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89. CONSUMPTION PATTERNS FOR SUGAR WATER, CRAN-BERRY JUICE AND ALCOHOL IN CAGED RHESUS MACAQUES.J. Pushkas, J.D. Higley, M. Linnoila, and A. MathewsLCS, NIAAANIHAC, P.O. Box 529, Poolesville, MD 20837.

Previous studies of human alcoholics indicate a positive correlation between prefer-ence for sweet solutions and alcohol consumption. This study attempted to extend thesefindings to non-human primates, correlating interindividual differences between sugarwater, cranberry juice, and alcohol consumption in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).Subjects were 7 male adolescent monkeys, separated daily into single cages for the 2 hourprocedure. There were three sequential phases in the study, during which one of thethree solutions was available (sugar water, cranberry juice, and alcohol, respectively). Ineach phase 500 ml of one of the solutions was offered for 1 hour a day, 5 days a week for 2weeks. The volume of solution consumed by each animal was measured and recordeddaily in ml/kg body weight. Regression analyses showed positive correlations betweenconsumption of the alcohol solution and cranberry juice (r = 0.86, p =.01), consumption ofcranberry juice and sugar water (r = 0.86, p =.01), and consumption of sugar water andalcohol (r = 0.80, p =.03). These findings show that, like human alcoholics, differences inconsumption of sweet solutions predicts alcohol consumption in non-human primates.

90. ECOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON CATHEMERAL ACTIVITYIN THE MONGOOSE LEMUR (EULEMUR MONGOZ) AT AMPI-JOROA, NORTHWEST MADAGASCAR.M. A. RasmussenDepartment of Biological Anthropology & Anatomy, Duke University, Box90383, Durham, NC 27708.

Cathemerality (24-hour activity) is relatively rare in primates. However, this activitycycle has been reported for several lemur species in Madagascar and may be a definingcharacteristic of the Lemuridae. Various hypotheses on the underlying causes ofcathemerality either suggest that cathemerality has an ecological basis and an adaptivesignificance, or claim that it is merely a transitional, “non-adaptive” trait in species shift-ing from nocturnality to diurnality. In this study 15 months of data were collected on thecathemeral mongoose lemur in order to describe patterns of activity over a yearly cycleand to determine whether ecological variables play a role in driving cathemerality. Bi-weekly phenological monitoring and scan sampling of two groups of mongoose lemurswere conducted in the semi-deciduous dry forest of Ampijoroa in northwest Madagascar.Results show that mongoose lemurs at Ampijoroa are almost exclusively night-active dur-ing the dry season (May–October) while during the rainy season (December–March) ac-tivity was restricted to daylight hours. This pattern of cathemeral activity is unique tothis species. Phenology data indicate that daytime foraging and travel occur when thereis maximum leaf cover at Ampijoroa. While data do not suggest that food availability orinterspecific competition are major influences on cathemerality in mongoose lemurs, Ipropose that their flexible activity cycle is an effective antipredator strategy for a specieswhich is small-bodied (x– = 1038g, n=2) and living in small groups (x– = 2.75, n=4).

91. SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SEXUAL MOTIVATION ACROSSTHE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN TITI MONKEYS (CALLICE-BUS MOLOCH): CONCEALMENT OR COMMUNICATION OFOVULATION?D.M. Reeder,1,2 S.P. Mendoza,1,2 and W.A. Mason2

Abstracts / 2031Department of Psychology, and 2California Regional Primate ResearchCenter, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616.

Concealment of ovulation in monogamous females has been posited as a mechanismthat impels males to remain with their partners in order to ensure paternity. This studyexplored social behavior and sexual motivation across the reproductive cycle in the mo-nogamous titi monkey (Callicebus moloch) to examine whether ovulation is communi-cated or concealed. Subjects were six adult laboratory-born females, their mates, and othermales. Socio-sexual behaviors were assessed across the ovulatory cycle in three condi-tions: 1) home cage with mate, 2) replica of home cage with mate or other male, and 3)choice test with mate and other male. Urine samples were collected 4–6 times per week toassess reproductive cyclicity. Females preferred their mates in choice tests and spent moretime in proximity with them than with another male. Pairmates approached one anotherat an equal rate. When the female was with another male, however, he nearly alwaysinitiated approaches, and she nearly always moved away from him. These measures werenot altered by the female’s reproductive state. While animals copulated during all pos-sible reproductive states, sex was more frequent than expected during the periovulatoryperiod. It is likely that a sharp dichotomy between communication or concealment of ovu-lation is an oversimplification, and that finer analysis and experimentation is needed toelucidate the true nature of this phenomenon.

92. ASSESSING THE ANTI-FERTILITY PROPERTIES OF IN-TRAUTERINE NEEM TREATMENT IN TITI MONKEYS (CAL-LICEBUS MOLOCH).D.M. Reeder,1,2 C.R. Valverde,2 and S.P. Mendoza1,2

1Department of Psychology, and 2California Regional Primate ResearchCenter, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616.

Intrauterine treatment with neem oil (Azadirachta indica) has been reported in ratsand macaques to produce reversible contraception without affecting ovarian cyclicity, uter-ine morphology, or future reproductive capability. This study investigated neem treat-ment as a possible contraceptive agent in titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch). Subjects wereeight adult primiparous laboratory-born females. Purified neem oil was infused into theuterus via intracervical catheterization in anesthetized monkeys. Reproductive status wasassessed hormonally and by ultrasound examination. At the time of treatment, five of theeight females were in early pregnancy; treatment resulted in abortion in four of themwhile the fifth required a second treatment to terminate pregnancy. After aborting, threeof these five females became pregnant again on their first cycle. For the remaining fiveanimals, neem treatment produced contraception ranging from 60–186 days. All eightfemales have subsequently given birth to healthy infants. Neem is an effective short-termcontraceptive agent in non-pregnant titi monkeys. For animals in early pregnancy, neemis an effective abortive agent. Following abortion, a second treatment is advisable to en-sure contraception.

93. WITHDRAWN

94. VALIDITY OF AN ESTIMATOR OF REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS.Ramon J. Rhine, Guy W. Norton, Dawn M. Hawkins, and Samuel K. WasserPsychology Department, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521;Anglia Polytechnic University; University of Liverpool; University of Washington.

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Lifetime reproductive success (LRS), which is a central variable in the study of natu-ral selection, is often difficult or impossible to assess adequately for long-lived animals,such as apes or baboons. To assess LRS, much time, energy, and resources is needed forlong and continuous observation of numerous identified individuals to determine theirentire reproductive history and the fates of their offspring. This situation can be allevi-ated by a measurement model proposed previously to estimate LRS from substantial butincomplete reproductive histories. The validity of the model, which yields a quantity, R,for each individual, was tested by calculating R after 10.5 study years for individual free-ranging female baboons (Papio cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, andthen seeing if these Rs predicted individual LRSs obtained from full reproductive histo-ries after 21.5 years. The estimator was evaluated for several criteria of success, eachdefined as a specified number of months of offspring survival. Using regression analysis,prediction of LRS by R was moderate to quite good for criteria of 36 to 72 months ofoffspring life. The estimator greatly improved analytic potential at 10.5 years of study viaincreases in N for the evaluation of LRS from N=8 up to N=62.

95. KIN RECOGNITION IN CAPTIVE BONNET AND PIGTAILMACAQUES (MACACA RADIATA AND MACACA NEMESTRINA):SOCIALITY OR GENETICS?R.L. Richardson and M.L. LaudenslagerUCHSC – CPH Primate Lab, Campus Box C268-68, 4200 E. Ninth Ave.,Denver, CO 80262.

The objective of this study is to evaluate whether individuals within a peer–peersocial group of juvenile macaques will display differing degrees of affiliative versus ago-nistic interactions with other group members based on genetic relatedness. The two groups(Group A = Macaca radiata, Group B = Macaca nemestrina) consist of several macaquejuveniles (mean = 9) ranging in age from 15 – 42 months. All animals were raised withtheir mothers in socially-stable breeding groups until 15 months of age. Approximatelyone half of the animals were separated from their mother at 6 months, whereas the otherhalf served as controls and did not undergo maternal separation. At separation the motherwas removed from the natal group and then reintroduced after two weeks. The focal andcontrol animals were ultimately removed from their natal groups at 15 months and intro-duced into species-specific peer–peer social groups. Behavioral performance was measuredusing focal animal sampling techniques. Dyadic interactions were recorded to includeaffiliative and agonistic encounters between the intruders and the residents of the peer–peergroup at the time of introduction. This data will be analyzed according to genetic relatednessbetween the intruders and residents involved in those dyadic interactions — full-siblings,half-siblings (maternal or paternal), and non-siblings. The hypothesis that macaque juvenilesrecognize kin in the absence of maternal associations will be tested by the data.

96. INFLUENCE OF FEMALE AVAILABILITY ON ADOPTIONIN TWO CAPTIVE GROUPS OF PIGTAIL MACAQUES (MACACANEMESTRINA).R.L. Richardson and W.L. MacCannellUCHSC – CPH Primate Lab, Campus Box C268-68, 4200 E. Ninth Ave.,Denver, CO 80262.

This study investigates whether adoption of orphaned infants is influenced by femaleavailability. Behavioral data were collected on two orphaned pigtail macaques (Macacanemestrina), living in separate social groups, at the UCHSC – CPH Primate Lab. Both groupswere comprised of one alpha male and 5–6 adult females (mean age = 10.8 yr.) and their

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infant offspring under 15 months of age. Using focal animal sampling, dyadic interactionswere recorded between the orphans and the adult females to examine the presence ofallomaternal caregiving in the form of adoption. We define adoption broadly in terms of rela-tively high frequencies of maternal behaivor directed by a female toward an orphaned indi-vidual. Typical maternal caregiving behavior was scored by observations on mother–offspringpairs in both groups. A number of behaviors were used as indices of maternal care: ventro-ventral cradling and carrying, nursing, protection/retrieval, grooming, etc. The data werethen analyzed according to each female’s presence or lack of biological offspring; and there-fore her availability to adopt. Results indicate that those females without dependent offspringwere more likely to exhibit higher rates of maternal care toward the orphans.

97. THE USE OF NORPLANT AS AN EFFECTIVE MEANS OFCONTRACEPTION IN THE WHITE-FACED SAKI (PITHECIAPITHECIA).A. Savage,1 D.S. Zirofsky,2 S.E. Shideler,3 and B.L. Lasley3

1Disney’s Animal Kingdom, PO Box 10,000, Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830.2Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, RI.3I.T.E.H., University of California, Davis, CA.

Identifying an effective contraception for use in white-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia)has been a challenging task. Current recommended methods of cebid contraception havemet with mixed results. This study examined the use of the Norplant©-2 (levonorgestrel)system as a means of contracepting sakis. A 70 mg silastic tubule of levonorgestrel wasimplanted subdermally between the scapulae in 3 multiparous and 2 nulliparous females.All females experienced low, acyclic levels of estrone conjugates (E1C) and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG) following insertion of the implant. While Norplant reduced ovarianfunction it did not cause a significant increase in weight as has been commonly noted inother species. Thus, levonorgestrel appears to be a useful contraceptive method in white-faced sakis lasting as long as two years.

98. CORRESPONDING CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR AND URI-NARY CORTISOL EXCRETION FOLLOWING RELOCATION INWIED’S BLACK TUFTED-EAR MARMOSET (CALLITHRIXKUHLI).C.M. Schaffner1 and T.E. Smith2

1Department of Psychology, College of St. Benedict & St. John’s University,Collegeville, MN 56321.2Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE68182-0274.

We investigated the effects of relocation on the behavior and cortisol levels in a non-human primate. Our aim was twofold. First, we wanted to determine whether or not theanimals responded behaviorally or physiologically to moving, and second, to ascertainwhether or not the changes in cortisol would be similar or distinct from changes in behav-ior. Two male/female pairs of Wied’s black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix kuhli) wererelocated from The University of Nebraska at Omaha to St. John’s University. Levels ofurinary cortisol were monitored daily and behavioral observations were collected 4 to 5days per week for a period of 12 weeks. For all analyses, behavior and cortisol levels werecollapsed across 2 week time blocks. We found that urinary cortisol levels were signifi-cantly higher during the first 2 weeks, relative to later time blocks. Furthermore, behav-ior changed in response to relocation. Animals spent more time in contact during the first

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2 week time block, whereas individual behaviors such as gouging branches, scentmarking,twitter vocalizations and foraging were significantly depressed, relative to later time blocks.However, both cortisol levels and behavior changes reached asymptotic levels within thefirst month. Our study documents that relocating animals to a new facility is a stressfulevent, and validates urinary cortisol as an accurate reflection of behavioral adjustment inmarmosets to environmental change.

99. A COMPARISON OF THE SOCIAL AND FEEDING BEHAVIORSBETWEEN A WILD AND COMMENSAL GROUP OF BONNETMACAQUES (MACACA RADIATA) IN THE INDIRA GANDHI WILD-LIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTH INDIA.L. SchlotterhausenDepartment of Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, NewYork, NY 10003.

Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) are a highly adaptable species, able to live in avariety of habitats in South India, ranging from urban areas to wet evergreen rainforest.They appear to thrive in human-altered habitats, leading to their designation as a “weedmacaque.” The present study examined the similarities and differences in social and feed-ing behavior of two groups of bonnet macaques which differ in the degree to which theywere influenced by humans. The wild group lived exclusively in the forest, while thesecond group inhabited a small town within the sanctuary and was entirely commensalwith humans. Both groups were observed using a 5-minute scan sampling technique. Overone thousand hours of observations, split evenly between the two groups, were collectedduring a period of over one year. Analysis revealed a superficial similarity of overall dailyactivity patterns. A more detailed analysis, however, indicated significant differences be-tween the two groups (p<0.05). The wild group moved and fed more but engaged inaffiliative and agonistic social behaviors less often than the commensal group, suggestingthat the wild group had higher survival demands and less leisure time to devote to main-taining social bonds. Additionally, the commensal group showed a decreased variability indiet, which consisted almost entirely of human foods. Supported by American Institute ofIndian Studies Junior Research Fellowship.

100. REACTIONS OF CAPTIVE GEOFFROY’S MARMOSETS TOEXPERIMENTALLY PRESENTED CALLS OF A RAPTORIALAND NON-RAPTORIAL BIRD.Y.M. Searcy and N.G. CaineDepartment of Psychology, California State University, San Marcos, CA 92096and Zoological Society of San Diego, P.O. Box 551, San Diego, CA 92112.

It is generally accepted that aerial predators have played an important role in theevolution of callitrichid behavior. However, there are few controlled studies of callitrichids’reactions to raptors and how such reactions differ from those associated with non-rapto-rial birds. Two family groups of Callithrix geoffroyi (n=13) were observed in their outdoorenclosure at the Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species, San Diego Wild AnimalPark. Each marmoset was observed before and after the presentation of taped calls of ahawk, a raven, and a control sound. Changes in behavior were measured by comparingpre- to post-exposure rates of locomotion, foraging, playing, stationary looking, grooming,and visual fixation. Compared to the raven call and control sound, the hawk call causedsignificantly (Wilcoxon tests; p<.05) more startle reactions, longer freeze times, and morevisual fixation toward the origin of the stimulus. For 30 min following exposure to the

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hawk call, the marmosets significantly decreased their locomotion and spent more time inthe part of the enclosure offering the most overhead cover. No such changes occurred inresponse to the raven call or the control sound. We conclude that marmosets react defen-sively to the calls of a raptor, and their reactions are different from those associated withthe calls of a non-raptorial bird.

101. “LAS ISLAS DE LOS CHANGOS” (THE MONKEY ISLANDS):A SUSTAINABLE NATURAL RESOURCE IN LOS TUXTLAS RE-GION, VERACRUZ, MÉXICO.Juan Carlos Serio-SilvaPosgrado en Ecología y Manejo de Recursos Naturales and Departamento deEcología Vegetal, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Km. 2.5 antigua carretera aCoatepec, Ap. 63 cp 91000, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.

The importance of “Las islas de los Changos” on the Catemaco Lake, Veracruz, Mexico(Los Tuxtlas) region is evaluated from many points of view, particularly the impact oftourists. The evidence shows that small areas with a strong natural attraction, such asthese monkey troops, can be, with adequate management, a highly sustainable naturalresource for nearby small towns. In an annual sampling period (July 1991 – June 1992),the estimates suggest that at least 28,740 visitors came to the islands, generating anincome of $88,969, with 4,691 visitors looking at the monkeys from tourism boats, yield-ing an income of $14,660. In addition, local people were able to supplement family in-comes by providing services for tourists, such as information about this natural resource.Finally, the incomes of the people on these islands were compared with other incomes inother areas of ecotourism or areas with other means of livelihood, such as cattle produc-tion. The final document was presented at the “Sustainable Development Seminar” ofPosgrado en Ecologia y Recursos Naturales, Instituto de Ecologia, A.C. The field studywas supported by Instituto de Neuroetologia, Universidad Veracruzana and PatronatoPro-Universidad Veracruzana, A.C.

102. VISUAL-PERSPECTIVE TAKING BY AN ORANG UTAN.D.J. Shillito,1 R.W. Shumaker,2 G.G. Gallup, Jr.,1 and B.B. Beck2

Think Tank, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC 20008.1State University of New York at Albany.2National Zoological Park and George Mason University.

Anecdotal accounts suggest that nonhuman primates are capable of interpretingeach other’s behavior in terms of unobservable mental states. However, to date, thereis little empirical evidence to supports these claims. The current investigation pro-vides experimental evidence that suggests at least one orang utan is capable of repre-senting the visual perspectives of her human caretakers. In the presence of an adultfemale orang utan, food was hidden under one of two cups placed outside of her enclo-sure, just beyond her reach. In the first experiment, the orang utan reliably (p<.05)reached out of her enclosure and directed a naive experimenter to the baited cup. Inthe second experiment, the orang utan was confronted with two experimenters, bothnaive to the location of the food; however one experimenter’s vision was obscured byplacing an opaque bucket over his head. The orang utan employed a variety of strate-gies to reliably (p<.05) direct the sighted person to the baited cup. These results sug-gest that the orang utan was capable of using her experience to mentally model thevisual impairment of humans.

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103. WITHDRAWN

104. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IN ORANG UTANS.R.W. Shumaker,1 B.B. Beck,1 L. Brown,2 and S. Taub2

Think Tank, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC 20008.1National Zoological Park and George Mason University.2George Mason University.

A number of species have been documented to learn through observation. The major-ity of these reports find evidence for social facilitation and stimulus enhancement, twoforms of observational learning. The most sophisticated form, imitation, has rarely beenreported. In this study, the observational learning abilities of orang utans are explored.Six individuals were formed into three study dyads, each containing a demonstrator andan observer. The demonstrator in each dyad learned match-to-sample tasks of increasingcomplexity in the presence of the observer. During the observation period, two of thethree observers imitated the performance of their demonstrator on a number of occasions.After an extended period of exposure to the performance of the demonstrator, the observ-ers were tested to assess their ability on the same tasks. The results of this study indi-cate that orang utans are able to imitate the performance of a demonstrator, althoughthis may not be sufficient to confer complete comprehension of a task. However, whengiven the opportunity to observe a task and then have direct experience with the sametask, the orang utans in this study showed a significantly faster rate of comprehensionthan their demonstrator partner.

105. THE ORANGUTAN REHABILITATION PROGRAM ATWANARISET STATION, SAMBOJA-EAST KALIMANTAN.R.S.E. Siregar, R.C. Kyes, W.T.M. Smits, A.E. Russon, and HeryantoThe Orangutan Reintroduction Project, P.O. Box 319, Balikpapan 76100 EastKalimantan, Indonesia, Primate Research Center–Bogor AgriculturalUniversity, Indonesia, Department of Psychology and Regional PrimateResearch Center, University of Washington, and Dept. of Psychology, GlendonCollege.

The Orangutan Reintroduction Project at Wanariset Station was established in 1991to help prepare confiscated young orangutans for reintroduction to their natural habitat.To date, the project has received 342 orangutans, 108 of which have been reintroduced toprotected forest sites in East Kalimantan. The rehabilitation program is an essential com-ponent of the reintroduction project and is designed to promote the ecological and so-cial skills necessary for life in the wild. Upon arrival at the center, each orangutan isplaced in quarantine. They receive a thorough physical exam, screening for tuberculo-sis, hepatitis B, C, and E, and medical treatment as needed. Healthy animals thattest free of contagious disease then begin rehabilitation. Animals under 2 years of ageare placed together in the baby nursery cage, 2–3 year olds are placed together in thejuvenile cage, and animals 3–5 years of age are assigned to peer groups in one of thesocialization cages. At all age levels, animals receive enrichment activities designed toimprove foraging, climbing, and nest building skills. Orangutans in the socializationcages are evaluated (30 min. focal samples) as part of a behavioral monitoring proto-col designed to help manage the animals’ rehabilitation process and evaluate theircompetence or “readiness” for successful reintroduction to their natural habitat. Theminimum age for reintroduction is 5 years.