iOLUME 1. ISSUE 1 Page 31

~is conducted to shed more light on the home

advantagephenomenon as a means of justifying the

ruleof away goals counting double.

References

irookeG.A. (ed) Perspective on the academicDiscipline of Physical Education, III: HumanKinetics Publisher Inc.

iruningS.L. and Kintz B.L. (1968) Computationalhandbook 01 statistics. Scott, Foresman andcompany. Glenview Illinois.

edwardsJ. (1979) The horne ReId advantage In: J. H.Golstein Ed Sports and Games and PlayHillsdale N.J. Lawrence for IbaumAssociates.

Iso·Ahola,S. E. and Hatifield B. (1986) Psychology01 Sports: a Social psychological approach.Dubuque Iowa: W.C Brown.

OyewusiJ. A., Ogundari J. T (1988) Analysis 01Home-ReId in National soccer league.Journal of Nigeria Association of SportsScienceand Medicine (JONASSM) Vol. 2,pp. 120- 135.

Schwartz B and Barsky S.F. (1977). The homeadvantage ~ocial Forces 55, 641-661.

ABSTRACT

This paper was to investigate the participation motivesof university athletes. It was hypothesized thatparticipation motives will differ significantlyaccording to gender, type of sport and experience insport. Data was collected through questionnairesfrom 150 randomly selected athletes of KenyaHaUniversity. Data was analysed through Kruska/-wallistest of independent measures. Findings indicated thatparticipatory motives of university athletes differed bygender, type of sporl and level of experience insport. It is recommended that personnel in charge ofuniversity athletes need to know their athletes more,structure training programmes based on participationmotivation and further studies should incorporatelarger samples of athletes in secondary schools,universities, clubs and national teams.

KEY WORDS: Participation motives, Universityathletes

Introduction

Participation in games and sports dates back to

antiquity. Several theories have been propounded

to explain why man engages in physical activities

and sport and the value he derives from such

participation. Some of these theories overlap and

have been given different nomenclatures. Indeed,

many of the reasons listed in the theories of why

man participates in sports are working together

subconsciously to motivate and induce sports

participation (Henry, 1978).

Proctlrloners in sports settings desire to structure

sport and exercise settings in ways that maximize

motivation in participants (Weiss and Chaumeton,

1992). Understanding motivated behaviour is one

VOLUME 1. ISSUE 1 Page,

of the key issuespursued by sport psychologists and

educators for purposes of theoretical development

and successfulprogramming applications in

institutions (Weiss and Chaumeton, 1992).

The social exchange theory as propounded by

Thibaut & Kelly, (1959) held that social behaviour is

motivated by the desire to maximise positive

experiences and minimize negative experiences i.e.

individuals will remain in activities as long as the

outcome is favourable. Thus, an individual weighs

the costs, benefits and satisfaction of a current

situation with those of alternative situations and

makes a decision accordingly (Thibaut & Kelly,

1959).

A comprehensive review of participation in games

and sports in Kenyan educational institutions reveal

that games and sports are competition oriented and

high levels of performance is emphasized

(Wasonga, 1998, Muindi, 1998). Indeed, Muindi

(1998) emphasized that competition begins at

school level with suchevents as lntercloss, inter-year

and inter-house competitions whose main purpose is

to provide an opportunity for the most able pupils

to be identified and recruited into school teams in

various games and sports. At the university level,

the situation is worse with an over-emphasis on

competitive programmes, which cater for a few

talented sports men and women (Njororai, Asembo

& Kuria, 2000).

The few talented university athletes can be assumed

to have taken part in different games and sport at

both primary and secondary school levels of

education before joining the university. What makes

these athletes to continue taking part in sports

and games? That is why, it was apt to investigate

the participation motives of university athletes in

Kenyatta University. This was prompted by the

fact that so many students are always interested in

registering for the preparation of culture week

annual sport festival and the biennial East Africa

University games.

Hypothesis

The following three hypotheses guided this study:

1. Participation motives of the athletes will not

differ significantly due to sex.

2. Experience in sport does not significantly

influence participation motives. •

3. Participation motives of the athletes do not

differ significantly according to type of sport.

Methods and Procedures

Sample

A total of 150 subjects randomly selected from

Kenyatta University took part in the study. These

comprised 65 (43.3%) females and 8S (56.67%)

males with a mean age and standard deviation of

21.92±2.15 years respectively. They ~re

participating in ball games (n::;;67), com:bQt sports

(n=35), Racket games (n=23), Board games

(n=14) and athletics (n=11) at the university level

in preparation for culture week sports -festival

and the Biennial East Africa Inter-University

games.

Questionnaire

For the purposes of this study, a questionnaire,

which contained 33 items with 2 sections, was

Administered to the subjects. Items in Section A

VOlUME I, ISSUE 1 Page 33

covereddemographic information while items in section B were concerned with reasons/motives for

participationin sports. Each item in Section B was rated on a 4-point Likert scale format ranging from "very

important"to "very unimportant". Values of items were scaled such that the more important the motive was,

thehigher the score.

Thequestionnaire had been used in previous studies with a reliability of 0.82 (Gitonga, 2000). The

questionnairewas administered to 250 randomly selected athletes but only the results of 150 subjects are

presentedin subsequent sections due to faulty responses obtained in some questionnaires, which were

subsequentlydiscarded.

Data Analysis

Themotives were grouped together to form nine major motives for participation in sport. Data were

analysed for frequencies, percentages and ranks for- descriptive purposes. Kruskal-Wallis test for

independentsamples was used to reject or uphold the hypothesis at 0.05 of significance.

ResultsAnd Discussion

DemographicInformation .

Table 1: Experience in Sport of the University Athletes

Previous narticination in snort lYes % No % !rotalPrimary school 120 13.3 130 86.66 150Secondary school 102 68 ~8 3.2 150~otal 122 40.66 178 59.33 300Majority(86.67%) of the athletes did not participate in sport while in primary school while 32% of the

athletesdid not participate in sport while in secondary school. The results of the analysis of participatory

motivesare summarised in table 2, 3, and 4.

Table 2: Participatory Motives of University Athletes by Gender

Level of E x perien ce

Frequencies Ran k Frequencies Ran k

6 1 9 39 2.5 ,92 2.5 39 2.5

92 2.5 39 2 .5 ..

6 1 9 20 6

92 9 9 9

8 1 6 20 6

8 1 6 20 6

92 2 .5 30

8 1 6 39 2.5

Experienced (N=102) Non-Experienced (N=48)

Motives

He a Ith

Enjoym en t

Sire s s

Com petitions

Friendship

Aesthetic qualities

Cognitive

Skill developm ent

IV inning

P=O.05, X2>6.64.

VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1 Page.

Table 3: Participatory Motives of Different Categories of University Athletes is presented

Sport Ball Combat Racket Board Athleticsgames sport games ~ames (N=11)(N=67) (N=35) (N=23) (N=14)

Motives IFre. Rank Fre. Rank Fre. Rank Fre. Rank Fre Rank

Health 54 4 34 1 22 1 10 6 10 l.5Enjoyment 64 2 28 4 21 2.5 13 1.5 10 1.5Stress 64 2 33 2 18 4 12 4.5 9 ...,

~

Competition 39 8 18 7.5 12 7.5 7 9 8 5Friendship 53 5 24 5.5 16 5.5 12 4.5 8 5Aesthetic qualities 24 9 18 7.5 11 9 8 7.5 4 9Cognitive f47 6 24 5.5 12 7.5 13 1.5 6 7Skill development 64 2 33 3 21 2.5 14 1 8' 5lWinning f41 7 14 9 16 5.5 8 7.5 5 8P=O.05, X2>13.28

The calculated value of 45.26 is greater than the table value (13.28). It is concluded that there is a

significant difference (P=O.05) in participation motives of university athletes in different sports.

Participatory motives of experienced and inexperienced athletes are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Participatory motives of experienced and inexperienced athletes

Level of Experience Experienced (N=102) Non-Experienced (N=48)

Motives Frequencies Rank Frequencies Rank

Health 61 9 39 2.5Enjoyment 92 2.5 39 2.5

I

Stress 92 2.5 39 2.5Competitions 61 9 20 6

Friendship 92 9 9 9

Aesthetic qualities 81 6 20 .6

Cognitive 81 6 20 6.

Skill developm ent 92 2.5 30 5

IWinning 81 6 39 2.5

P=O.05, X2>6.64.

VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1

Asincalculated value of 32.04 is greater than the

tablevalue (6.64) it is concluded that there is a

significance difference between motives of

experiencedand non-experienced athletes.

Discussion

Thestudy has revealed majority of the current

athletesdid not participate in the sport while in

primaryschool. Equally a significant percentage

(32%)did not participate in the sport while in

secondaryschool. This situation is worrying and this

mightexplain why universities in sub-Saharan Africa

donot produce good athletes in comparison to the

ooiversitiesin the west. Indeed, in order for an

athleteto excel in a given sport, there is need for

earlyidentification, nurturing and development of

talent.

Findingsof ·the study reveal that there are

significantdifferences in participatory motives

betweenmale and female athletes at university

level.Thisis in agreement with previous studies of

Gitongo(2000) and Coakley (1995). This is

buttressedby Coakley (1995) assertion that

participatorymotives in sports will differ across

differentgroups and gender. F~ male athletes, thE;..

participatorymotives ran e from enjoyment and

skilldevelopment to aesthetic qualities, while for

femaleathletes' participatory motives range from.

health to success/winning. The ranking of

- participatorymotives of male and female athletes- ---

givecredence to gender stereotyped versions of

socializationinto sport.

Onthe other hand, findings of this study reveal

significantdifferences in participatory motives of

Page 3S

University athletes in different sports. That is why

Muindi (1998) asserted that the foundation of

recreation competency is laid in the individual early

in life and thus it is postulated that participation

motives are also laid in the early stage of

engagement in sport. The above assertions falls

within the tenets of social exchange theory that

individuals take part in activities because the

alternatives are not satisfying.

The results of the study reveal that there are

significant differences in participatory motives of

experienced and non-experienced university

athletes. That is why Coleman (1985) observed that

inexperienced participants would have had less

exposure to the benefits of sports than their

experienced counterparts. Indeed, the

inexperienced athletes participatory motives waned

from skill development to friendship as opposed to

experienced athletes whose motives centred on

competition and health. However, it is concluded

artici ation motives in sports are erratic as- --

Kerr, (1991) observed that human organism is

complex and human behaviour is basically

inconsistent with the premise of reversal theory.

Conclusion and Recommendation

This purpose of this study was to establish the

participatory motives of athletes engaged in

university sports. The study .was embedded in the

social exchange theory as propounded by Thibaut

and Kelly (1959l. The findings of the study

illustrate that university athletes take part in sport

due to diverse motives. However, the participatory

motives are mediated by gender, type of sport and

VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1

experience in sport. However, within the

delimitations of this study it is recommended that:

1) Personnel in charge of university athletes

need to know their athletes more in order to

assist them to sustain and excel as they

participate in sport.

2) Coaches and games teachers need to

structure their training programmes based on

the participatory motives of their athletes.

3) Personnel in charge of university athletes

need to orientate the first years into the

sporting programmes of the university. This

can be done by early identification of tolenr

when the first year students enrol in the

university.

4) Further studies should incorporate larger

samples while employing different theoretical

frameworks, other universities and elite

athletes.

References

Coleman, M. (1985). Promoting children's wellbeing through developmentally appropri-ate sport programming, wellness perspec-tive, 2(2), 9- 12.

Coakley, J.J. (1995). Sports in Society: Issuesand Controversies,_St. Louis: Times Mirror.

Gitonga, E.R. (2000. The participatory motivesof college athletes in Kenya. Paper pre-sented at the 3rd KAHPER-SD Conference,Nairobi, Kenya. November 12.

Henry, L.B. (1998). School, Sport and Leisure:Three dimensions of adolescence. Lon-don: Lempus.

Kerr, J. (1991). Arousal, emotion and indiviexperience in competitive sport. IrHackfort (Ed) Research and emotionsports, 5 (91): 67-95.

Muindi, D.M. (1998). A study on the relotioibetween performance in physical skillacademic achievement among pupilprimary education in Kenya. Unpubli!Ph. D. Thesis. Kenyatta University.

Njororai, W.W.S., Asembo, J.M. & Kurio(2000). University sport proqromrneKenya: The need to refocus on health.O. Amusa & A.l. Toriola (Eds). Sexercise and health. Proceedings olThird Scientific Congress of the AFAHSD held in Sept. 1997 in Nairobi, KEPieterburg, PJS Signs.

Thibaut J.W. and Kelly H.H. (1959). The, SPsychology of Groups. New York: Wi

Wasonga, T. (1996). Childhood Sport socktion in the development of compesport and talent in Kenya. In L.a., ArM. Wekesa & A.L. Toriola (Eds) The I

ing of an African Athlete, A rdimensional Approach. Proceedings 0

2nd conference of AFAHPER-SD, HaZimbabwe.

Weiss, M. R. & Chaumeton, N. (1992). Motiona I orientations in sport. In: T. HornAdvances in sport psvchohChampaign: Human Kinetics Publisher!61-99.

VOLUME " ISSUE 1

experience in sport. However, within the

delimitations of this study it is recommended that:

1) Personnel in charge of university athletes

need to know their athletes more in order to

assist them to sustain and excel as they

participate in sport.

2) Coaches and games teachers need to

structure their troining programmes based on

the participatory motives of their athletes.

3) Personnel in charge of university athletes

need to orientate the first years into the

sporting programmes of the university. This

can be done by early identification of talent

when the first year students enrol in the

university.

4) Further studies should incorporate larger

samples while employing different theoretical

frameworks, other universities and elite

athletes.

References

Coleman, M. (1985). Promoting children's wellbeing through developmentally appropri-ate sport programming, wellness perspec-tive, 2(2), 9- 12.

Coakley, J.J. (1995). Sports in Society: Issuesand Controversies,_St. Louis: Times Mirror.

Gitonga, E.R. (2000. The participatory motivesof college athletes in Kenya. Paper pre-sented at the 3rd KAHPER-SD Conference,Nairobi, Kenya. November 1 2.

Henry, L.B. (1998). School, Sport and Leisure:Three dimensions of adolescence. Lon-don: Lempus.

•Kerr, J. (1991). Arousal, emotion and lndlvid

experience in competitive sport. InHackfort (Ed) Research and emotionssports, 5 (91): 67-95.

Muindi, D.M. (1998). A study on the relationslbetween performance in physical skill cacademic achievement among pupilsprimary education in Kenya. UnpublishPh. D. Thesis. Kenyatta University.

Njororai, W.W.S., Asembo, J.M. & Kuria I(2000). University sport programmesKenya: The need to refocus on health. hO. Amusa & A.L. Toriola (Eds). SPIexercise and health. Proceedings ofThird Scientific Conqress of the AFAHPSD held in Sept. 1997 in Nairobi, KenPieterburg, PJS Signs.

Thibaut J.W. and Kelly H.H. (1959). The SocPsychology of Groups. New York: WilE

Wasonga, T. (1996). Childhood Sport sociaIition in the development of competi1sport and talent in Kenya. In L.O., ArmM. Wekesa & A.L. Toriola (Eds) The ming of an African Athlete, A rmdimensional Approach. Proceedings of2nd conference of AFAHPER-SD,HareZimbabwe.

Weiss, M. R. & Chaumeton, N. (1992). Motitiona I orientations in sport. In: T. Horn ((Advances in sport psvcholoiChampaign: Human Kinetics Publishers61 -99.