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C H A P T E R
351
Relational Leadership through the Lens of International LMX Research
Ekin K. Pellegrini
Abstract
Over the past decade, a substantial body of research on leader–member exchange (LMX) has emerged from the international context. International LMX is a developing research area with some intriguing findings; however, this emerging literature is still in its infancy and much work remains to be done for a strong theoretical foundation with sound practical implications. This article provides a comprehensive assessment of international LMX research. It then highlights theoretical and methodological gaps and suggests promising directions for future international LMX research.
Key Words: leader–member exchange, LMX, leadership, international, cross-cultural
IntroductionMultinational business organizations are increas-
ingly experiencing dynamic cross-cultural work arrangements due to technological advances such as teleconference, live chat, online hangouts, video conferencing, and an increasing reliance on email in lieu of face-to-face communication. In multina-tional companies, business is commonly conducted in multicultural work groups specifically via virtual work and expatriation. Accordingly, the twenty-first century has been referred to as “the century of inter-national management research” (Tsui, Nifadkar, & Ou, 2007, p. 427).
Recent changes in organizational structures toward an increasingly multicultural work envi-ronment are accompanied by an accelerated inter-est in management research across cultures. This interest is evidenced by major reviews within the past few years (e.g., Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007; Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006; Rockstuhl, Dulebohn, Ang, & Shore, 2012; Tsui et al., 2007). There is growing excitement among management scholars on cross-cultural research and it is clear from the review articles that sufficient research has accumulated to merit comprehensive reviews.
However, previous reviews of international research focused broadly on international management and organizational behavior and did not aim to pro-vide an in-depth study of specific areas, such as leader–member exchange (LMX), where a substan-tial amount of international research has accumu-lated specifically over the past decade. To date, the meta-analysis of Rockstuhl et al. (2012) is the only review of international LMX research; however, they focused specifically on six outcome variables [i.e., task performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), justice perceptions, job satisfac-tion, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions] and two antecedents (transformational leadership and leader trust).
Despite flourishing research in international LMX, the field is in need of a review of diverse findings. Thus, the purpose of this article is to pro-vide a thorough examination of recent advances in international LMX research and identify theoreti-cal and methodological gaps in the current state of the literature. LMX theory will advance only when diverse perspectives from the international context are integrated to provide a more complete theoreti-cal framework.
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352 Relational Leadership through LMX Research
Theoretical BackgroundAccording to LMX theory, leaders develop
unique relationships with each follower (Scandura & Graen, 1984; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). The qual-ity of these LMX relationships falls on a continuum ranging from low-quality relations characterized by economic exchange to high-quality relations char-acterized by social exchange. LMX is grounded in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), which posits that unlike economic exchanges, social exchange relations are more flexible and complex and cannot be reduced to a single calculative exchange scale. Social exchange relations involve unspecified obli-gations in return for received favors and they rarely involve explicit bargaining. In a high-quality rela-tionship, followers receive support, encouragement, visibility, and developmental assignments from their leaders and they reciprocate the favor in more generalized terms (e.g., work harder) as opposed to immediate reciprocity in economic exchange (Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997). As LMX matures from low-quality relations that are charac-terized by transactional exchanges specified by the employment contract to high-quality exchanges beyond work requirements, members stop keep-ing count of favors since the relationship evolves into one characterized by mutual trust, obligation, respect, and loyalty. The quality of a member’s exchange relation with the leader has been shown to be positively related to performance, OCB, orga-nizational commitment, job satisfaction, and justice perceptions and negatively related to turnover, per-ceptions of politics, role ambiguity, and role con-flict (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Ilies, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007; Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, & Ferris, 2012).
DefinitionThis review of over three decades of international
research suggests a general consensus in the field with respect to the definition of LMX. According to Graen and Scandura (1987), effective leader-ship occurs when leaders and followers maintain a high-quality LMX relationship characterized by mutual trust, respect, and obligation. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) also endorse this definition. Dienesch and Liden (1986) conceptualized LMX as a multidimensional construct composed of affect, contribution, and loyalty. Later, Liden, and Maslyn (1998) conducted interviews to serve as guidelines for item generation and based on these interviews, they proposed a five-dimensional model of LMX composed of three dimensions originally proposed
by Dienesch and Liden (1986) and two new dimen-sions: trust and professional respect. They defined trust as “the perception of the degree of genuine concern for the best interest of the other member of the dyad as reflected in supportive behavior and honesty” (p. 49). However, trust (a central tenet of social exchange theory) was later dropped and loyalty dimension was revised to include notions of trust. Empirical analyses demonstrated support for a four-dimensional model that included affect, contribution, loyalty, and professional respect as currencies of exchange. Liden and Maslyn (1998) suggest LMX relations may be based primarily on one, two, three, or all four dimensions. For exam-ple, affect may develop quickly, perhaps during the employment interview; however, loyalty may take considerable time to grow.
A multidimensional conceptualization of LMX is especially significant in cross-cultural research as different LMX domains may lead to different out-comes (Liden & Maslyn, 1998). Furthermore, the relative importance of exchange currencies may vary considerably across cultures. However, current defi-nitions of LMX used in international research are limited by a strictly etic (cultural-universals) per-spective due to the conceptualization of LMX mean-ing based on interviews solely with U.S. samples.
Based on inconsistent LMX findings from the international context, Anand, Hu, Liden, and Vidyarthi (2011) suggested that LMX dynamics may operate differently in non-Western contexts. Inconsistent findings of these studies include, but not limited to, a nonsignificant relation between LMX and OCB in China (Loi & Ngo, 2009), a nonsignificant association between LMX and turnover intentions in India (Mehta, 2009), and a significantly weaker association between transfor-mational leadership and LMX in Saudi Arabia and Jordan as compared to Australia (Pillai, Scandura, & Williams, 1999). Given that these associations are well-established in the Western context, controver-sial findings from international research prompted Rockstuhl et al. (2012) to conduct a meta-analysis of international LMX research.
In their meta-analysis from the international context, Rockstuhl et al. (2012) observed a signifi-cantly weaker association between LMX and out-come variables as compared to established findings from the U.S. context. For example, the relation-ships among LMX and OCB, justice perceptions, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and leader trust were all significantly stronger in Western cul-ture (i.e., horizontal/individualistic; HI) contexts
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Pellegrini 353
(e.g., United States, England, Canada, Australia) compared to vertical/collectivistic (VC) cultures (e.g., China, India, Turkey, Colombia, Malaysia, Singapore). They suggest that the underlying reason for weaker associations between LMX and outcome variables in the international context is that employ-ees in VC cultures are influenced by role-based obli-gations; due to their stronger respect for authority, attitudes and behaviors of members in VC cultures are therefore less likely to be influenced solely by leader treatment. They further suggest that the weaker associations in non-Western contexts may be due to cross-cultural differences in the underly-ing mechanisms of LMX and they call for research that examines LMX content in the international context. Furthermore, they state that “change in construct meaning across cultures is an alternative explanation” for attenuated relationships (p. 1104). In this review, we also argue for a critical need to incorporate emic (cultural-specific) conceptualiza-tions of LMX in international research.
MeasurementThis current review of international LMX
research suggests three commonly used measure-ment instruments to assess LMX perceptions (see the Appendix). Of the 93 studies reviewed, 48 (52%) used the 7-item, unidimensional LMX-7 scale (Scandura & Graen, 1984; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Another commonly used scale is the 12-item multidimensional LMX-MDM scale (Liden & Maslyn, 1998), which assesses four LMX dimen-sions: affect, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect. Although LMX-MDM is a multidimen-sional measure (MDM), notwithstanding a few exceptions (e.g., Ansari, Hung, & Aafaqi; 2007; Lee, 2005; Wang, Law, & Chen, 2008), international research using LMX-MDM mostly examined LMX as a higher-order construct, rather than studying the dimensions’ differential relations with outcomes.
A common reliance on these validated scales produces the benefit of consistency and compara-bility of empirical LMX studies within and across cultures. However, LMX is a complex and multi-dimensional exchange relationship and we may be trading rigor for relevance (Hiller, DeChurch, Murase, & Doty, 2011; Staw, 1995) by not seeking to understand cultural variations in LMX meaning via in-depth interviews and focus groups for further theoretical refinement. A more complete conceptual understanding of LMX in non-Western contexts is essential for construct validity and will ultimately aid in advancing both theory and practice.
A call for international studies that examine indigenous LMX dimensions is long overdue. A common and troubling reliance on measurement scales based on Western conceptualizations may limit our ability to understand the varied cultural nuances in LMX relationships. My review of the international literature suggests that the four LMX-MDM dimensions are theoretically and empirically meaningful across cultures. However, there may be additional, indigenous facets of LMX relationships that research has yet to identify.
For example, in Confucian cultures, guanxi describes dyadic relationship quality and it is the key driver of work relations. Confucian relational-ism characterizes personal relations as the basic unit of social systems and Chinese society is so relation-ship oriented that guanxi is pursued for its own sake (Chen, Chen, & Huang, 2013; Hwang, 2009). Guanxi relationships are holistic in that they involve care and concern for the social, psychological, and economic (i.e., on the job and off the job domains) welfare of the other member (Chen, Friedman, Yu, Fang, & Lu, 2009). Recently, Chen, Yu, and Son (2014) suggested that the focus of LMX research has long been on Western LMX theory and that research needs to move beyond Western conceptualizations and identify indigenous LMX components that involve an off-the-job personal relationship. Almost two decades ago, House and Aditya (1997) sug-gested that LMX theory reflects U.S. cultural prefer-ences for a separation between work and personal relations; however, research has still yet to extend LMX theory beyond the Western business context.
To delineate the distinction of guanxi from LMX, Law, Wong, Wang, and Wang (2000) defined leader–member guanxi (LMG) in non-work-related social exchanges, such as gift giving and dinner invitations. The major differ-ence between Chinese LMG and Western LMX is that whereas LMX is limited to work-related exchanges, LMG includes non-work-related social exchange (Chen et al., 2013). Given that Chinese leader–member relationships involve both work and off-the-job domains, an overarching frame-work depicting leader–member exchange qual-ity in the Chinese context should include both LMX and LMG to thoroughly assess relation-ship quality. In fact, due to the limited ability of LMX to capture indigenous cultural nuances in leader–member exchange relations (Hui & Graen, 1997), Chen et al. (2009) developed a scale to assess supervisor–subordinate guanxi quality encompassing both work and non-work-related
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354 Relational Leadership through LMX Research
aspects of the dyadic relationship, which is con-ceptually similar to LMX in the Western context (Chen et al., 2013). Recently, in the Chinese context, Chen et al. (2013) found that LMX dif-ferentiation was not significantly related to job satisfaction or turnover intent; however, LMG differentiation was negatively related to job sat-isfaction and positively related to turnover intent. Thus, guanxi may be a key aspect of LMX in the Chinese context. In assessing LMX quality, it is time that researchers integrate the broader social context and incorporate culturally significant exchange norms into measurement instruments. LMX will represent an overarching framework for the study of social exchange relationships at work only when indigenous perspectives are also inte-grated into theoretical development.
Similar to the significance of guanxi in Chinese LMX relationships, dominant Confucian values––hierarchy and relationalism––suggest another signif-icant indigenous construct in high-quality exchange relations. Paternalistic leadership has been at the forefront of indigenous dyadic leadership theo-ries and has received growing interest within the past decade (Aycan, Schyns, Sun, Felfe, & Saher, 2013; Chen, Eberly, Chiang, Farh, & Cheng, 2014; Cheng et al., 2014; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2010). Paternalism combines discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence (Farh & Cheng, 2000). Benevolence refers to a holistic concern for sub-ordinate’s well-being and people in authority con-sider it an obligation to take a personal interest in the follower’s off-the-job lives to promote welfare (Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007). Subordinates show loyalty and deference out of respect and appre-ciation for the leader’s care and protection (Aycan, 2006). Paternalistic leaders are also authoritative (as opposed to authoritarian) and they exercise control to promote the subordinate’s welfare (Aycan, 2006). Subordinates know the rules are for their advance-ment and respect and willingly comply with the leader’s decisions. Research suggests that in pater-nalistic business contexts, such as Turkey, India, China, and Mexico (Aycan et al., 2000; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008), paternalism may be a key compo-nent in defining high-quality LMX relations. Aycan et al. (2013) recently suggested that paternalism is commonly practiced in VC cultures of Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and Africa and that it represents leadership dynamics in the majority of the world. Incorporating emic management practices into LMX measurement instruments will broaden the scope and representativeness of LMX theory.
Regarding the established LMX dimensions (i.e., affect, contribution, loyalty, respect), what is interpreted as positive behavior may not have a similar connotation in another culture. For exam-ple, one item from Liden and Maslyn’s (1998) affect scale is “My supervisor is the kind of person one would like to have as a friend.” The definition of ‘friend’ may vary considerably across cultures. In a cross-cultural study in Hong Kong, Smith, Misumi, Tayeb, Peterson, and Bond (1989) found that when an employee encounters difficulties, the discussion by the supervisor of the employee’s per-sonal problems with other team members in the absence of the employee is considered “considerate behavior,” whereas respondents from the United States regard talking “behind the back” of this per-son as inconsiderate. Thus, future research needs to delve deeper into culturally accepted as well as culturally questionable behaviors for LMX dimen-sions to provide a solid and practical theory for business leaders in cross-cultural work contexts.
Similarly, loyalty may have different conno-tations across cultures. According to Liden and Maslyn (1998), loyalty refers to “the expression of public support for the goals and the personal character of the other member of the LMX dyad” (p. 50). However, in paternalistic societies loyalty goes beyond simple expressions of public sup-port. Unquestioning obedience and deference to the leader are essential elements of loyalty in leader–member relations in paternalistic work envi-ronments (Pellegrini & Scandura, 2006). Therefore, the definition of “loyalty” may have additional emic aspects that have yet to be identified in LMX research.
Furthermore, Liden and Maslyn (1998) ini-tially conceptualized trust as a separate, fifth dimension of LMX. However, their findings sug-gested that trust and loyalty were not easily distin-guishable and they decided to include trust in the loyalty dimension and to drop the separate trust dimension. However, trust is a central tenet of social exchange theory, and given the significance and salience of trust in relationship-oriented, VC business contexts, trust as originally conceptual-ized by Liden and Maslyn (1998) may appear as an additional dimension in non-Western business contexts.
Antecedents of LMX in the International Context
The current review suggests a disproportion-ate attention devoted to outcomes rather than
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Pellegrini 355
antecedents; however, there is still ample research on antecedents of LMX from an international con-text. Of the 93 studies reviewed, 32 (34%) studied one or more antecedents of LMX. To provide a ref-erence for the reader, Table 19.1 presents a list of the studies identified as examining LMX in an interna-tional context. This list was constructed by perform-ing a search of the key terms LMX, leader–member exchange, international, and cross-cultural in the PsychINFO database. I also added studies from the references lists of the identified articles.
Table 19.1 lists the studies reviewed, including antecedent and outcome variables, LMX measure-ment instruments used, source of ratings (e.g., member, leader, personnel records), as well as sam-ple information.
The majority of studies examining LMX ante-cedents in the international context employed cross-sectional/same source (45%) and cross-sectional/multisource (39%) methods fol-lowed by time-lag/multisource (6%) designs. Specifically, research that examines leader–member similarity (e.g., organizational tenure, value, per-sonality, gender, age, national origin similarity) as LMX antecedents (Ashkanasy & O’Connor, 1997; Bhal, Ansari, & Aafaqi, 2007; Loi & Ngo, 2009; Schaubroeck & Lam, 2002; Pelled & Xin, 2000; Testa, 2009) predominantly adopted cross-sectional designs. These studies suggest subordinates in high-quality exchanges are more similar to their leaders on gender, national origin, values, and per-sonality. For example, in China, Loi and Ngo (2009) found that male subordinates with female supervi-sors reported the lowest LMX quality, whereas male subordinates with male supervisors reported the highest LMX. However, given the cross-sectional design in all these studies, we still do not know much about the longitudinal effects of similarity. For example, at early stages of LMX development, demographic similarities may be more salient pre-dictors of LMX quality. However, as LMX matures into a high-quality relationship, non-work-related predictors (e.g., demographics) may no longer be salient in determining LMX quality. Thus, these relations should be examined at more than one time point with a sufficient time lag between to allow LMX relationships to mature.
In addition, international research should incor-porate the broader social, historical, and political context into LMX theory building. For example, Waismel-Manor, Berger, and Dikstein (2010) stud-ied Ashkenazi Jews and Mizrahi Jews in Israel and found LMX to be more strongly related to OCBs
in similar dyads. Gong, Farh, and Chattopadhyay (2012) found shared dialect identity (e.g., Mandarin, Hakka, Mingnan) to be a predictor of LMX in Taiwan. One similarity variable that may be a significant predictor of LMX quality in the Middle Eastern business context is political affilia-tion. Numerous Middle Eastern countries are cur-rently experiencing political turmoil and examining value similarity or congruence in political affiliation as a potential LMX antecedent is a relevant and timely endeavor. For example, in the Turkish busi-ness context, a leader affiliated with AKP (Justice Development Party; a right-wing party developed from the tradition of Islamism) and a member affiliated with CHP (Republican People’s Party; a center-left party endorsing social liberalism) may report significantly lower LMX compared to dyads congruent in political values.
Another untapped research avenue includes leader–member similarity on implicit leadership theories (ILTs) and implicit followership theories (IFTs) (Engle & Lord, 1997; Sy, 2010). In a lon-gitudinal study in the U.K., Epitropaki and Martin (2005) found that leader–member differences in prototypic ILTs (e.g., sensitivity) negatively influ-ence LMX, whereas differences in antiprototypic ILTs (e.g., tyranny) positively influence LMX qual-ity. Furthermore, in the U.S. context, Sy (2010) found leaders’ followership prototype (e.g., enthusi-asm) to be positively related to LMX, whereas lead-ers’ followership antiprototype (e.g., conformity) was negatively related to LMX. However, these definitions originated in a Western context and therefore ILTs and IFTs as LMX antecedents should be examined carefully in an international business context. This research stream is promising for inter-national LMX research since leaders and members may have culturally ingrained notions of the defini-tion of an ideal leader and follower and uncover-ing indigenous ILTs and IFTs may provide a more in-depth understanding of LMX antecedents. Given the limited number of LMX studies on ILTs and IFTs, the potential for theory development in inter-national LMX research is significant (Epitropaki, Sy, Martin, Tram-Quon, & Topakas, 2013).
Another promising avenue in studying LMX antecedents is that all the studies examining ante-cedents in extant research measured LMX from the subordinate’s perspective. To date, little progress has been made in incorporating the leader’s per-spective [i.e., supervisor leader–member exchange (SLMX)] in examining predictors of LMX qual-ity. A central tenet of LMX theory is that LMX
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Tabl
e 19
.1.
Ant
eced
ents
and
Out
com
es o
f LM
X (N
on-U
.S. C
onte
xt)
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Har
ris, L
i, &
K
irkm
an (2
014)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
(L)
Turn
over
inte
ntio
n (M
)
223
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
60
supe
rviso
rsC
hina
8 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Baue
r & G
reen
(199
6)
(M)
Che
n, Y
u, &
Son
(2
014)
Ove
rall
LMX
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Tu
rnov
er in
tent
ion
(M)
Co-
wor
ker h
elpi
ng
beha
vior
(M)
228
empl
oyee
s in
60 w
ork
grou
ps fr
om 1
2 co
mpa
nies
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Liu,
Lin
, & H
u (2
013)
Ove
rall
LMX
Une
thic
al b
ehav
ior (
M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
249
empl
oyee
s fro
m fo
ur
finan
ce c
ompa
nies
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Liu,
Cai
, Li,
Shi,
&
Fang
(201
3)O
vera
ll LM
XO
rgan
izatio
nal
iden
tifica
tion
(M)
Turn
over
inte
ntio
n (M
)
190
lead
er–m
embe
r dya
dsH
ong
Kon
gC
hina
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(L)
Baka
r & S
heer
(2
013)
Dya
dic
LMX
ag
reem
ent
Team
-mem
ber e
xcha
nge
(TM
X) (
M)
Coo
pera
tive
com
mun
icat
ion
(M)
Gro
up c
ohes
ion
(M)
375
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
48
man
ager
sM
alay
siaLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M) a
nd
SLM
X-M
DM
(L)
Volm
er, S
purk
, &
Nie
ssen
(201
2)O
vera
ll LM
XC
reat
ive
wor
k in
volv
emen
t (M
,Ti
me
2)
144
empl
oyee
sG
erm
any
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M,
Tim
e 1)
Zho
u, W
ang,
C
hen,
& S
hi
(201
2)
Ove
rall
LMX
LLX
(lea
der–
lead
er
exch
ange
) (L;
Ti
me
1)
Empo
wer
men
t (M
, Tim
e 1)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M, T
ime
2)Jo
b pe
rform
ance
(L, T
ime
2)
577
bank
em
ploy
ees n
este
d w
ithin
104
man
ager
sC
hina
8 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Scan
dura
& G
raen
(198
4)
by B
auer
& G
reen
(199
6)
(M; T
ime
1)
AQ
: Ple
ase
pro
vid
e fo
otn
ote
for
sup
ersc
rip
t 1
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Brun
etto
, Sh
ackl
ock,
Ba
rtra
m, L
egga
t, Fa
rr-W
hart
on,
Stan
ton,
& C
asim
ir (2
012)
Ove
rall
LMX
Psyc
holo
gica
l em
pow
erm
ent (
M)
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)
1283
nur
ses
Austr
alia
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Hu,
Ou,
Chi
ou, &
Li
n (2
012)
Ove
rall
LMX
Team
kno
wle
dge
shar
ing
(M)
Team
serv
ice
inno
vatio
n pe
rform
ance
(M)
466
empl
oyee
s fro
m 3
5 ho
tels
Taiw
anLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Joo
& R
eady
(2
012)
Ove
rall
LMX
Car
eer s
atisf
actio
n (M
)23
2 em
ploy
ees
Kor
eaLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Gaj
endr
an &
Josh
i (2
012)
Ove
rall
LMX
Mem
ber i
nflue
nce
on te
am
deci
sions
(M)
167
mem
bers
in 4
0 gl
obal
ly
distr
ibut
ed te
ams
Euro
pe, J
apan
, K
orea
, Aus
tral
ia,
Uni
ted
Stat
es
7 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Scan
dura
& G
raen
(198
4)
by Ja
nsse
n &
Van
Ype
ren
(200
4) (M
)
Gon
g, F
arh,
&
Cha
ttopa
dhya
y (2
012)
Ove
rall
LMX
Shar
ed d
iale
ct
iden
tity
(M, L
)17
9 su
bord
inat
es n
este
d w
ithin
76
supe
rviso
rsTa
iwan
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M, L
)
Zha
ng,
Wal
dman
, & W
ang
(201
2)
Ove
rall
LMX
Mem
ber’s
em
erge
nce
as a
n in
form
al le
ader
(pee
r tea
m
mem
bers
)
361
empl
oyee
s in
74 te
ams
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Gra
en &
U
hl-B
ien,
199
5) (M
)
Volm
er, N
iess
en,
Spur
k, L
inz,
&
Abel
e (2
011)
Ove
rall
LMX
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M;
Tim
e 1)
Job
Satis
fact
ion
(M, T
ime
2)27
9 em
ploy
ees f
rom
a la
rge
IT c
ompa
nyG
erm
any
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M;
Tim
e 1
and
Tim
e 2)
Yous
af, S
ande
rs,
Tork
a, &
Ard
ts (2
011)
Ove
rall
LMX
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith h
uman
re
sour
ces p
ract
ices
(M)
122
doct
oral
stud
ents
Net
herla
nds
15 it
ems a
dapt
ed fr
om
Lide
n an
d M
asly
n (1
998)
(M
)
Kar
im (2
011)
Ove
rall
LMX
Emot
iona
l in
telli
genc
e (M
)D
istrib
utiv
e ju
stice
(M)
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
(M)
106
empl
oyee
sPa
kista
nLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
) (con
tinue
d)
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 357 5/15/2015 2:52:21 PM
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Venk
atar
aman
i, G
reen
, &
Schl
eich
er (2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Perc
eive
d le
ader
sta
tus (
M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Turn
over
inte
ntio
ns (M
)18
4 em
ploy
ees n
este
d w
ithin
42
man
ager
sIn
dia
8 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Scan
dura
& G
raen
(1
984)
by
Baue
r & G
reen
(1
996)
(M)
Pelle
grin
i, Sc
andu
ra, &
Ja
yara
man
(201
0)
Ove
rall
LMX
Pate
rnal
istic
lead
ersh
ip (M
)Aff
ectiv
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
207
empl
oyed
MBA
stud
ents
215
empl
oyed
MBA
stud
ents
Indi
aU
.S.
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Anan
d, V
idya
rthi
, Li
den,
& R
ouss
eau
(201
0)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
(L)
231
subo
rdin
ate–
supe
rviso
r dy
ads
Indi
aLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Kim
, Lee
, &
Car
lson
(201
0)O
vera
ll LM
XTu
rnov
er in
tent
(M)
232
nons
uper
viso
ry a
nd 8
8 su
perv
isory
em
ploy
ees
Sout
h K
orea
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura,
G
raen
, & N
ovak
, 19
86) (
M)
Liao
, Liu
, & L
oi
(201
0)O
vera
ll LM
XSe
lf-effi
cacy
(M)
Cre
ativ
ity (H
R d
epar
tmen
t)82
8 em
ploy
ees
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Gra
en &
U
hl-B
ien,
199
5) (M
)
Hua
ng, C
han,
La
m, &
Nan
(2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Burn
out (
M)
Wor
k pe
rform
ance
(sup
ervi
sor,
peer
s, cu
stom
ers)
493
lead
er–m
embe
r dya
dsC
hina
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Li, L
iang
, & C
rant
(2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Proa
ctiv
e pe
rson
ality
(M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
(L)
200
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
54
supe
rviso
rsC
hina
8 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Scan
dura
& G
raen
(1
984)
(M)
Brun
etto
, Fa
rr-W
hart
on, &
Sh
ackl
ock
(201
0)
Ove
rall
LMX
Mor
ale
(M)
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)
1064
nur
ses
Austr
alia
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Erdo
gan
& B
auer
(2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith c
o-w
orke
r re
latio
ns (M
)H
elpi
ng b
ehav
ior t
arge
ting
co-w
orke
rs (L
)
276
empl
oyee
s nes
ted
with
in
25 m
anag
ers
Turk
eyLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Eise
nber
ger,
Kar
agon
lar,
Stin
glha
mbe
r, N
eves
, Bec
ker,
Gon
zale
s-M
oral
es,
& S
teig
er-M
ulle
r (2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)In
-rol
e pe
rform
ance
(L)
Extr
a-ro
le p
erfo
rman
ce (L
)
346
subo
rdin
ate–
supe
rviso
r dya
ds25
1 em
ploy
ees m
atch
ed w
ith
79 su
perv
isors
Port
ugal
Uni
ted
Stat
esLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Joo
(201
0)O
vera
ll LM
XAff
ectiv
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
Turn
over
inte
ntio
n (M
)
516
empl
oyee
sSo
uth
Kor
eaLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Wai
smel
-Man
or,
Berg
er, &
Dik
stein
(2
010)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
s (L)
163
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Isra
el11
item
s fro
m
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Lo, R
amay
ah, M
in,
& S
onga
n (2
010)
Affec
tLo
yalty
Con
trib
utio
nRe
spec
t
Org
aniza
tiona
l com
mitm
ent
(M)
156
empl
oyee
s fro
m 1
1 co
mpa
nies
Mal
aysia
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Bote
ro &
Van
D
yne
(200
9)O
vera
ll LM
XEm
ploy
ee v
oice
(M)
109
empl
oyee
s13
8 em
ploy
ees
Uni
ted
Stat
esC
olom
bia
6 ite
ms (
Gra
en, N
ovak
, &
Som
mer
kam
p, 1
982)
(M)
Bhal
, Gul
ati,
&
Ansa
ri (2
009)
Affec
tPe
rcei
ved
cont
ribut
ion
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Lo
yalty
(org
aniza
tiona
l ci
tizen
ship
beh
avio
r) (M
)
306
softw
are
prof
essio
nals
Indi
a10
item
s (Bh
al &
Ans
ari,
1996
) (M
)
(con
tinue
d)
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Loi,
Mao
, & N
go
(200
9)O
vera
ll LM
XO
rgan
izatio
nal s
ocia
l ex
chan
ge (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal e
cono
mic
ex
chan
ge (M
)Aff
ectiv
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
Inte
ntio
n to
leav
e (M
)
239
empl
oyee
sC
hina
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Loi &
Ngo
(200
9)O
vera
ll LM
XG
ende
r di
ssim
ilarit
y (M
, L)
Org
aniza
tiona
l te
nure
di
ssim
ilarit
y (M
, L)
Age
diss
imila
rity
(M, L
)Ed
ucat
ion
diss
imila
rity
(M, L
)N
atio
nal o
rigin
di
ssim
ilarit
y (M
, L)
239
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Testa
(200
9)O
vera
ll LM
XLe
ader
–mem
ber
natio
nal o
rigin
sim
ilarit
y (M
)
520
empl
oyee
s fro
m tw
o U
.S. c
ruise
line
s66
cou
ntrie
s (p
redo
min
antly
fro
m U
nite
d St
ates
, Eng
land
, Ita
ly, In
dia)
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Li &
Hun
g (2
009)
Ove
rall
LMX
Tran
sform
atio
nal
lead
ersh
ip (M
)Ta
sk p
erfo
rman
ce (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal c
itize
nshi
p be
havi
or (M
)
1040
teac
hers
from
52
elem
enta
ry sc
hool
sTa
iwan
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Che
n, F
riedm
an,
Yu, F
ang,
& L
u (2
009)
Ove
rall
LMX
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Tu
rnov
er in
tent
ion
(M)
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
(M)
209
empl
oyee
s fro
m 1
2 co
mpa
nies
Chi
naLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 360 5/15/2015 2:52:22 PM
(con
tinue
d)
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Isha
k &
Ala
m
(200
9)O
vera
ll LM
XO
rgan
izatio
nal c
itize
nshi
p be
havi
ors (
L)Se
lf-es
teem
(M)
300
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
11
8 su
perv
isors
Mal
aysia
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
, L)
Hsiu
ng &
Tsa
i (2
009)
Ove
rall
LMX
Perfo
rman
ce (L
)Em
ploy
ee re
lativ
e jo
b br
eadt
h (M
, L)
Lead
er–m
embe
r con
grue
nce
on jo
b co
nten
t (M
, L)
184
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Taiw
anLM
X-7
(Gra
en &
U
hl-B
ien,
199
5) (M
)
Liao
, Hu,
&
Chu
ng (2
009)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)
303
empl
oyee
s fro
m 2
4 in
tern
atio
nal h
otel
sTa
iwan
6 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Fiel
der,
Che
mer
s, &
M
ahar
(197
7)
Yife
ng &
Tjo
svol
d (2
008)
Ove
rall
LMX
Coo
pera
tive
goal
s (M
)C
ompe
titiv
e go
als (
M)
Inde
pend
ent g
oals
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Pe
rform
ance
(M)
Lead
er e
ffect
iven
ess (
M)
Futu
re c
olla
bora
tion
(M)
Ope
n-m
inde
d di
scus
sion
(M)
Inno
vatio
n (M
)
199
empl
oyee
s(9
9 ha
d Am
eric
an m
anag
ers,
100
had
Japa
nese
man
ager
s)
Chi
na5
item
s ada
pted
from
G
raen
et a
l. (1
982)
(M)
Van
Dyn
e, K
amda
r, &
Joire
man
(200
8)O
vera
ll LM
XH
elpi
ng (s
uper
viso
r fo
cuse
d) (L
)Vo
ice
(org
aniza
tion
focu
sed)
(L
)
218
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
34
supe
rviso
rsIn
dia
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Hel
ping
(sup
ervi
sor
focu
sed)
(L)
Voic
e (s
uper
viso
r foc
used
) (L)
Hel
ping
(org
aniza
tion
focu
sed)
(L)
Voic
e (o
rgan
izatio
n fo
cuse
d)
(L)
234
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
36
supe
rviso
rsSi
ngap
ore
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Asga
ri, S
ilong
, Ah
mad
, & S
amah
(2
008)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
(L)
220
empl
oyee
sIr
anLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Oze
r (20
08)
Ove
rall
LMX
Job
perfo
rman
ce (L
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)24
3 su
perv
isor–
subo
rdin
ate
dyad
sC
hina
, Hon
g K
ong,
Tai
wan
, Si
ngap
ore,
Sout
h K
orea
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Wan
g, L
aw, &
C
hen
(200
8)Aff
ect
Con
trib
utio
nLo
yalty
Prof
essio
nal
resp
ect
Task
per
form
ance
(L)
Con
text
ual p
erfo
rman
ce (L
)16
8 em
ploy
ees m
atch
ed w
ith
87 m
anag
ers
Chi
na16
item
s ada
pted
from
Li
den
and
Mas
lyn
(199
8)
by W
ang
et a
l. (2
001)
(M)
Dul
ac,
Coy
le-S
hapi
ro,
Hen
ders
on, &
W
ayne
(200
8)
Ove
rall
LMX
Psyc
holo
gica
l con
trac
t bre
ach
(M, T
ime
2)Ps
ycho
logi
cal c
ontr
act
viol
atio
n (M
, Tim
e 2)
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
, Tim
e 2)
Inte
ntio
ns to
qui
t (M
, Tim
e 2)
152
empl
oyee
sBe
lgiu
mLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4)
(M, T
ime
1)
van
Dam
, Ore
g, &
Sc
hyns
(200
8)O
vera
ll LM
XIn
form
atio
n (M
)Pa
rtic
ipat
ion
(M)
Trus
t in
man
agem
ent (
M)
235
empl
oyee
sN
ethe
rland
sLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Che
n, T
sui,
&
Zho
ng (2
008)
Psyc
holo
gica
l co
ntra
ct b
reac
h by
th
e su
bord
inat
e (L
)
273
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Lam
, Hua
ng, &
Sn
ape
(200
7)O
vera
ll LM
XFe
edba
ck-s
eeki
ng
beha
vior
(L)
209
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
70
supe
rviso
rsC
hina
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Neg
ativ
e fe
edba
ck-s
eeki
ng
beha
vior
(L)
Perfo
rman
ce (p
erso
nnel
re
cord
s)24
0 em
ploy
ees m
atch
ed w
ith
84 su
perv
isors
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Gra
en &
U
hl-B
ien,
199
5) (M
)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 362 5/15/2015 2:52:22 PM
(con
tinue
d)
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Che
n, L
am, &
Z
hong
(200
7)O
vera
ll LM
XN
egat
ive
feed
back
-see
king
be
havi
or (L
)Su
bjec
tive
in-r
ole
perfo
rman
ce (L
)O
bjec
tive
in-r
ole
perfo
rman
ce
(per
sonn
el re
cord
s)
238
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Che
n &
Tjo
svol
d (2
007)
Ove
rall
LMX
Con
struc
tive
cont
rove
rsy
(M)
163
empl
oyee
s (68
re
port
ed to
U.S
. man
ager
s, 95
repo
rted
to C
hine
se
man
ager
s)
Chi
na5
item
s ada
pted
from
G
raen
et a
l. (1
982)
(M)
Bhal
, Ans
ari,
&
Aafa
qi (2
007)
Affec
tPe
rcei
ved
cont
ribut
ion
Gen
der m
atch
(M)
Supe
rviso
r su
ppor
t (M
)LM
X te
nure
(M)
Perc
eive
d or
gani
zatio
nal
supp
ort (
M)
201
empl
oyee
sM
alay
sia10
item
s (Bh
al &
Ans
ari,
1996
) (M
)
Bhal
& G
ulat
i (2
007)
Affec
tPe
rcei
ved
cont
ribut
ion
Voic
e (M
)30
6 em
ploy
ees
Indi
a10
item
s (Bh
al &
Ans
ari,
1996
) (M
)
Bhal
& A
nsar
i (2
007)
Affec
tPe
rcei
ved
cont
ribut
ion
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)D
istrib
utiv
e ju
stice
(M)
Voic
e (M
)
295
empl
oyee
sIn
dia
10 it
ems (
Bhal
& A
nsar
i, 19
96) (
M)
Schy
ns, T
orka
, &
Gös
sling
(200
7)O
vera
ll LM
XTu
rnov
er in
tent
ion
(M)
Prep
ared
ness
for c
hang
e (M
)32
6 em
ploy
ees
85 e
mpl
oyee
sG
erm
any
Net
herla
nds
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
10 it
ems a
dapt
ed fr
om
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 363 5/15/2015 2:52:22 PM
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Ansa
ri, H
ung,
&
Aafa
qi (2
007)
Affec
tC
ontr
ibut
ion
Loya
ltyPr
ofes
siona
l re
spec
t
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)N
orm
ativ
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
MC
ontin
uanc
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
MTu
rnov
er in
tent
ions
(M)
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
clim
ate
(M)
224
empl
oyee
sM
alay
siaLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Boie
s & H
owel
l (2
006)
Ove
rall
LMX
(at t
he te
am
leve
l)
Team
con
flict
(M)
Team
pot
ency
(M)
132
sold
iers
from
35
mili
tary
te
ams
Can
ada
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Erdo
gan,
Lid
en, &
K
raim
er (2
006)
Ove
rall
LMX
Inte
ract
iona
l ju
stice
(M)
Dist
ribut
ive
justi
ce (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal
cultu
re (p
eer)
516
teac
hers
from
30
high
sc
hool
sTu
rkey
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Erdo
gan
& L
iden
(2
006)
Ove
rall
LMX
Inte
ract
iona
l ju
stice
(M)
Dist
ribut
ive
justi
ce
(M)
100
empl
oyee
sTu
rkey
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Pelle
grin
i &
Scan
dura
(200
6)O
vera
ll LM
XPa
tern
alist
ic le
ader
ship
(M)
Del
egat
ion
(M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
185
empl
oyee
sTu
rkey
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Schy
ns &
Cro
on
(200
6)O
vera
ll LM
XSa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith
supe
rviso
r (M
)Sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith
colle
ague
s (M
)Sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith ta
sk (M
)Sa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith jo
b co
nditi
ons (
M)
319
empl
oyee
sG
erm
any
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 364 5/15/2015 2:52:23 PM
(con
tinue
d)
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Arye
e &
Che
n (2
006)
Ove
rall
LMX
Supe
rviso
r con
trol
of re
war
ds (M
)W
ork
unit
clim
ate
(M)
Empo
wer
men
t (M
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)Ps
ycho
logi
cal w
ithdr
awal
be
havi
or (M
)Ta
sk p
erfo
rman
ce (L
)
192
empl
oyee
s nes
ted
with
in
66 su
perv
isors
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Lid
en, W
ayne
, &
Stilw
ell,
1993
) (M
)
Gra
en,
Dha
rwad
kar,
Gre
wal
, &
Wak
abay
ashi
(2
006)
Ove
rall
LMX
Car
eer p
rogr
ess (
over
23
year
s)
(per
sonn
el re
cord
s)65
em
ploy
ees
Japa
n12
item
s (G
raen
et a
l.,
1990
) (M
)
Lapi
erre
, Hac
kett,
&
Tag
gar (
2006
)O
vera
ll LM
XFa
mily
inte
rfere
nce
with
wor
k (M
)Jo
b en
richm
ent (
M)
381
gove
rnm
ent e
mpl
oyee
sC
anad
aLM
X-6
(Sch
riesh
eim
, N
eide
r, Sc
andu
ra, &
Te
pper
, 199
2) (M
)
Bhal
(200
6)Aff
ect
Perc
eive
d co
ntrib
utio
nLo
yalty
(org
aniza
tiona
l ci
tizen
ship
beh
avio
r) (M
)D
istrib
utiv
e ju
stice
(M)
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
(M)
Inte
ract
iona
l jus
tice
(M)
306
empl
oyee
s fro
m 3
0 so
ftwar
e co
mpa
nies
Indi
a10
item
s (Bh
al &
Ans
ari,
1996
) (M
)
Yagi
l (20
06)
LMX
(M)
LMX
(L)
Inte
ract
iona
l ju
stice
(M)
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
(M
)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
152
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Isra
elLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
, L)
Lee
(200
5)Aff
ect
Loya
ltyC
ontr
ibut
ion
Prof
essio
nal
resp
ect
Tran
sform
atio
nal
lead
ersh
ip (M
)Tr
ansa
ctio
nal
lead
ersh
ip (M
)Pa
ssiv
e-av
oida
nt
lead
ersh
ip (M
)
Org
aniza
tiona
l com
mitm
ent
(M)
201
rese
arch
and
de
velo
pmen
t em
ploy
ees
Sing
apor
eLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Mar
tin, Th
omas
, C
harle
s, Ep
itrop
aki,
&
McN
amar
a (2
005)
Ove
rall
LMX
Inte
rnal
locu
s of
cont
rol (
M)
Intr
insic
job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Extr
insic
job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Wor
k-re
late
d w
ell-b
eing
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)
404
empl
oyee
s
51 e
mpl
oyee
s
Mid
land
s, U
nite
d K
ingd
om
Sout
h W
ales
, U
nite
d K
ingd
om
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Wan
g, L
aw,
Hac
kett,
Wan
g, &
C
hen
(200
5)
Ove
rall
LMX
Tran
sform
atio
nal
lead
ersh
ip (M
)Ta
sk p
erfo
rman
ce (L
)O
rgan
izatio
nal c
itize
nshi
p be
havi
ors (
L)
162
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
81
supe
rviso
rsC
hina
LMX
-MD
M (L
iden
&
Mas
lyn,
199
8) (M
)
Schy
ns, P
aul,
Moh
r, &
Bla
nk
(200
5)
Ove
rall
LMX
Rela
tions
hip
tenu
re (M
)Sp
an o
f sup
ervi
sion
(M)
Del
egat
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)O
ccup
atio
nal s
elf-e
ffica
cy (M
)
Four
diff
eren
t em
ploy
ee
sam
ples
rang
ing
from
76
to
326
Ger
man
yLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Epitr
opak
i &
Mar
tin (2
005)
Ove
rall
LMX
Impl
icit–
expl
icit
lead
ersh
ip tr
aits
diffe
renc
e (M
)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Jo
b-re
late
d w
ell-b
eing
(M)
439
empl
oyee
sU
nite
d K
ingd
omLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Che
n &
Tjo
svol
d (2
005)
Ove
rall
LMX
Coo
pera
tive
goal
s (M
)C
ompe
titiv
e go
als (
M)
Inde
pend
ent g
oals
(M)
Lead
er e
ffect
iven
ess (
M)
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Fu
ture
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith th
e le
ader
(M)
230
empl
oyee
s (68
man
ager
s w
ere
from
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es,
95 w
ere
loca
l Chi
nese
, 43
wer
e fro
m H
ong
Kon
g an
d Ta
iwan
, and
24
man
ager
s w
ere
from
Japa
n)
Chi
na5
item
s (G
raen
, Nov
ak, &
So
mm
erka
mp,
198
2) (M
)
Wat
& S
haffe
r (2
005)
Ove
rall
LMX
Trus
t in
supe
rviso
r (M
)Ps
ycho
logi
cal
empo
wer
men
t (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal c
itize
nshi
p be
havi
ors (
L)
183
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
32
man
ager
sH
ong
Kon
gLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
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oxfordhb-9780199326174-part-5.indd 366 5/15/2015 2:52:23 PM
(con
tinue
d)
Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Periz
ade
&
Sula
iman
(200
5)Aff
ect
Con
trib
utio
nJo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
Attit
ude
to c
hang
e (M
)
613
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
12
6 m
anag
ers
Indo
nesia
10 it
ems (
Bhal
& A
nsar
i, 19
96) (
M, L
)
Jans
sen
& V
an
Yper
en (2
004)
Ove
rall
LMX
Mas
tery
or
ient
atio
n (M
)Pe
rform
ance
or
ient
atio
n (M
)
In-r
ole
job
perfo
rman
ce (L
)In
nova
tive j
ob p
erfo
rman
ce (L
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)
170
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
14
man
ager
sN
ethe
rland
s7
item
s ada
pted
from
Sc
andu
ra a
nd G
raen
(1
984)
(M)
Hui
, Lee
, &
Rous
seau
(200
4)O
vera
ll LM
XO
rgan
izatio
nal c
itize
nshi
p be
havi
or (L
)Aff
ectiv
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
605
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Hun
g, A
nsar
i, &
Aa
faqi
(200
4)Aff
ect
Loya
ltyC
ontr
ibut
ion
Prof
essio
nal
resp
ect
Affec
tive
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)N
orm
ativ
e or
gani
zatio
nal
com
mitm
ent (
M)
Con
tinua
nce
orga
niza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)
224
empl
oyee
sM
alay
siaLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Erdo
gan,
Kra
imer
, &
Lid
en (2
004)
Ove
rall
LMX
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Car
eer s
atisf
actio
n (M
)52
0 te
ache
rs fr
om 3
0 hi
gh
scho
ols
Turk
eyLM
X-M
DM
(Lid
en &
M
asly
n, 1
998)
(M)
Gup
ta &
Kris
hnan
(2
004)
Ove
rall
LMX
Self-
confi
denc
e (M
)10
2 su
perv
isor–
subo
rdin
ate
dyad
sIn
dia
6 ite
ms (
Gra
en, N
ovak
, &
Som
mer
kam
p, 1
982)
(M)
Kris
hnan
(200
4)O
vera
ll LM
XU
pwar
d in
fluen
ce
strat
egie
s (M
)Va
lue
syste
m c
ongr
uenc
e (M
)Tr
ansfo
rmat
iona
l le
ader
ship
(M)
281
empl
oyee
sIn
dia
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Chi
& L
o (2
003)
Ove
rall
LMX
Proc
edur
al ju
stice
(M)
Dist
ribut
ive
justi
ce (M
)10
4 em
ploy
ees f
rom
15
com
pani
esTa
iwan
8 ite
ms a
dapt
ed fr
om
Scan
dura
& G
raen
(1
984)
by
Baue
r & G
reen
(1
996)
(M)
OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – FIRSTPROOFS, Fri May 15 2015, NEWGEN
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Tier
ney,
Baue
r, &
Po
tter (
2002
)O
vera
ll LM
XEx
tra-
role
beh
avio
r (M
)O
rgan
izatio
nal c
omm
itmen
t (M
)
100
empl
oyee
sM
exic
o8
item
s ada
pted
from
Sc
andu
ra &
Gra
en (1
984)
by
Bau
er &
Gre
en (1
996)
(M
)
Scha
ubro
eck
&
Lam
(200
2)O
vera
ll LM
XSu
bord
inat
e (M
)–su
perv
isor
(L) p
erso
nalit
y sim
ilarit
y
Prom
otio
n de
cisio
ns
(Pro
mot
ion
Com
mitt
ee)
Perfo
rman
ce (L
)
386
bank
telle
rs n
este
d w
ithin
76
supe
rviso
rs18
5 ba
nk te
llers
nes
ted
with
in 3
6 su
perv
isors
Hon
g K
ong
Uni
ted
Stat
es
LMX
-7 (G
raen
&
Uhl
-Bie
n, 1
995)
(M)
Law,
Won
g, W
ang,
&
Wan
g (2
000)
Ove
rall
LMX
Perfo
rman
ce ra
ting
(L)
Job
assig
nmen
t (L)
Prom
otab
ility
(L)
Bonu
s allo
catio
n po
ssib
ility
(L)
189
supe
rviso
r–su
bord
inat
e dy
ads
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Pelle
d &
Xin
(2
000)
Ove
rall
LMX
Lead
er (p
erso
nnel
re
cord
s)–m
embe
r (M
) gen
der
simila
rity
Lead
er (p
erso
nnel
re
cord
s)–m
embe
r (M
) age
sim
ilarit
y
195
empl
oyee
s90
em
ploy
ees
Mex
ico
Uni
ted
Stat
es6
item
s (G
raen
, Nov
ak, &
So
mm
erka
mp,
198
2) (M
)
Pilla
i, Sc
andu
ra, &
W
illia
ms (
1999
)O
vera
ll LM
XPr
oced
ural
justi
ce (M
)D
istrib
utiv
e ju
stice
(M)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
160
empl
oyee
s80
MBA
stud
ents
85 e
mpl
oyee
s19
0 em
ploy
ees
192
MBA
stud
ents
Austr
alia
Indi
aC
olom
bia
Saud
i Ara
bia
and
Jord
anU
nite
d St
ates
LMX
-7 (S
cand
ura
&
Gra
en, 1
984)
(M)
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
How
ell &
H
all-M
eren
da
(199
9)
Ove
rall
LMX
Follo
wer
per
form
ance
(c
ompa
ny re
cord
s, Ti
me
3)Tr
ansfo
rmat
iona
l lea
ders
hip
(M, T
ime
1)C
ontin
gent
rew
ard
lead
ersh
ip
(M, T
ime
1)M
anag
emen
t by
exce
ptio
n (M
, Tim
e 1)
317
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
10
9 m
anag
ers
Can
ada
4 ite
ms (
Gra
en &
Sc
hiem
ann,
197
8)
(M, T
ime
2)
Epitr
opak
i &
Mar
tin (1
999)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
l co
mm
itmen
t (M
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)Jo
b-re
late
d w
ell-b
eing
(M)
73 e
mpl
oyee
s of a
n ac
adem
ic
insti
tutio
nU
nite
d K
ingd
omLM
X-7
(Gra
en &
U
hl-B
ien,
199
5) (M
)
Hui
, Law
, & C
hen
(199
9)N
egat
ive
affec
tivity
(M
)In
-rol
e pe
rform
ance
(L)
Org
aniza
tiona
l citi
zens
hip
beha
vior
(L)
386
empl
oyee
s mat
ched
with
12
6 m
anag
ers
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Law
& W
ong
(199
9)O
vera
ll LM
XJo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)Tu
rnov
er in
tent
ion
(M)
224
busin
ess s
choo
l alu
mni
Chi
naLM
X-7
(Sca
ndur
a &
G
raen
, 198
4) (M
)
Ashk
anas
y &
O
’Con
nor (
1997
)Le
ader
–mem
ber
valu
e co
ngru
ence
(L
, M)
160
empl
oyee
s nes
ted
with
in
30 su
perv
isors
Austr
alia
4 ite
ms (
Lide
n &
Gra
en,
1980
) (M
)
O’D
risco
ll &
Bee
hr
(199
4)O
vera
ll LM
XPs
ycho
logi
cal s
trai
n (M
)Jo
b sa
tisfa
ctio
n (M
)Tu
rnov
er in
tent
ion
(M)
Role
am
bigu
ity (M
)Ro
le c
onfli
ct (M
)
136
empl
oyee
s(1
23 e
mpl
oyee
s fro
m N
ew Z
eala
nd a
naly
zed
in c
ombi
natio
n w
ith 1
13 e
mpl
oyee
s fro
m th
e U
nite
d St
ates
)
13 it
ems a
dapt
ed
from
Lea
der
Beha
vior
Des
crip
tion
Que
stion
naire
(LBD
Q)
(Sto
gdill
, 196
3)
(con
tinue
d)
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Aut
hor(
s)LM
X
Dim
ensi
ons
Ant
eced
ent(
s) a
nd
Sour
ce*
Out
com
e(s)
and
Sou
rce*
Sam
ple
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Siz
e/ S
ourc
e C
ount
ryLM
X M
easu
re a
nd
Sour
ce1
Gra
en,
Wak
abay
ashi
, G
raen
, & G
raen
(1
990)
Ove
rall
LMX
Org
aniza
tiona
lco
mm
itmen
t (M
)LM
X a
fter 1
0 ye
ars (
M, L
)Pe
rform
ance
(L)
Spee
d of
pro
mot
ion
(per
sonn
el
reco
rds)
Prom
otab
ility
(per
sonn
el
reco
rds)
Job
satis
fact
ion
(M)
Satis
fact
ion
with
su
perv
ision
(M)
Man
agem
ent r
esou
rces
(M, L
)
71 su
perv
isor–
subo
rdin
ate
dyad
sJa
pan
12 it
ems d
evel
oped
for
this
study
(M)
Stei
ner (
1988
)O
vera
ll LM
XIn
trin
sic w
ork
valu
es si
mila
rity
(M)
Extr
insic
wor
k va
lues
sim
ilarit
y (M
)
125
posts
econ
dary
stud
ents
156
colle
ge st
uden
tsFr
ance
Uni
ted
Stat
es5
item
s (G
raen
, Lid
en, &
H
oel,
1982
) (M
)
* M
= v
aria
ble
asse
ssed
bas
ed o
n M
embe
r rep
orts;
L =
var
iabl
e as
sess
ed b
ased
on
Lead
er re
port
s.
Tabl
e 19
.1.
Con
tinu
ed
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Pellegrini 371
development is a three-stage process and in the first stage (i.e., role taking), the leader may offer opportunities to the member based on the leader’s perceptions of the member’s abilities (Graen & Scandura, 1987). Therefore, leaders’ percep-tions may significantly influence initial LMX quality starting from the stranger (low-quality) phase through the maturity (high-quality) phase. Furthermore, given the power distance in the leader’s favor, leaders likely play a more signifi-cant role in LMX relationship quality (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, & Ferris, 2012), and it is surprising that research has yet to examine antecedents of LMX quality from the leader’s perspective.
Research examining antecedents of LMX in the international context has predominantly emerged from China (28%), followed by Taiwan (9%) and Turkey (6%). There is a significant need for stud-ies from Latin America, the Middle East, and non-Confucian Asia to gain a more thorough understanding of what drives LMX quality univer-sally as well as locally.
Finally, meta-analytic findings suggest that the strength of the influence of transformational leadership in predicting LMX does not show cross-cultural variations (Rockstuhl et al., 2012). On the other hand, results suggest a significantly weaker association between leader trust (as an ante-cedent) and LMX quality in VC cultures as com-pared to HI cultures. This is an important finding given the significance of trust in LMX theory. We attribute this attenuated association to the moderat-ing effect of national culture (i.e., HI vs. VC); how-ever, we argue that the weaker association may be due to insufficient LMX construct validity in inter-national contexts. The association between leader trust and LMX may be stronger in the Western context because LMX meaning and dimensions originated from the Western context. Also, in the meta-analysis of Rockstuhl et al. (2012), numer-ous VC countries (e.g., China, India, Turkey) are studied as one group; however, business relations in each of these countries are influenced by dif-ferent norms. For example, in China, guanxi may be a more significant predictor of LMX, whereas in Turkey paternalism may be more salient in pre-dicting LMX quality. Each VC context has unique political, historical, and cultural perspectives and there is a significant need to identify additional, emic dimensions to adequately capture LMX con-struct meaning. We certainly do not suggest a sepa-rate LMX theory for each country, which would
move the field away from parsimony and away from a unifying theory of LMX (Liden, 2012). However, as Liden (2012) recently suggested, LMX research from an international context needs to incorporate cultural contextual moderators between LMX and antecedents as well as outcomes. Research from the international context needs to move beyond a predominantly U.S.-based perspective and address LMX construct validity by integrating local cultural nuances into the studies.
Outcomes of LMX in the International Context
International research on LMX predominantly focused on outcomes as compared to antecedents and of the 93 studies we reviewed, 83 (89%) exam-ined one or more outcomes of LMX. Consistent with Rockstuhl et al. (2012), the current review suggests an overwhelming interest specifically in five outcome variables. A majority of the studies exam-ined follower organizational commitment (32%), follower performance (25%), follower turnover intentions (16%), follower job satisfaction (15%), follower OCB (14%), and follower justice percep-tions (14%). This attention in a specific set of out-comes may limit the development of international LMX theory. We suggest that additional outcomes relevant to cross-cultural social exchange relations, such as cultural intelligence and participative deci-sion making, warrant research attention.
The meta-analysis of Rockstuhl et al. (2012) did not find cross-cultural variations in relationships of LMX with followers’ task performance and orga-nizational commitment. However, relationships of LMX with OCB, justice perceptions, job satisfac-tion, and turnover intentions were all significantly stronger in Western contexts than in VC (e.g., Asian) contexts. Although Rockstuhl et al. suggest the moderating influence of national culture (i.e., HI vs. VC) as an explanation for attenuated rela-tionships, we suggest that it is a construct validity issue and that research has yet to identify significant emic LMX dimensions that may be relevant to these particular outcomes. Relationships between LMX and these outcomes may be weaker in the interna-tional context because research has yet to make an effort to clearly understand the conceptual meaning of the LMX construct and appropriately measure its construct domain in the international context.
Furthermore, extant international research on LMX has focused exclusively on follower outcomes. There is a significant need for studies that examine the benefits as well as potential disadvantages for
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372 Relational Leadership through LMX Research
leaders in high-LMX relationships. For example, Harris and Kacmar (2006), almost a decade ago, showed that high-LMX involved high levels of stress for followers; however, we still do not know much about stressors for leaders in high-LMX rela-tionships. International research that examines the influence of high-LMX on leader outcomes is long overdue and results from this research stream are essential to effectively support high-quality LMX relationships and prevent early leader exit. There is also a significant need for studies that examine the benefits of high LMX relationships that accrue to organizations. Specifically, tangible organizational effectiveness outcomes as outlined by Hiller et al. (2011), such as sales growth, return on invested capital, and profit, have yet to be examined in the international LMX literature.
The majority of the research examining LMX outcomes in an international context measured LMX with LMX-7 (57%) (Scandura & Graen, 1984; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), followed by LMX-MDM (19%) (Liden & Maslyn, 1998), pre-dominantly from the follower’s perspective (95%). The majority of studies employed cross-sectional/common source (58%), cross-sectional/multisource (32%), followed by longitudinal/multisource (6%) research designs. An overreliance on quantitative, cross-sectional studies in LMX research not only limits our understanding of the cultural nuances in LMX meaning but is also an unfitting design choice in studies that imply causal connections (i.e., out-comes research).
In addition, of the 83 studies we reviewed, more than half were from China (32%), India (12%), Malaysia (7%), and Taiwan (6%). There is a signifi-cant need in international LMX research to extend theory development beyond Asia, specifically into Latin American and Middle Eastern business contexts.
Despite two decades of research since Liden and Maslyn (1998) introduced LMX-MDM, out of 83 studies examining LMX outcomes, only 6% assessed LMX as a four-dimensional construct. As previ-ously suggested by Liden and Maslyn (1998), these studies found that different LMX dimensions were differentially associated with outcome variables. For example, in Malaysia (with a predominantly Chinese sample), Ansari et al. (2007) found affect and professional respect were more salient currencies of LMX relationships. In India, Lee (2005) found that all four dimensions were positively related to transformational leadership; however, only loyalty was significantly related to transactional leadership.
More recently, in Malaysia, Lo et al. (2010) found a two-dimensional LMX-MDM measurement model in which affect and loyalty loaded on the first dimension and contribution and respect items loaded on the second dimension. There is a signifi-cant research gap in examining LMX as a multidi-mensional construct. The potential influence of the cultural context on which LMX dimensions may be more salient to individuals in international settings warrants research attention.
Directions for Future International LMX Research
In this section, we will recap our conclusions and offer a number of emerging research direc-tions and rewarding inquiries for future research in international LMX.
Based on this current review of 93 studies in international LMX, we suggest three major limi-tations that characterize this body of research. First, all of these studies failed to integrate emic LMX dimensions into their studies. Cultural context influences leadership prototypes and to advance knowledge, research needs to move beyond a predefined Western conceptualization of LMX and attend to the meanings and perspectives that emerge from international research. Current LMX theory may depict an oversimplification of LMX relationships in non-Western cultures (Khatri, Tsang, & Begley, 2006). An indigenous focus on LMX nuances in international contexts should be a priority to advance LMX theory. Therefore, future research employing qualitative research designs to identify indigenous meanings is warranted.
The second limitation is a predominantly uni-dimensional conceptualization of LMX in current LMX research. This may be a significant limitation in international LMX studies since the priorities ascribed to different LMX dimensions may differ across cultures. An overall LMX quality is certainly an appropriate operationalization depending on the research question; however, multidimensional con-ceptualization of LMX specifically in the interna-tional context would be informative and should be given increasing research attention.
Third, extant LMX research in international contexts predominantly focused on LMX rela-tionship quality and has paid almost no attention to examining relational dynamics and processes (Uhl-Bien, 2006). LMX meaning is limited by the sociocultural context and future research needs to integrate the broader local, historical, and political
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Pellegrini 373
contexts in examining relational dynamics in LMX. Research findings from international contexts are specifically apt to contribute in-depth information toward a more comprehensive framework integrat-ing LMX relationships and relationship dynamics. It is also essential that future research moves beyond cultural values and provides richer insight into the processes and local context.
During the past decade, LMX research has increasingly incorporated the broader relational social context into LMX theory building. There is flourishing international research examining social comparison processes in single-leader con-texts, such as LMX social comparison (LMXSC; Vidyarthi et al., 2010), relative LMX (RLMX; Henderson et al., 2008), and LMX relational sepa-ration (Harris et al., 2014). However, to date, there is no international research from dual leader con-texts in which each LMX relationship exists within the context of the other relationship (Vidyarthi et al., 2014).
Furthermore, there is increasing research inter-est in examining LMX relationships within the context of co-worker exchange (CWX), SLMX, and LLX (leader–leader exchange) relations and a fruitful research direction would be to add another dyadic relationship to the current nomenclature (Erdogan & Bauer, 2014). We suggest that a fol-lower’s exchange relationship with his or her for-mal (organizationally assigned) mentor (formal mentor-member exchange; FMMX) is a fruitful, emerging research direction. Mentoring and LMX relationships are embedded in the same organi-zational context and it would be interesting and informative to examine the influence of conflicting advice from the mentor and leader on follower and organizational outcomes.
Finally, organizations are increasingly witness-ing digital lifestyles along with technology-driven work models. We suggest a better understanding of LMX in these newly emerging work structures. This is specifically relevant for international research since traditional LMX theory is built on a founda-tion of hierarchical, face-to-face interactions and may not adequately represent LMX relationships in emerging work models mediated through technol-ogy, such as e-leadership (Avolio, Sosik, Kahai, & Baker, 2014) or a more recent, flatter organizational structure referred to as holacracy (Denning, 2014). International LMX research in emerging, alternative work structures represents an area of considerable opportunity for future studies to make pioneering scholarly and practical contributions.
ConclusionsWe hope that this timely review will serve as a
useful guide in future inquiries into the emerging body of literature in international LMX and will help to advance the field to a more in-depth explo-ration of LMX meaning and relational context.
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AppendixMost frequently used leader–member exchange (LMX) scales listed in descending order of publication date.
LMX-MDM (Liden & Maslyn, 1998)Seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Affect:1. I like my supervisor very much as a person.2. My supervisor is the kind of person one
would like to have as a friend.3. My supervisor is a lot of fun to work with.
Loyalty:4. My supervisor defends my work actions to a
superior, even without complete knowledge of the issue in question.
5. My supervisor would come to my defense if I were “attacked” by others.
6. My supervisor would defend me to others in the organization if I made an honest mistake.
Contribution:7. I do work for my supervisor that goes beyond
what is specified in my job description.8. I am willing to apply extra efforts, beyond
those normally required, to meet my supervisor’s work goals.
9. I do not mind working my hardest for my supervisor.
Professional Respect:10. I am impressed with my supervisor’s
knowledge of his/her job.11. I respect my supervisor’s knowledge of and
competence on the job.12. I admire my supervisor’s professional skills.
LMX-7 (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)1. Do you know where you stand with your
leader.… do you usually know how satisfied your leader is with what you do? (Does your member usually know)
2. How well does your leader understand your job problems and needs? (How well do you understand)
3. How well does your leader recognize your potential? (How well do you recognize)
4. Regardless of how much formal authority he/she has built into his/her position, what are the chances that your leader would use his/her power to help you solve problems in your work? (What are the chances that you would)
5. Again, regardless of the amount of formal authority your leader has, what are the chances that he/she would “bail you out” at his/her expense? (What are the chances that you would)
6. I have enough confidence in my leader that I would defend and justify his/her decisions if he/she were not present to do so. (Your member would)
7. How would you characterize your working relationship with your leader? (Your member)
Rarely Occasionally Sometimes Fairly Often
Very Often
Not a Bit
A Little
A Fair Amount
Quite a Bit
A Great Deal
Not at All A Little Moderately Mostly Fully
None Small Moderate High Very High
None Small Moderate High Very High
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
Extremely Worse than
Average Better than
Extremely
Ineffective Average Average Effective
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Notes: Continuous scale of sum of 5-point items (1 left to 5 right). Leader’s form consists of the same seven items asked about member (leader in parentheses).
LMX-7 (Scandura & Graen, 1984)
1. Do you usually feel that you know where you stand, do you usually know how satisfied your immediate supervisor is with what you do?
2. How well do you feel that your immediate supervisor understands your problems and needs?
3. How well do you feel that your immediate supervisor recognizes your potential?
4. Regardless of how much formal authority your immediate supervisor has built into his or her position, what are the chances that he or she would be personally inclined to use power to help you solve problems in your work?
5. Again, regardless of the amount of formal authority your immediate supervisor has, to what extent can you count on him or her to “bail you out” at his or her expense when you really need it?
6. I have enough confidence in my immediate supervisor that I would defend and justify his or her decisions if he or she were not present to do so.
7. How would you characterize your working relationship with your immediate supervisor?
1 2 3 4Never Seldom Usually Alwaysknow where I stand
know where I stand
know where I stand
know where I stand
1 2 3 4
Not at all
Some but not enough
Well enough
Completely
1 2 3 4
Not at all
Some but not enough
As much as the next person
Fully
1 2 3 4
No chance
Might or might not
Probably would
Certainly would
1 2 3 4
No chance
Might or might not
Probably would
Certainly would
1 2 3 4
Probably not
Maybe Probably would
Certainly would
1 2 3 4
Less than average
About average
Better than average
Extremely effective
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