Dialogue. Thoughts on Monteverdi. Bach, and Mozart, tr. Mary O'Neill. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1989.

Helm, Ernest Eugene. Music at the Court of Frederick the Great. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960.

45

Heyer, Anna Harriet. Historical Sets, Collected Editions, and Monuments of Music. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980.

Houle, George. Meter in Music, 1600-1800. Performance, Perception, and Notation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.

Jorgenson, Owen H. Tuning containing The Perfection of Eighteenth Century Temperament, The Lost Art of Nineteenth Century Temperament, and The Science of Equal Temperament. East Lansing, MI: Michigan University Press, 1991.

Kenyon, Nicholas, Editor. Authenticity and Earlv Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Klenz, WilUam. Giovanni Maria Bononcini of Modena A Chapter in Baroque Instrumental Music. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1962.

Le Huray, Peter. Authenticity in Performance. Eighteenth-century case studies. Caunbridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Ledbetter, David. Continuo Plaving According to Handel. His figured bass exercises. With a commentary by David Ledbetter. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Leppard Ra3maond. Authenticity in Music. Portiand, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988.

Lindley, Mairk. Lutes, Viols, and Temperaments. Caimbridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Lipman, Samuel. Arguing for Music, Arguing for Culture. Boston: David R. Godine, American Council for the Arts, 1990.

Littie, Merdith, and NataUe Jenne. Dance and the Music of J. S. Bach. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.

Mather, Betty Bang and David Lasocki. Free Ornamentation in Woodwind Music, 1700-1775. New York: McGinnis and Marx PubUshers, 1776.

Mather, Betty Bang and Dean M. Kams. Dance Rhythms of the French Baroque. A Handbook for Performance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.

46

Mather, Betty Bang. Intemretation of French Music from 1675 to 1775. New York: McGinnis & Marx Music PubUshers, 1973.

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. Practical Elements of Thorough-bass. Tr. Samuel Godbe. New York: Joseph Patelson Music House, 1976.

Musikgeschichte in Bildem. ed. Walter Salmen. 4 vol. Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag fiir Musik, 1965.

Neumann, Frederick. Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music. With special emphasis on J. S. Bach. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.

. New Essays on Performamce Practice. Ann Arbor, MI: U.M.I. Research Press, 1989.

Newmaui, Anthony. Bach and the Bau-oque: A Performing Guide to Baroque Music with Special Emphasis on the Music of J. S. Bach. New York: Pendragon Press, 1985.

Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Baroque Era 4th ed. New York: W. W- Norton, 1983.

Podnos, Theodor. Intonation for Strings, Winds, and Singers. A six-month Course. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 1981.

Rangel-Ribeiro, Victor. Baroque Music: A Practical Guide for the Performer. New York: Schirmer Books, 1981.

Saint Lambert, Monsieur de. A New Treatise on Accompaniment with the Hamsichord, the Organ, and vrith other Instruments, tr. and ed. John S. Powell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.

Schmitz, Hans Peter. Die Kunst der Verzierung im 18 Jahrhundert: instrumentade und vokale Musiziemraxis in Beispielen. Zweite Auflage. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1965.

Stowell, Robin. VioUn Technique and Performance Practice in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Thurmond, James Morgan. Note Grouping. A Method for Achieving Expression and Style in Musical Performance. Camp HiU, PA: JMT PubUcations, 1982.

47

Todd, R. Larry and Peter WilUams, Ed. Perspectives on Mozart Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Valenti, Femando. A Performer's Guide to the Keyboard Partitas of J. S. Bach. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Vogt, Hans. Johann Sebastian Bach's Chamber Music. Background, Analyses. Individual Works. Tr. Kenn Johnson, Portiand, OR: Amadeus Press, 1988.

Williams, Peter. Figured Bass Accompanimant. 2 vols. Edinburgh: University Press, 1970.

Zaslaw, Neal, Ed. The Classical Era. From the 1740's to the end of the 18th Century. Englewood CUffs, NJ: Prentice HaU, 1989.

Journal Articles

Babitz, Sol. "A Problem of Rh3rthm in Baroque Music." Musical Quarterly, 38 (1952): 535-65.

Barbieri, Patrizio. "VioUn intonation: a historical survey." Earlv Music, Febmary, 1991, 69-89.

Dreyfus. Laurence. "Early Music Defended Against its Devotees: A Theory of Historical Performance in the Twentieth Century." The Musical Quarterly, 69 (3): 197-322.

Haynes, Bruce. "Beyond Temperament: non-keyboard intonation in the 17th and 18th centuries." Early Music, August, 1991, 357-381.

Johnson, Jane Troy. "The rules for Thorough-Bass and for tuning attributed to Handel." Early Music, Febmary, 1989, 70-77.

Malloch. WilUam. "Bach and the French Overture." The Musical Quarterly, 18 (3), 174-197.

48

Catalogs

National Union Catalog: Music, Books on Music, and Sound Recordings. Washington, D. C: Library of Congress. 1973-.

Dictionarv Catalog of the Music CoUection, New York Public Library. 2nd edn., 44 vols. Boston, 1982.

Repertoire international des sources musicades. Series A: Einzeldrucke vor 1800. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1971-.

WoridCat [Online]. 1997. Available: OCLC, Texas Tech University Library.

Computer Program

Finale: the Art of Music Notation. 1996. Version 3.7.1. Available: Coda Music Technology, Eden Prairie, MN.

Sound Recordings

The Devil's TriU and other 18th century virtuoso sonatas for violin and continuo. Works by Tartini, Chabran and Nardini. Sergiu Luca, Violin, Barbara Bogatin, ceUo, and James Richman, harpsichord. New York: Nonesuch N5-1361. 1 sound cassette.

Music Scores and Editions

Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1685-1750. Das Wohltemperirte Clavier. Leipzig, Deutscher Verlag fiir Musik. [1962].

Campioni, Carlo Antonio. Six favorite solos for a violin with a bass for the violoncello and hamsichord. London: I. Walsh, 1760. Notes: Six sonatas: nos. 1-2 by Campioni; nos. 3-6 by Chabran. Microfilm. London. British Library. 1 microfilm reel: negative. 35 mm.

49

Cartier, J. B. L'Art du Violon. Paris, 1798. In Monuments of Music in Facsimile. New York: Broude Brothers. 1974.

L'Art du Violon. No. 1, The Italian School. Ed. David L. Sills. New York: Performer's Editions, 1989.

Chabran, Charles. Six sonatas a violon seul et basse continuo: ler oeuv. Paris. Chex L'Auteur, Chez Mr. Vnalo, Md. Boivin, Mr. le Clerc, et aux autres a dresses oridinaires, 1751. Microfilm. Berkeley Collection, University of California. 1 microfilm reel: negative. 35 mm.

. Six solos for a violin with a thorough-bass for the harpsichord. London. P. Welcker, 1763. Microfilm. London. British Library. 1 microfilm reel: negative. 35 mm.

. "Sonata No. 5 in G". In Delphin Alard, ed., Les Maitres Classiques du Violon. Leipzig: B. Schott's Sohne, 1868.

Telemann, Georg PhiUpp. 1681-1767. Zwolf methodische Sonaten: fiir VioUne oder Flote und Basso continuo. ed. Max Seiffert. ICassel: Barenreiter, 1955.

APPENDIX A

THE FULL SCORE

50

51

THE FULL SCORE

A photocopy of the titie page of the microfilmed copy of these sonatas

appears first, a copy of the first hadf page of the score is next, and then

follows a copy of the score for the six sonatas.

52

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APPENDIX B

THE CRITICAL REPORT

163

164

THE CRITICAL REPORT

Historical Background

Charles Chabran (1723 - ?), violinist-composer, was bom in Turin and

following study with his uncle, G. B. Somis, moved first to Paris and finally to

London. Chabrsin published this set of violin and hsirpsichord sonatas in Paris,

1751, and republished the same set in London, 1763. The complete set has not

been available for performance since that time. A copy of this set of sonatas

has been located in microfilm form and has been transcribed resulting in this

edition.

Sources

The edition of the six violin sonatas by Charles Chabran was first

engraved by Vendome and sold by the composer and others in Paris in 1751.

The same six sonatas were published in London for P. Welker in 1763. In

addition, four of these sonatas were included in Carlo Campioni's Six Favorite

Solos for a Violin with a Bass for the Violoncello and Harpsichord, published

in London by John Walsh in 1760. The three editions, although apparently

made firom different plates, differ very little. While the Paris edition contains

the six sonatas plus a composition named "La Caccia," the London edition

includes only the six sonatas. One of the sonatas, "Sonata No. 5 in G," and "La

Caccia", were included in the collection in L'Art du Violon published by Jean-

165

Baptiste Cartier in Paris in 1798. In 1974, Broude Brothers reprinted the

second edition of Cartier's L'Art du Violon in the series Monimients of Music

in Farsimilfi Broude Brothers also included "Sonata No. 5" in its Performer's

Editions in 1989, but not "La Caccia". "Sonata No. 5 in G" was also included

in a collection edited for vioUn and piano by Delphin Alard in Les Maitres

Classiques du Violon. published in Leipzig by B. Schott's Sohne in about 1868.

There have been no other modem pubHcations of this work, or for that matter

any other works by this composer.

Instrumentation

The origingd score is written for violin and harpsichord or basso

continuo. The practice of the time was to have a third musician plajdng a bass

viol, cello, or possibly a bassoon along with the harpsichord. Alternatively, the

basso continuo could be played by itself, either with a harpsichord or other

instrument.

Realization of the figured bass

The score includes a realized keyboard part taken fi-om the figured-bass

notation which illustrates an appropriate style of the eighteenth century of

simple chordal practice, and contrapimtal textures. Keyboard artists were

expected to accompany vocalists, string and woodwind players fi'om the given

bass line with or without figures. Rules for the reahzation of figured bass Une

166

were very specific. Some of these included the avoidance of parallel fifths and

octaves in harmonic progressions. The solo line could never be doubled exactly.

The third of any chord appesiring in the solo line could not be doubled in the

realization. The notes of the realization must always be below the solo voice.

Because the hairpsichord technically could not change dynamics, various ways

were used to give the illusion of changed dynamics. To make the illusion of

soft d5ni£imics, notes in the chords were dropped or played in a lower register.

Notes were added to chords to make the sound louder. Because the tone of a

harpsichord dies away quickly, the realization contsdn repeated and rolled

chords to extend the sound.

Harmony and harmonic rhythm were the principal features reailized.

Actual notes and extra ornamentation was entirely up to the harpsichordist

who rarely wrote out parts that they played. J. S. Bach was one of the first

who composed and wrote out parts for the right hand of the keyboard

accompaniments, and in so doing actually composed trio sonatas for only two

players, such as Six Sonatas for Violin and Hamsichord, BWV 1014-1019.

Editorial practice

Any markings inserted by the editor have been marked in the copy, by

dotted lines for bowings, and with parentheses for dynamics, and

ornamentation. In the case of the realization of the figured bass which is

totally added by the editor, the noteheads are in a different size. There are

167

some added or corrected bass figures marked by parentheses. There are some

violin fingerings suggested in smaU numbers above the notes.

Performance suggestions

The first and primary duty of the performer is to obtain the most

accurate edition possible for the music's interpretation. This score may include

appropriate ornamentation, fingerings and bowings, and dynamics. It is

important to follow all markings that were put there by the composer.

If the performer is using a Baroque bow, all bowings should be followed

as they are, unless, for example, it is necessary to use two up-bows in order to

finish with a final down bow.

The editor has added bowings found in Cartier, L'Art du Violon, (1798)

for "Sonata V" which were not foimd in the original that may be used as an

alternative. These have been marked with dotted lines in the score.

APPENDDC C

LECTURE RECITAL

168

169

THE BAROQUE VIOLIN

I. Introduction

Good evening!

Tonight I will tell you about the Baroque violin, also called a "Period

Instnunent," and will compare it to the modem violin. I will also tell you

about some of the music written for it. For the examples I will be accompanied

by Valda Jirgensons on the harpsichord and the electronic heirpsichord/orgEui.

We are most fortunate to have instruments that have been carefully restored

or reproduced fi:om the ones actually used in the Baroque Period of 1600 to

1750. Much of the music actually played in that period has also been revived.

This is the result of intense research of the last forty to fifty years. Both

manuscripts and pubUshed music have been rediscovered in state libraries and

private collections. These sources have been carefully photocopied so that we

can recreate the music. This music was composed by vioUnist/composers who

wrote pieces for themselves to play in concerts fi-om the time that violins were

first being used as a solo concert instnmient. The first music published

specifically for the viohn was in 1581, a group of French dances. Before that

violinists usually doubled the choral parts. After that time the music became

increasingly more difficult as violinists explored the possibilities of their

instruments.

I will point out the physical differences between the Beu-oque and the

modem vioUns and bows, and then demonstrate the technique and style of the

170

music that was played with these instruments. The information about the

technique for playing the Baroque instruments is foimd both in treatises

written at that time primarily as instruction for playing the violin and also

fi-om the excellent artwork picturing violins and violinists. (Incidentally, the

Artwork of the time before photography was invented, was quite true-to-Ufe).

A listener can easily tell the difference of the most important element, that of

the actual sound produced. I will try to show you how this is done.

With the program you received are several additional pages with

diagrams showing (1) the basic violin with its parts; (2) the inside construction;

(3) the neck and fingerboard of a violin by Jacob Stainer and the neck and

fingerboard of a modem violin; (4) old and new bridges; (5) the development

of the bow; (5) the fi:og mechanism for old and new bows; amd (6) a Uthograph

of Paganini. You may refer to these as I demonstrate these instruments.

I will begin with the violins. On the table in fi-ont of you on this side,

is a modern violin and bow. The violin was made by Karl Mages, a

violinmaker in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1962. He used an Italian violin on

display in the local museum as his model (most likely a violin by one of the

Amati family), even dupUcating the scratches already made, which was a

rather common practice. The body of this violin is made of spruce and maple

and is 14 inches long, the standard for the body since early 1600. The

fingerboard is made of ebony. Other standard features include a scroll with

a pegbox, four ebony pegs to control the pitch of the strings and a tailpiece at

171

the other end to connect the strings. A "fine adjuster" or tuner on the tailpiece

for the highest string enables the minute pitch changes possible on steel

strings. The three lower strings are made fi-om a synthetic material similar

to nylon, wrapped with metal, such as aluminum or silver. The top string is

made of steel plated with gold. The strings are tuned from the lowest pitch to

the highest, to G, D, A, and E. The standard to which they are tuned is A=440

Hz, that is A equal to 440 Cycles per second, checked by a tuning fork or

electronic tuner. Most violinists today use some sort of chinrest located either

in the center or to the left of the tailpiece. They usually use a shoulder

support as well.

On the table in fi:ont of you on this side, is a Baroque violin. The violin

was made by Willem Van der Syde, a violinmaker in Amsterdam, the

Netherlands. It bears a label of Joseph Guamerius. There is no date inside,

but the estimated date given by the appraiser is 1700. This violin is simileir

to the ones made by Joseph Stainer in Bavaria (see front cover), and has the

shape and sound preferred by musicians of the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries for both solo and small ensemble music. The body length is the same

as the modem, 14 inches. It is highly arched aUowing one to see light through

the F-holes. It was restored to its original condition by Fred J. Lindeman, a

violinmaker in Amsterdam, in 1982. This restoration included restoring the

original shape and size of the bass bar and soundpost on the inside, replacing

172

the bridge with the old style, and putting on a new neck, fingerboard and

tailpiece on the outside.

In general, the vioUn body has retained the same exterior shape ever

since the early seventeenth century, although many experimental shapes were

tried throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The interior, which

you can see on Diagram 2, has a sound post and reinforcing bass bar, both of

which have been made thicker and stronger on the modem violin to reinforce

the table or top against the higher tension of the modem strings, and to make

the tone stronger to project better in large halls. The bridge, shown on

Diagram 4, has become thicker eind taller in the modem vioUn for the same

reasons. The design has also changed to make it a more efficient mediator of

sound.

The Baroque neck, shown on Diagram 3, which is only glued to the

body, has changed in width, in thickness, and in length. The neck on the

modem violin, which is now mortised into the end block, is uniformly narrower

and thinner throughout its entire length, which now is the present standard

of 5 inches (12.86 cm.-13.02 cm.). The neck was lengthened and tilted

downward to make the strings longer and to puU them to a higher tension.

Tuning the strings to a higher pitch, plus this longer length and higher tension

makes a more briUiant sound.

The Baroque fingerboard is made of birch and ebony. It has a wedge-

shape to adjust for the height of the strings. It is noticeably shorter than the

173

modem fingerboard, leaving more space between the end and the bridge. The

modem fingerboard is usually made of only ebony, and because it is tilted

downwards, it no longer needs the wedge shape to keep the strings at the

correct angle with the bridge. The fingerboard of the modem violin was

gradually lengthened by two inches (5-6 cm) towards the bridge during the last

quarter of the eighteenth century to allow even higher pitched notes to be

played.

The strings of the Baroque vioUn are made fi-om natural animal gut, the

same material used in medical sutures. The diameter of the strings ranges

fi-om .10 or .11 millimeters for the highest string, to .18 mm for the D string.

The G string has been made fi-om gut wrapped with silver wire since 1775

according to Lohlein's treatise. This makes the string not only thinner but

much more responsive. Because it takes more adjustment with a gut string to

make a difference in pitch, fine adjusters, used by modem vioUnists on at least

the e (highest) string, are not necessary on the Bsiroque violin. The strings are

shorter, and have less tension than the modem strings. They have the same

letter names, G, D, A, E, but are tuned to a lower pitch standard, A=415 Hz

(cycles per second), approximately one-half step lower than A, to G#.

The date for final modernization of the violins and bows cannot be set

definitely because there was no uniformity in development fi-om Italy through

France to England. We do know that the Uthograph of Paganini made about

1830 fifty years after the development of the Tourte bow (see diagram 6) shows

174

a Baroque period style violin with a modified (or transitional) bow. Also

Giovanni Viotti, a French violinist and founder of the modem classical school

of violin plajdng, did not popularize the Stradivarius violins in Paris until the

last quarter of the eighteenth century, a fuU century after Stradivari started

making them. As with many new developments in other fields, it took many

years for all vioUnists to be converted to the use of the newer instruments and

bows.

Returning to this side, this modem bow was made and signed by

Johannes Paulus, a well-known German bowmaker, in about 1960. It is made

fi-om pemambuco wood and weighs 54 grams, just under two ounces. It was

modelled after the bow developed by Franfoise Tourte in 1800, which model

has become the standard for aU modem bows. Referring to Diagram 5, it is

the last bow pictured. The modern bowmakers usually use pemambuco wood

found primarily in Brazil. This wood was used extensively in the dye trade

and was readily available in Europe for bowmakers fi*om 1600 on, but not used

much until 1800. It is resiUent and very strong. The stick is first carved, then

heat treated to concave shape, and finally finished to exact measurements.

The fi-og is the part of the bow that holds the hair and is usually made of

ebony. The mechanism within the fi-og is shown on Diagram 5. It contains a

screw device for tightening the tension of the hank of Siberian, unbleached

white horse-tail hair, containing usually about 200 hairs. There is a ferrule,

a flat piece of silver, or sometimes gold, that holds the hair out flat. The

175

average total weight of a modem bow is 54 to 56 grams, just under two ounces.

Only since about 1800 have bowmakers signed their bows with their own

names. Before that, since the bow was considered an integral part of the vioUn

and its equipment, it went by the name of the violinmaker.

There are very few bows fi:om the Baroque Period that have survived

because, in general, violinists discarded a bow when they acquired a new one

they Uked better. Most bows being used by present day Baroque violinists are

reproductions. On this side are two bows that are Baroque period

reproductions. The first one, made by Ken Millard of Canada, is a model of the

"CorelU" bow of 1700. It is made of snakewood, the most common wood for

bows of that period. The stick is carved to its shape, but was not heat-treated.

The shape is either straight or slightly curved outwards. It has a screw device

for adjusting the hair tension, but no ferrule. The tip is called a "Pike" which

is usually quite close to the hair. The firog is also made of snatkewood rather

than ebony. This bow is similar to the first one on diagrsun 5. It works

especially weU for playing the compositions of the seventeenth century.

Compared to the modem bow, it is shorter, Ughter, has about one third to one

half less hair, and its balance point is closer to the fi:og.

This next one is made by Steven Marvin of Toronto. This one is a

reproduction of an EngUsh bow of about 1730. It is sUghtly longer and heavier

than the CorelU bow with a balance point nearer the center. It also has a

screw device for adjusting the tension, with the screw tip made out of ivory.

176

The fi-og is made of snakewood, and there is no ferrule. The balance point is

closer to the center of the bow. The whole bow weighs 51 grams. This bow

works very well for playing the music of Bach and Handel and the other

masters of the late Baroque period. Bows made before 1700 were usually

shorter than either of these and stiU Ughter.

Lastly, this is a French Double Model harpsichord made by Kingston in

New York. It has two manuals and a transposing mechanism enabling it to

be played at either modem pitch of A = 440 Hz. or the Baroque pitch of A =

415 Hz.

In a performance, the first and major difference a listener notices

between modern and Baroque violins is the sound. With the modem vioUn, the

soimd ideal is strong, brilliant, with a constant vibrato, with virtually seamless

connections between bow strokes. In the Baroque era, the sound was

transparent, incisive, and softer. There was a feeling of light and air between

notes, as some would say, the notes are Uke "pearls on a string."

A major difference in the violinists' technique when playing these two

violins is the method in which the violin is held. The modem vioUnist uses a

chin rest invented by Spohr in 1820. The violin is held between the chin and

the shoulder, usually using some extra device for shoulder support, leaving the

hand completely fi-ee to move. Using a chinrest and shoulder support makes

a big difference in the ease in which the music is played. It is especially useful

when playing rapid passagework, moving up into higher positions and coming

177

back down again. As composers wrote music that was more difficult to play,

for example using the higher registers, violinists had to use the chin more and

more to prevent the instrument fi-om dropping when the hand was brought

back down to the scroll end of the neck.

The Baroque violinist holds the violin with the hand, while the violin

itself rests on the shoulder at the neck. If and when the chin is used, it

touches the violin at the right of the tailpiece.

Intonation, or playing accurately on pitch, has always been a major

problem for violinists since on neither modem nor old vioUns are there any

marks or firets for the vioUnist to place the fingers correctly, such as exist on

the guitar or lute. The violinist is always guided by the ear and the

kinaesthetic sense of the distance between notes. Therefore the violinist must

have a system which governs the relationships between notes firmly in mind

in order to play accurately in tune. In modem Western music we practice

scales and arpeggios constantly to be able to play accurately on pitch. In the

Baroque period, the systems of pitch were governed by the historical

temperaments used by the keyboard instruments used in ensembles, such as

the harpsichord or the organ in churches. Before the days of equal

temperament, in which the interval between each halfstep is exactly the same,

the most common temperament in 1700 was called Meantone. In meantone

temperament, each key had a different character or affect, such as sad, or

lively.

178

By the time of Bach and Chabran in 1750, the most common

temperament was that developed by Werckmeister for tuning the keyboards.

It was closer to equal, but still maintained the different characters for keys.

Gradually string players changed their system of intonation beyond equal.

Now they routinely raise the leading tone of the scale (ti, the seventh note of

the scale) even closer to the final note of the octave (do or tonic) and they lower

any intentionally flatted tones.

The bowing technique is different for the two kinds of bow. With

modem bows, the principle way of making a difference in the music is by

changing dynamics. The location of the balance point and the greater gmiount

of hair allows better control for long smooth lines of music (seamless) and

greater crescendo and decrescendo effects. The ferrule-held edge enables a

greater control of the beginnings of notes. It is also possible to make martele

strokes and sforzandi effects.

The technique for the Baroque bows differs because of the center of

balance, the total length, the lighter weight, and the absence of a ferrule that

holds the hair straight with an edge. The hold was different also. The bow

was usually held farther away firom the end or fi:og of the bow. The hand was

also held higher. The style was also different because the principle ways of

making a difference in the music were phrasing and articulation. There is a

difference in the grouping of notes, in the length of the bow stroke (usually

shorter), in crossing strings, and in making sforzando effects. Now I can play

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these instruments to demonstrate the following: First, I wiU simply draw the

bow across the strings to show the type of tone possible.

(Play open strings, then simple scale of D Major)

I will demonstrate the hold and setup for each of the vioUns by playing

part of "Sinfonie" by Montalbano, pubUshed in 1629, one of the first pieces ever

published for the solo vioUn. Because of the range of pitch for this piece, the

violinist does not have to move out of first position. You will also hear triUs

played with separate bows. I shall be using the shorter CorelU bow. Both

versions wiU be accompanied by Valda with the electronic Harpsichord/Organ.

(This is an einachronism that enables quick changes to temperament) The

listener can easily hear the different character of the music when listening to

the same piece played on the modem violin with equal temperament, then on

the Baroque violin in meamtone tempersiment. (Play Montalbano)

The music of the Baroque was not written out completely. The notes for

the vioUn and for the bass line were written out, but the keyboard player was

expected to fill in any harmony and melody lines for the right hand "according

to good taste." (Geminiani, p. 13) The harmony was indicated by a short-hand

method called "Figured bass" which the keyboard player "reaUzed." The only

other marks were staccato marks (dots and/or wedges) and a very few slurs.

When the music calls for a lively tempo, combining the staccato notes in one

flying bow stroke was common and expected by composers. It was also

expected that performers would embellish notes with trills and the like

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according to good taste, and therefore the composer would not have to indicate

these in the music. The keyboard player for tonight's performance, Valda

Jirgensons, assisted also in writing the accompaniment.

I shall next play some portions of a very popular composition fi-om the

middle Baroque period, CorelU's "La FoUa," first on the modem vioUn and then

on the Baroque violin. There will be several aspects of technique and style

illustrated.

The first section illustrates the hold and sound ideal of the two periods.

(Use organ) (Play first section)

The second section iUustrates "on the string" staccato called Martele

with the modem bow, staccato with the Baroque bow. (Use Harpsichord)

(Play the second section)

The next examples wiU be played only on the Baroque vioUn.

Using a section of another CorelU sonata, I wiQ illustrate rapid string

crossings. (Play the section)

The French School in the early Baroque period insisted on the "Rule of

the Down Bow," the first note of every measure had to be played with a down

bow. I will play a short section illustrating this fi-om Muffat. (Play

MuSat)

In the seventeenth century, composers still imitated sounds of nature

and animals. I will play some examples fi-om "Sonata Representiva" by

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Heinrich Franz Biber, a nightingale, a fi-og, a hen and rooster, and finaUy a

cat. (Play Biber)

Composers discovered that they could use the system of natural

harmonics as melody. I wiU play a short section of Chabran's "Sonata Opus

1, No. 2," iUustrating this. (Play Chabran)

Chords during the Baroque period were usually supeggiated. There were

several different ways of doing this. I wiU play the foUowing: The first chord

of Bach's "G Minor Sonata" for unaccompanied violin, playing from the bottom

note to the top; and two chords fi:om Leclair "Sonata Op. V, No. 6," playing

fi-om the top to the bottom and back up again. (Play Bach then Leclair)

Lastly, I will conclude by playing "Sonata III" composed by Charles

Chabran. This is the composer I have researched. Charles Chabran was bom

in Turin, Italy, in 1723. He studied violin with G. B. Somis, his uncle. By

1750 he had moved to Paris and gave a concert at the Concert Spirituel. This

collection of six sonatas, his only surviving work, was published in 1751.

The music was preserved in microfilm at several libraries. He moved to

London soon afterwards.

While there are four movement tempo markings, the second Largo, and

third, Andante, are played without pause. It had very few performance

indications such as bowings and fingerings; therefore, the violinist was

supposed to add these in order to perform this piece in good taste. I will play

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this on tiie Baroque violin. You wiU hear double stops, a flying staccato,

arpeggiated chords used as melody, and echo effects.

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Texas Tech University School of Music Lubbock, Texas

DOROTHY RANDOLPH Baroque Violin

Assisted by: Valda Jirgensons

Harpsichord and Organ

Ph.D. Lecture Recital

"THE BAROQUE VIOLIN"

LECTURE

A Comparison between the modem and Baroque violin and bow

The Differences in Technique

II. PERFORMANCE

Sonata in F Major Opus 1 No. 3 Charles Chabran Allegro 1723 - ? Largo Andante Allegro Grazioso