abilities are enduring characteristics which underline a persons potential to acquire skill in one...
TRANSCRIPT
‘Abilities are enduring characteristics which
underline a persons potential to acquire skill in one sport or
another’
• Abilities are enduring (long-lasting) characteristics which underlie a person's potential to acquire skill in one sport or another.
• To be skilful in one particular sport requires the person to have a specific profile of abilities.
• Ability is something you are born with, it is innate.
▪ perceptual ability - the ability to detect and use different types of stimuli
▪ conceptual ability - the ability to think through skills quickly
▪ gross abilities - the ability to move the larger parts of the body quickly
▪ fine abilities - the ability to perform delicate movements
▪ kinaesthetic ability - the ability to detect the positions of your limbs in space
Manual dexterity
Finger dexterity
Reaction time
Response orientation
Speed of movement
Response integration
Those that involve processing information and implementing movement
Explosive Strength
Static Strength
Stamina
Dynamic Strength
Trunk Strength
Dynamaic Flexibility
Those that involve movement and often linked to fitness
"The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both.“ Knapp
Characteristics of skill
Learned
Aesthetic
Goal Directed
FluentRecognisable Efficient
Consistent
Economic
What perceptual skills does the player on the ball need to be successful?
“ Skill is an organised, coordinated activity in relation to an object or situation which involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms” Welford
• Cognitive – skills that involve thought process and intellectual ability. What to do, which action to use and when!• Perceptual – Skills that involve selecting, interpreting and making sense of information from our senses.• Psych-motor – movement decided upon and controlled by the brain. Mixture of motor and perceptual.
Closed skills
Open skills
Unpredictable environment
Predictable environment
Decisions to be made
No decisions - same skill
Self-paced skills
Externally-paced skills
Performer decides when
to start
Start determined by outside agency
Performer decides speed of movements
Speed of movement
decided by others
Distinct beginning and
end
Repetitive - no beginning and
end
Discrete skills
Continuous skills
Serial skills
Series of discrete skills
Gross skills
Fine skills
Uses large muscle groups
Uses small muscle groups
Input – stimuli to
sense organs
Decide – what
stimuli mean and what to do
Output – motor
programme runs
muscles
A simplified model
Stimulus identification stage Decide what information represents
Response selection stageDecide on an appropriate response
Response programming stageDecide how to organise response
Sense organs
Response selection
Stimulus identificati
on
Response programmin
g
Muscles -moveme
nt
Senses Response selection
Stimulus identificati
on
Response programmin
g
Movement
Feedback
Memory
3 main senses involved in sport4
Eyes/vision/visual sense
Ears/hearing/auditory sense
Touch/proprioception
Body awareness / kinaesthetic sense
Three components/stages
DetectionComparisonRecognition
Idea of single channel hypothesis
Short-term sensory storage
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
STSS – lasts 0.5-1 seconds; requires immediate attention or is lost
STM – only attended information; limited capacity and duration; DCR occurs in STM; rehearsed information goes to LTM
LTM – unlimited capacity; requires rehearsal, meaningfulness, speed of learning and overlearning to be remembered/retrieved
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Stimulus Perception
Sense organs
Decision Movement
Feedback
(a) A basic information processing system consists of perception, translation and effector control. Explain what you understand by these terms, using appropriate examples from volleyball.
(6 marks)(b) Selective attention is an important
part of information processing. How can a coach improve a player’s selective attention?
(3 marks)
Perception – make sense of incoming information;e.g the ball has left the opposition server’s hand/equiv;Translation – decision making;E.g. the ball is at chest height I will use a
set/volley/equiv;Effector control – motor programme/doing the
movement;Send impulses to the muscular system in order for the
movement to be carried out;E.g hands high/viewfinder/extend the legs. (1 mark for description and 1 mark for appropriate
example)(d) Increase intensity of the stimulus/e.g’s;Motivate and arouse the performer;Highlight/ focus cues;Learn to ignore irrelevant stimulus;
Response time
Movement time
Reaction time
Time taken from initiation of signal to completion of movementTime taken from start of movement to completion of movementTime taken from initiation of signal to beginning of movement
Simple – single stimulus or single responseChoice – several stimuli or responses to be selected fromHick’s Law – more choices more time needed to decide
Choice RT – provide variety of responses – means opponent has to select from many stimuli
Practice – develop as wide a range of actions as possible
Avoid repeating movements/same response – becomes SRT for opponent – easy to react to
Unable to respond to second stimulus until first stimulus has been responded to – because of single channel
Basis of ‘faking’ or ‘dummying’
Give a signal concerning intended movement, then move another way – opponent responds to first signal before responding to second signal, by which time you are long gone!
In team games such as basketball or netball, performers need to make rapid decisions.(i) Give an appropriate example from a team game of simple reaction time and choice reaction time. (2 marks)(ii) The ‘Psychological Refractory Period’ often occurs in team games. Explain, using an example of this from a team game, how and why it occurs. (3 marks)
(i) SRT - movement to whistle/equiv;CRT - movements of own players on court
and who to pass to/equiv;(ii) The use of a deception/fake/dummy/in a
named team game situation/equiv; Only process one item of information at a
time/equiv;Response to later information likely to be
delayed/equiv;Due to responding to first stimulus.
3 functions
Change incorrect responseReinforce correct responseMotivate performer
Intrinsic Extrinsic Knowledge of
results Knowledge of
performance Immediate/
delayed Concurrent/
terminal
Sourced from within Sourced from outside Concerning end result
of action Concerning movement
pattern Before/after
completion During/at end of
action
Swimmers will experience different types of feedback both during and after a performance.
(a) Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance are two types of feedback. Explain these two types of feedback.
(2 marks)
(b) What are the three main benefits of feedback to a swimmer? (3 marks)
(c) What are the characteristics of ‘effective feedback’ for a swimmer?(4 marks)
(a) KR – outcome of action;KP – information about movement/kinesthesis/feel of movement/intrinsic;(b) Correct errors/improve technique/highlight weaknesses;Reinforcement/illustrate success/highlight strengths;Motivation/self-confidence;(c) Process only limited amount of information/succinct/short;Clear information/accurate/correct/relevant/simple;Immediate;Individualised;Different forms – verbal and visual;Intrinsic;Terminal better for beginners/concurrent for elite;Positive for beginners/Negative for advanced;
Executive
(decides)
Effector
(does it)
No feedback. Pre-planned actions.Explains fast, ‘ballistic’
movementsStored as executive programmes
that simply run and cannot be adjusted
Executive Effector
Motor command
Feedback
Feedback involved. ‘Memory trace’ recalls previous correct
responses and initiates movement ‘Perceptual trace’ as a model of
correctness that is adjusted and strengthened through practice.
Does not account for actions too fast for feedback
Does not explain limits of memory
Four relationships (schema) stored for every movement.
1. Initial conditions
2. General motor programme
3. Knowledge of results
4. Sensory consequences
Recall schema provides motor programme – 1 and 2
Recognition schema evaluates responses – 3 and 4
(a) In relation to skilled performance, what do you understand by the terms motor programme and subroutines? Give appropriate examples from a tennis serve.
(3 marks)(b) Schmidt’s schema theory is based on
four sources of information which are used to modify motor programmes. List the four sources of information. (4 marks)
(c) How can a coach organise practices to enable a schema to develop? (3 marks)
(a) Motor programme – Controls movement/set of instructions/made up of subroutines/plan of action stored in memory (long term)/equiv;
Subroutines – Sequences of movement, which are performed automatically/isolated aspects of a movement/practised in parts/equiv;
Grip/footwork/backward swing/forward swing/ball toss/contact with ball/follow through; (minimum of three examples for 1 mark)
(b) (Knowledge of) initial conditions/set up/requirement of skills;
(Knowledge of) response specifications/demands/what is needed;
Sensory consequences/Kinesthesis/Knowledge of Performance/KP;
Movement outcomes/Knowledge of Results/KR;
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;Should have feedback;Should be realistic to the game/activity;Should include transferable elements;Becoming more challenging/more difficult.
A relatively permanent change in behaviour
Seen to have occurred in performance of skill
Improvements in performance seen as a learning curve
Learning plateau
little early improvement
Period of rapid improvement
no improvement Performance
deteriorates
Fatigue
Loss of motivation/boredom
Technical deficiencies
If fatigued – Rest/recovery periodsTo motivate - Rewards/goalsLimited skill - Change style/method
of practice or isolate and correct faulty technique
The production of a stimulus produces an appropriate response (associationist or S-R theories)
Conditioning theories - link between stimulus and response (bond) strengthened by reinforcement
Classical and operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement is praise Increases probability of repeat of
behaviour/successStrengthens S-R bondNegative reinforcement also
encourages repeat of successBut involves removal of negative/
unpleasant stimulus when desired response occurs - coach/crowd stop barracking
Punishment is used to stop repeat of undesired/unsuccessful behaviour/ attempt
Inhibits S-R bond strengthening
positive reinforcement – the games player makes an accurate pass (behaviour) and the teacher shouts ‘nice pass’ (reinforced)
negative reinforcement – the teacher who constantly shouts from the touchline suddenly stops shouting; the players know that their behaviour must now be correct
punishment - giving a red card for a foul in a game serves to prevent that behaviour happening again
Learn unconditioned response to conditioned stimulus e.g. Pavlov’s dogs
Rare in sport
Can be used to reduce anxiety prior to performance – relaxation through calming phrase and physical cue
Trial and error learning - behaviour reinforced - success/praise motivates to repeat success
Thorndike’s laws1. exercise - rehearse to strengthen
bond2. effect - rewards strengthen bond3. readiness - performer able to do task
Operant conditioning = trial and error learning
Based on S-R relationshipCoach manipulates environment to
achieve desired response (shaping) – target/feeder/conditions/etc
Uses reinforcement to bring about desired response
Copying/mimicing another's behaviour/action
Requires learning to be:AttentiveCapable of remembering (retention)Capable of performing (production)Willing to learn (motivation)
Insight learning - concerned with understanding rather than linking S-R
Work out what is happening - whole practice, rather than learning skills in isolation
Cognitive – understanding nature of task; develop motor programme; requires demonstration from coach; feedback is extrinsic; many errors
Associative – practice stage; less visual more proprioceptive; fewer but repetitive errors
Autonomous – skill mastered; little conscious effort; processing used for strategies rather than skill
Positive - benefitsNegative - hindranceBilateral – from one side to otherProactive – current skill helps future
skillRetroactive – current skill improves
past skill
Command
Reciprocal
Discovery
Problem Solving
Teacher makes all the decisions with no input from the learners
Clear instructions and objectives, large groups catered for, control and discipline maintained
Possible lack of understanding, little social interaction, little creativity, limited individual feedback
Used when:
Groups are large or undisciplinedNovice performers need to be taught
recognised techniquesDangerous situationsComplex skills
Most decisions made by teacher with some learner input
Instructions and objectives are clear, social interaction skills are developed, some individual feedback received, self-confidence increased
May be difficult for beginners, performers may lack communication skills, unable to analyse movement, difficult to monitor for teacher
Used when:
Learners are more experiencedSimple skills are involvedLimited danger is presentTime is available
Teacher guides performer to find the correct movement by providing information, giving specific clues or asking questions
Encourages creativity and decision making skills, responsibility for own learning, increased motivation and self confidence
Time consuming, difficult for those who lack creativity, progress of large groups is difficult to monitor
Used when:
Creativity is requiredThere is no right or wrong answerMore experienced performers are
involved
Problem set by teacher and solved by student. There is no right or wrong answer
Encourages creativity and develops cognitive skills
Novice performer throwing javelin
Novice performer developing a gym routine
Experienced basketball players practicing free throws in a practice session
Sixth from students rock climbing for the first time
Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the first time, in a 50 minute lesson
Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the third lesson in a series or four
An outside coach coming in to take a kick boxing lesson at a club for the first time
What have you based you decision on?
Nature of performer – experience, stage of learning, age, gender, size of group
Nature of task – open or closed skill, gross or fine, discrete serial or continuous, self or externally paced
Experience – amount of knowledge, personality, relationship with group
Environmental conditions – facilities, time available, purpose of the session
Whole Learning
Part Learning
Progressive Part Method
Whole-Part-Whole Method
Performer attempts the whole movement following instructions or demonstration
Develop an awareness of entire movement and understand the relationship between different subroutines immediately
Difficult to use with complex skills, difficult for novice performers, not ideal for dangerous skills
Ideally used when:
Skill is discrete or ballistic
Subroutines lack meaning
Performer is motivated
Performer is experienced
Performer attempts all sub routines before attempting skill as a whole
Complex skills are broken down into subroutines, specific aspects of technique modified, develops confidence on completion
It hinders timing of complete skill, reduces kinaesthetic awareness, transfer part-whole may not be effective, time consuming
Ideally used when:
The skill is complex
Skill involves long sequences
Performer has limited attention span
Inexperienced
Subroutines linked (chaining) once each individual part is learned
Complex skills introduced gradually, novice performers achieve quick success, development of understanding of subroutines, transfer to whole is easier
Time consuming, too much focus on particular subroutines
Ideally used when:
Skill is complex, serial or dangerous
Time is not a constraint
Performer is inexperienced
Performer attempts whole skill and then develops specific subroutines before completing the whole skill
An overall feel for movement developed initially, success is ongoing as subroutines are developed
Transfer form part to whole is difficult
A novice athlete learning the triple jump
Year 9 class learning how to head a football
A premier rugby team learning a set tactical move
A golfer practicing his tee shot
An experienced fast bowler practicing his action
An inexperienced cricketer learning a bowling technique
A gymnastics floor routine
A year 11 team practicing basketball lay ups
A hockey flick
An athlete working on their sprint start
Mr Kirk learning a dance routine
Practice occurs after the presentation of practice
Coach to decide on type ensuring learning occurs, motivation is maintained and fatigue does not affect performance
Four Types:1.Massed2.Distributed3.Variable4.Mental
Repeated practice with little or no recovery period between blocks
Ideally used when:1. Skills are discrete2. Performer is motivated3. Performer is experienced4. High level of fitness5. Replication of fatigue in games is required
Possible problems – boredom and fatigue
Repeated practice followed by recovery period before repetition or new task
Recovery period may involve other form of activity not just rest (mental practice or feedback)
Ideally used when:1. The skill is new and complex2. The performer is a novice3. Low levels of motivation4. Low levels of fitness5. Short attention span
Recovery period can lead to – de-motivation, loss of concentration and lack of discipline
Coach uses a mixture of massed and variable practice
Maintains interest levels and motivation
Helps to limit the effects of fatigue when required
Cognitive rehearsal of skill without physical movement
Used before, during or after performance
Internal – sees themselves from within (kinaesthetic feel)
External – seeing themselves as if they were a spectator
Creates mental image, reduces reaction time, improve anticipation and control arousal
Ideally used when:1. Learning time needs to be reduced2. Preparing for alternative situations or experiences3. Concentrate on specific aspects or the overall skill4. Arousal needs to be controlled5. Performer is injured
Optimised by1. Quiet Location2. Encouraging successful outcomes3. Regular practice4. Use during recovery period
Guidance is used to develop movement patterns and reduce errors made in performance
Guidance depends on the situation, nature of the task and ability of performer
Types: Visual, Verbal, Manual and Mechanical
Creating a mental picture through observation of demos, videos, pictures etc
Can also be developed through modifying the playing area
To optimise visual guidance: accurate demo, focus on key points, info relevant to age and ability and clear and realistic stimuli
Advantages
Good for performers in the cognitive stage of learning
Provides a clear idea of the movement pattern to be performed
Specific cues can be highlighted
Disadvantages
De-motivation if the performer is unable to replicate the skill
Can provide too much information for a novice
Static forms of guidance soon loose their impact
Explaining the motor skill to be performed, understanding the requirements and feedback
General or specific depending on ability
To optimise visual guidance: clear and accurate info, limit the amount of information required, language and terminology relevant to age group, most effective with visual guidance
Advantages
Good for all stages of learning if combined with other types of guidance
Useful in the autonomous stage of learning
Feedback can be given immediately either during or after the performance
Focus the performers attention on specific cues when watching a demo
Disadvantages
De-motivation if unable to replicate the skill
Overload of information may occur
Difficulty in understanding, especially for novice performers
Some movement may be difficult to explain
Involves the performer being physically placed or supported into correct position
To optimise manual guidance: avoid over use of kinaesthetic awareness will not develop, combine with verbal guidance and ensure movement pattern is correct
Advantages
Good for all stages of learning especially novice
Reduce fear and builds confidence
Helps to reduce risks in some potentially dangerous situations
Development of correct kinaesthetic awareness
Disadvantages
Performer becomes over reliant on help and support
Lack of intrinsic feedback
Difficult to learn for own mistakes and correct them independently
Difficult in large groups
Similar to manual but uses some form of device or support
Trampolining and swimming use them