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A2 SPORT & PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHED 3 Student Pack

PAGE CONTENT SECTION A

2 Energy Systems

9 Recovery

10 EPOC

13 Muscle Structure

14 Fast and Slow Twitch

18 How Muscles Work

21 Sliding Filament Theory

24 Preparation and Training

27 Specialised Training

28 Altitude Training

32 Food for Energy

39 Biomechanics

41 Newton’s Laws of Motion

45 Momentum and Impulse

47 Fluid Forces

52 Angular Motion

SECTION B

57 Personality

60 Achievement Motivation

64 Arousal

67 Anxiety

70 Stress

72 Stress Management Techniques

74 Goal Setting

75 Attitude

79 Aggression/Assertion

84 Self Efficacy

85 Social Facilitation

86 Attribution Theory

89 Learned Helplessness

91 Group Dynamics

94 Leadership

97 Glossary

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Energy is of course a fundamental aspect of any type of movement. For the sake of revision you need to remember that energy for movement comes from the splitting of ATP (Adenosine Tri-phosphate). Therefore

ATP (IS BROKEN DOWN INTO) ADP + P + ENERGY

(ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE ADENOSINE DI-PHOSHATE + PHOSPHATE+ ENERGY

Basically, one phosphate is taken off from the other two. This releases energy. Tri-Phosphate (3 Phosphates) turns into Di-phosphate (2 phosphates) and a free phosphate.

REMEMBER, ENERGY COMES FROM BREAKING DOWN OF ATP

Muscle cells contain only a small amount of stored ATP for immediate energy. There is only enough ATP stored in the muscles for approximately 2-3 seconds worth of energy. KEY CONCEPT: Therefore, what you must understand at Advanced Level, is how the different energy systems of the body recombine the ADP+ P to reform ATP and allow energy to be released in the muscle. The system, which is Predominant at any one time, depends upon the INTENSITY of the activity being done the DURATION it lasts for, and whether or not there is time to use OXYGEN.

All of the energy systems are always working but one will be predominant (the main one) at any one time

The three energy systems for study are:

The Alactic system or Phosphocreatine (PC) system

The Lactic Acid system

The Aerobic system Quite simply, the more intense/ harder the activity, the greater the need there will be for anaerobic energy systems as there is not enough time to use oxygen.

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ATP-PC System The most important thing to realise about this system is how quickly ATP can be resynthesised. After the stores of ATP have been used, the body must find a way to recombine the ADP and P’s to resynthesise ATP. When exercise is intense, this has to be done in the absence of oxygen as energy demand is immediate and there is no time to utilise oxygen. The energy rich compound Phosphocreatine (PC) –although it is sometimes referred to, as Creatine Phosphate- is broken down to release energy. This energy is not for muscle contraction but is for recombining ADP and P. This system is usually used predominately for intense muscular activity such as sprinting, throwing or jumping.

ATP ADP+P + ENERGY (for muscular contractions) When the stores of ATP have been used up and energy demand is intense, then,

PC P + C + ENERGY

Is used to do this: ADP + P ATP

The PC stores usually last for about 8-10 seconds

Training can increase the length of time that PC lasts

Creatine supplements can be taken to improve stores of PC

Since PC is broken down to P+C+ENERGY, the P+C must be recombined during recovery periods. This requires energy and is usually energy from Aerobic processes (with oxygen).

Sprinter:

Time 0secs 3 secs 8-10 secs Energy: ATP stores PC system PC runs out

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Once Phosphocreatine has been depleted, ATP has to be resynthesised using another substance- Glycogen. Glycogen (stored Glucose) is stored in the muscles and liver. It is the result of eating Carbohydrates.

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

GLYCOGEN

GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE

2 ATP energy NO O2 PYRUVIC ACID LACTIC ACID

The breaking down of a Glucose molecule is called Glycolysis

Since no oxygen is present, this is known as Anaerobic Glycolysis

Once Glycogen is converted into Glucose 6- Phosphate, a series of reactions occur in the muscle cell cytoplasm.

The Glucose 6-phosphate is converted into Pyruvic acid.

This releases enough energy to recombine 2 ATP.

If oxygen is not present, Lactic Acid is formed.

This system is good at releasing energy quickly, but there is a small yield of energy (2ATP)

The quickness of the system is suited for high intensity events that continue past 10 seconds- e.g. 400 metres.

Lactic acid eventually has a detrimental effect on performance stopping muscle contraction.

It is generally regarded that lactic acid levels peak at 1 minute of intense exercise.

Time 0secs 3 secs 8-10 secs 1min Energy: ATP stores PC system PC runs out/ L Acid starts L.A peaks

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As the name suggests, this energy system involves the use of oxygen. Although it takes about 3 mins for the energy to be fully released from the glucose molecule using oxygen, it does give off a high-energy yield. The initial stages of the system are similar to the lactic acid system in that Glycogen is broken down into Glucose 6-phosphate and then Pyruvic Acid. However, as oxygen is now present, the Pyruvic acid does not change into Lactic Acid.

Glycogen

ANAEROBIC Glucose-6-phosphate IN SARCOPLASM

Pyruvic acid Lactic acid

Acteyl CoA

Citric acid

AEROBIC Krebs IN Cycle

MITOCHONDRIA CO2

Hydrogen

32ATP Oxygen Water

2ATP

no oxygen

with oxygen

2ATP

ENERGY

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The main stages:

Glycogen is converted into Glucose 6- phosphate

Glucose 6-phosphate is converted into Pyruvic acid

As oxygen is available, the glucose molecule is further broken down in the cell Mitochondria into Acetyl co-enzyme A, then to Citric Acid

Once formed, Citric Acid enters the Krebs cycle, which takes place in the matrix of the Mitochondria, where it is subject to a series of reactions.

Hydrogen is removed from the Citric Acid, releasing Carbon and Oxygen (CO2)

This releases energy sufficient to form 2ATP

The hydrogen which has been removed is carried to the Electron Transport System by hydrogen carriers (NAD and FAD)

The processes of the electron transport system release enough energy to recombine 34 ATP.

Energy system

predominately used

Endurance Time in use

E.G. Training aimed at

Training examples

ATP For maximum

effort, speed, power

0-3 sec

Max weight lifting

Increasing ATP stores

+ size of fast twitch fibres

Max lifts

Alactacid ATP-PC

Speed or power over longer time

3-10 secs

100 m fast

sprints

Increase PC stores

Repeated short

sprints Plyometrics

Lactic Acid Anaerobic work

10 secs- 3mins peaks at 1 min

400m long

sprint in Football

Overload with lactic acid so

tolerance increases

Repeated intense exercise

Aerobic Aerobic work

In excess

of 3 mins

Long distance running/ cycling

Increase stores of glycogen. Increase

mitochondrion size/ number

Long duration

low intensity

It can therefore be seen that the total energy yield is

2 ATP from anaerobic Glycolysis in the cell sarcoplasm

2 ATP from the Krebs cycle

34 ATP from the Electron Transfer chain

Total yield= 38 ATP

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SUMMARY:

All energy systems are always working

Only one is predominant at any one time

The others may be recovering after use or providing some of the energy

The aerobic system is the most preferred system for the body to use as fatigue is slow and minimal

All energy comes from ATP but there is only enough stored to last for 0-3 secs of exercise

ATP must then be re-made using one of the other energy systems. It can be summarised by comparing energy demand and O2 available. Remember it takes up to 3 mins for O2 to be available for energy production. If energy demand is high and O2 available is low then another system must be used i.e. amount of energy needed from a source other than oxygen Energy needed O2 available In this case PC would be used to make ATP for up to 10 secs then if energy demand continued to be higher than O2 available the Lactic Acid system would become predominant.

The main thing to realise is that the energy systems do not just turn on and off. Depending on what you are doing, each energy system holds different importance. If you take a marathon runner for example, the energy for the first 0-3 seconds of his/her run will be provided by stored ATP. The PC system will then be used predominately for 3-10 seconds and then the Lactic Acid System. Lactic Acid system will be used until the runner reaches a steady state and energy demand = energy available from O2. This usually occurs after approximately 3 mins. The runner will remain aerobic for the rest of the race. If however, the run up hill and energy demand is increased, the Lactic Acid system may again become important.

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The energy continuum:

ATP ATP-PC sprinter Lactic Acid- swimmer Aerobic Stores marathon runner

1a. Exam Style Question: (i) During a four minute skating programme, what will be the main energy sources used? (ii) Explain how the regeneration of ATP is achieved during their programme. (7 marks)

1b. Exam Style Question: (i) At the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, David Davies won the silver medal in the swimming 10km marathon event in a time of 1 hour 51 minutes and 53.1 seconds. Explain how the majority of energy used during the race would be provided and outline the process of ‘glycogen loading’ that may be used by performers to improve performance in this type of event (14 marks)

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Fatigue is often used as a term to describe muscular tiredness and can occur for a variety of reasons:- e.g.

Insufficient amount of ATP to sustain muscular contraction

As lactic Acid levels increase, hydrogen ions disassociate from the Lactic acid and decrease the ph of the muscle cell. This drop in ph makes the function of providing energy to the muscles extremely difficult.

Glycogen levels deplete

POST (AFTER) EXERCISE RECOVERY The recovery process after exercise is of course important to an athlete being able to fully recuperate and prepare for their next exertion. However, this recovery process varies depending on the length of time and intensity of the exercise that has been done. OXYGEN DEBT: The body needs a certain amount of Oxygen to carry out a series of movements. If the amount of oxygen being consumed is less than the amount needed, then the body can still operate for a small time using anaerobic processes – e.g. PC system, Lactic Acid system. However, the amount of oxygen needed that wasn’t taken in is still owed to the body like a debt. This is then paid back after exercise. I.E. Oxygen deficit

Oxygen needed Oxygen actually taken in

As you can see the oxygen needed to supply the energy in this case is greater than the amount actually taken in. Therefore there is an oxygen deficit is like a debt that the body owes itself.

As oxygen is not available for approximately the first 3 minutes of exercise, a deficit will always occur.

One point to try and get your head round is that the oxygen taken in during recovery is nearly always bigger than that owed (oxygen debt). This is because the oxygen taken in not only has to repay the debt, it also has to supply energy to recombine P+C back together, replenish used ATP stores and supply energy to allow respiratory and heart rates to remain high.

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The repaying of the oxygen debt is known as EPOC, or Excess Post exercise Oxygen Consumption. It typically contains two major components:

The Alactacid debt or Fast component

The Lactacid debt or Slow component

E

VO2 C l.min-1 A

D B

Rest Exercise 0 4 8 12 16 Period Recovery period in minutes

A- Fast component

B- Oxygen consumption at rest C- oxygen consumption during exercise

D- slow component E- oxygen deficit

THE ALACTACID (FAST) COMPONENT

This is the first component of recovery. As the name suggests, the main aim of this component is to restore PC levels (The Alactacid System). It is relatively quick in that PC is replenished in approximately 2-3 minutes. Oxygen is used to provide the energy for this. Some of the energy yield from the Krebs cycle is used to recombine ADP+P, but some is also used to recombine P+C during recovery. This prepares the body for intense, short duration exercise again.

THE LACTACID (SLOW) COMPONENT This part of recovery is slower. It takes approximately 1 hour but can be accelerated by cooling down properly. This component involves energy, again from oxygen being used to remove the lactic acid that has accumulated as a result of anaerobic exercise. Much of the Lactic acid is removed in the blood, but the Aerobic system allows Lactic acid to be oxidised in the Mitochondria, leaving carbon dioxide and water. Some lactic acid is reconverted into muscle and liver Glycogen.

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EPOC time can vary for a performer depending upon:

The duration of the exercise

Intensity of exercise

Fitness level- training

Amount of cool down done

VO2 Max Fitness can be measured by the volume of oxygen you can consume while exercising at your maximum capacity. VO2 Max is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres, one can use in one minute per kilogram of body weight. Those who are more fit have higher VO2 Max values and can exercise more intensely than those who are not as well conditioned. Numerous studies show that you can increase your VO2 Max by working out at an intensity that raises your heart rate to between 65 and 85 per cent of its maximum for at least 20 minutes three to five times a week. A mean value of VO2 max for male athletes is about 3.5 litres/minute and for female athletes it is about 2.7 litres/minute.

Factors affecting VO2 Max The physical limitations that restrict the rate at which energy can be released aerobically are dependent upon:

the chemical ability of the muscular cellular tissue system to use oxygen in breaking down fuels

the combined ability of cardiovascular and pulmonary systems to transport the oxygen to the muscular tissue system

Ideal VO2 Max scores for various sports:

VO2 max Sport

>75 ml/kg/min Endurance Runners and Cyclists

65 ml/kg/min Squash

60-65 ml/kg/min

Football (male)

55 ml/kg/min Rugby

50 ml/kg/min Volleyball (female)

50 ml/kg/min Baseball (male)

VO2 max Tests An estimate of your VO2 Max can be determined using the following tests:

Cooper Test MSFT

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Lactic Acid is always present in the blood although normally in small quantities.

As exercise increases in intensity and Lactic Acid accumulates due to anaerobic work, the pH of the blood becomes more acidic.

As pH reaches 6.4, muscle fatigue starts to occur, and muscle function is negatively affected. Muscle contraction may also be inhibited as the transmission of the impulse from the motor neurone may be harmed (see muscular contraction).

MEASUREMENT OF LACTIC ACID

It is very difficult to measure lactic acid in the muscles so it is normally measured in the blood. Measuring lactic acid can:

Help to design training programmes so that the athlete works at an appropriate intensity

Provide data on fitness levels

Provide an OBLA point (Onset of Blood Lactic Acid Accumulation) OBLA (ONSET OF BLOOD LACTATE ACCUMULATION)

OBLA is the point at which Lactate accumulates in the blood.

It is usually measured by using a test that gets progressively harder.

It is an important point, as it shows when a person can no longer provide energy aerobically.

i.e. if a person is walking, they will be able to provide energy for this from the Aerobic System (oxygen). If they start to speed up gradually they will continue to be able to provide energy aerobically until a certain point. This point is when their OBLA would occur, as energy would be made aerobically and anaerobically. OBLA is measured as a percentage of a person’s VO2 max (their maximum level of oxygen consumption). If a person has an excellent Aerobic system they will be able to work at a level close to their VO2 max without accumulating Lactic Acid. Thus, a person’s OBLA can demonstrate how efficient a person’s Aerobic system is and therefore their aerobic fitness level.

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Every one of the body's 430 skeletal muscles consists of muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerves and blood vessels. A fibrous fascia called the epimysium covers each muscle and tendon. Tendons connect the muscle to bone and they attach to the bone periosteum - more connective tissue that covers all bones. Contraction of the muscle belly pulls on the tendon and in turn, the bone it is attached to.

A closer look at muscle anatomy shows that each muscle is made up of muscle cells or fibres. Muscle fibres are grouped into bundles (of up to 150 fibres) called fasciculi. Each fasiculus or bundle is surrounded by connective tissue called perimysium. Fibres within each bundle are surrounded by more connective tissue called endomysium.

Each individual fibre consists of a membrane (sarcolemma) and can be further broken down into hundreds or even thousands of myofibrils. Myofibrils are surrounded by sarcoplasm and together they make up the contractile components of a muscle. See the diagram below:

Although skeletal muscles come in different shapes and sizes the main structure of a skeletal muscle remains the same.

A large strong muscle, such as those forming your Quadriceps would have a large number of fibres within each bundle. A smaller muscle used for precision movement, such as those in the hand would contain far fewer fibres per Fasciculi

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Muscles are striped (striated) in appearance due to the fibres which run through them

There are two main fibre types : SLOW TWITCH (type I) and FAST TWITCH (type II)

The fast/ slow twitch refers to the speed of contraction

These are also referred to as Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG) and Fast Twitch Glycolytic (FTG)

Type IIB fibres contract quicker than Type IIa and also fatigue slightly quicker.

It is possible through the correct training to change Type II B to A through appropriate training.

Humans have a natural mix of the two types.

Average for humans is 60% slow twitch and 40% fast

Some sprinters have been known to have over 85% fast twitch and some marathon runners/ endurance athletes over 85% slow.

The main differences between the two types of fibre are:

SPEED OF CONTRACTION- slow twitch muscle fibres contract at about 20% when compared to fast twitch

MUSCLE FIBRE FORCE- fast twitch fibres are bigger in size and therefore have bigger motor neurones (nerve which allows signal from the brain). Therefore a stronger signal can be sent and a bigger contraction can occur.

MUSCLE ENDURANCE- Slow twitch fibres are capable of resisting fatigue whereas fast twitch fibres fatigue quickly

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Slow twitch Fast twitch

characteristic Type I Type IIA (FOG) Type IIB (FTG)

Size

small medium Large

Colour

red (dark)

midway White

Aerobic

Myoglobin count

high High Low

Activity during low intensity

exercise

High Midway Low

anaerobic

Glycogen stores

Low High High

PC content

Low Midway High

Fatigue level

Low Midway High

Contractile time

Slow Midway Fast

Relaxation time

Slow Midway Fast

Activity during high intensity exercise

Low High High

Basically, during Aerobic exercise (using the Aerobic energy system), the nature of the exercise done (slow, long duration-e.g. jogging) will mean that the Type I fibres are predominately used. They fatigue slowly, but do not allow for fast, strong contractions.

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Summary graph:

Heavy exercise load

Moderate exercise Force of light exercise Type II b contraction Type II a Type I (slow)

Number of motor units

The number of motor units refers to the number of a certain type of fibre that receives a signal and therefore contracts. If a fibre does not receive a signal it will not contract.

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The % of muscle fibre types in humans does not necessarily mean that they will be good or bad at an event. Training will obviously allow those people with a particularly content in one fibre type to develop the capabilities for elite performance. Psychological factors will also affect performance. However, there are distinctive percentage fibre compositions in certain types of athletes.

Percentage composition of slow twitch fibres

Event % of slow twitch fibres

Mean % of slow twitch fibres

Marathon runners 85 50-95

800 m 55 50-80

100/200m 35 20-55

As you can see from the table, the range of fibre type can vary. It is possible for a marathon runner to have 50% slow twitch and for a sprinter to have 55% slow twitch!! This is demonstrated below: Slow twitch composition (ranges) 50 marathon runners 95 0% 100% 20 sprinters 55 The highlighted overlap in figures is important as it proves that it is possible for an elite sprinter to have more slow twitch fibres than a marathon runner. TRAINING IS VERY IMPORTANT IN DETERMINING PERFORMANCE.

****FIBRE RECRUITMENT**** REMEMBER- that if exercise is easy and prolonged the Aerobic energy system will provide the energy needed. Slow twitch fibres will predominately be used, and fatigue will not set in quickly. If exercise is fast, furious and of high intensity, there is no time to use oxygen and therefore energy must be provided anaerobically. Fast twitch fibres will predominately be used, contracting forcefully and quickly but fatiguing quickly.

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Viewed under a microscope, Muscles appear to be stripes (STRIATED). This is because of the fibres that run through them. The fibres are a mixture of Red and lighter colours depending upon the fibre type composition. Within the fibres, two filaments exist: Actin and Myosin. When calcium is present, ATP can be broken down to release the energy to allow muscular contraction to occur. The two filaments slide past each other and attach allowing contraction, before sliding out again. MOTOR NEURONE’S AND MOTOR UNITS Muscles can only contract when a nerve ending is stimulated by an impulse from the Central Nervous System (CNS). The Motor Neurone is the nerve that attaches to muscle fibres. The Motor neurone and the fibres it attaches to is called a Motor Unit.

Each muscle has several motor units

The number of fibres that a motor neurone attaches to depends on the muscle. Each motor neurone attaches to only about two fibres in the eye, as it requires a small impulse and fine control. The motor neurones in the Quadriceps attach to approximately 2000 fibres each, as they require large contractions

The fibres attached to a motor unit are either fast or slow twitch- never a mixture

Therefore, the motor units that are RECRUITED when doing an activity depend on the demands of that activity-e.g. fast powerful movements will require that fast twitch motor units are recruited.

A motor unit is described as a single motor neurone and all of the muscle fibres it innervates. A motor unit can contain anywhere between 10 and thousands of muscle fibres. Muscles which produce large powerful movements contain motor units with large numbers of fibres, and those for small intricate movements contain only a few fibres per motor unit.

Where the synaptic knobs of the neurone meet the muscle fibres is known as the neuromuscular junction. When an impulse reaches the neuromuscular junction, this starts the sliding filament theory of muscular contraction.

The 'all or none' law as mentioned above also applies to the contraction of fibres within a motor unit. When a motor unit activates, all of the fibres within the unit contract and at full force, there is no strong or weak contraction. The strength of the resultant whole muscular contraction depends upon the number of motor units recruited.

Another way of increasing the strength of a muscle contraction is by decreasing the time between impulses so that the muscle fibres do not have time to relax, resulting in a continuous wave of contractions known as wave summation. To produce a strong contraction all motor units in the muscle are

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recruited, but only for a short time. In order to increase the length of a contraction a kind of rotation system is implemented whereby some units contract while others rest and continuously alternate. This is known as spatial summation.

The All or None Law: The all or none law basically suggests that if the impulse arriving at the motor end plate is big enough, then all of the fibres attached the motor unit will contract. If the signal is not big enough, none of them will. CONTROL OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION

Muscle action has to be controlled. The body has three main regulating systems to try and prevent injury. These are:

1. PROPRIOCEPTORS: sense organs that provide kinaesthetic feedback concerning the body’s movement (does it feel right?)

2. MUSCLE SPINDLE APPARATUS: Very sensitive sense organs that

exist between muscle fibres. These are very important to control the stretch of a muscle which is in movement- e.g. during Plyometrics. As a muscle is stretched, so is the spindle. It then sends an impulse via the spinal cord about the extent of the stretch. The brain has a recorded pre-set tension that is acceptable. If the stretch is too far the muscle is shortened. When doing Plyometric bounds, as the Quadriceps lengthen quickly, the spindle apparatus causes them to shorten. As the bound goes up and the quadriceps shorten anyway, the resultant contraction is strengthened.

3. GOLGI TENDON ORGANS: The tendon organs are very similar to the

muscle spindle apparatus in that the Golgi in the muscle tendon monitor stretch. If the stretch is too far then the tendons lengthen to allow the muscle to shorten. This causes a stretch reflex (Relaxation).This happens in PNF training.

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2a. Exam Style Question: Explain how Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation works (4 marks)

2b. Exam Style Question: Explain how a muscle can generate varying forces of tension and how the motor unit recruitment pattern differs between a weight lifter and an endurance runner (5 marks)

2c. Exam Style Question: During a race, a swimmer has to dive off the starting blocks as quickly as possible. Identify the ‘muscle fibre type’ used to complete this action and justify you answer. (3 marks)

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The sliding filament theory is the method by which muscles are thought to contract. The diagram below is a common one used to explain sliding filament theory.

At a very basic level each muscle fibre is made up of smaller fibres called myofibrils. These contain even smaller structures called actin and myosin filaments. These filaments slide in and out between each other to form a muscle contractions, hence called the sliding filament theory!

Sarcoplasm contains glycogen, fat particles, enzymes and the mitochondria. The myofibrils it encases consist of two types of protein filaments or myofilaments. They are actin and myosin.

Myosin and actin filaments run in parallel to each other along the length of the muscle fibre. Myosin has tiny globular heads protruding from it at regular intervals. These are called cross bridges and play a pivotal role in muscle action.

Each myofibril is organised into sections along its length. Each section is called a sarcomere and they are repeated right along the length of a muscle fibre.

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What happens ?

During Muscle Contraction: The myosin heads on the thick filaments "hook" onto, and so pull, the thin filaments towards the centre ("M-line") of each sarcomere. The appearance of this action is shown above as the transition from "relaxed" to "fully contracted" muscle. As the thin filaments slide over the thick filaments, the I bands and H zones becomes narrower until they disappear when the muscle reaches its fully contracted state.

During Muscle Relaxation: When the myosin heads on the thick filaments relax they release their hold on the thin filaments, thereby allowing them to slide back to their "relaxed" positions in which the I bands and H zones appear again.

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How and why does this occur?

This leads to questions about what causes the myosin heads to lock onto the thin filaments and pull them, and what causes them to relax and release their hold on the thin filaments.

These processes happen as a result of instructions sent via the nervous system to activate and deactivate these tissues. The muscular and nervous systems are connected to each other by neuromuscular junctions.

3. Exam Style Question: The winner of a weightlifting competition is determined by the performer who is able to lift the heaviest weight. (i) Explain how a muscle contracts according to the sliding filament theory. (4 marks) (ii) The strength of a muscle contraction involves the use of motor units. How are motor units used to produce muscle contractions of varying strength in the lift? (4 marks)

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Sports Supplements: Creatine Increases muscle energy, endurance, strength and lean muscle mass. Creatine provides the means of regenerating small quantities of ATP extremely rapidly, so boosting short duration activities. Muscles are much less prone to fatigue and the capacity to undertake strenuous exercise is increased. Activities such as repetition weight training, short sprints, repeated bounding and jumping are all enhanced and therefore the quality of training increases which feeds into higher competitive performances. Protein supplements Protein supplements are used to enhance muscle repair and growth. Inadequate protein intake does cause a negative nitrogen balance, which slows muscle growth and causes fatigue. Recommended Protein Intake: Despite the beliefs of many coaches and athletes, eating excessive protein provides little benefit. Muscle mass does not increase simply by eating high protein foods. Protein intake significantly above the recommended values can prove harmful because excessive protein breakdown strains the liver and kidney functions through the production and elimination of urea. Sodium bicarbonate

Buffers lactic acid production, delays fatigue Energy production via anaerobic glycolysis, which is particularly important for events lasting between 30 seconds and 15 minutes, increases the acidity inside the muscle cells and very soon after does the same to the blood. It is this increase in acidity, within the muscle cells, that is a major factor in producing fatigue. If there was some way to reduce the acidity within the muscle cells, one could theoretically delay fatigue and thus continue exercising at a very high intensity for longer

Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous stimulant, with mild diuretic properties, found naturally in coffee, tea, as well as many soda drinks and chocolate. It is often used by athletes as a pre-workout stimulant and appetite suppressant, and is found in many products designed to aid in fat loss. Overuse, or taking this too late in the day can affect sleep patterns and removing caffeine from a diet heavy in caffeine can frequently lead to caffeine withdrawal symptoms such as headaches. Caffeine enhances the contractility of skeletal and cardiac muscle, and helps metabolise fat, thereby sparing muscle glycogen stores. Side effects can include irritability, restlessness, diarrhoea, insomnia, and anxiety.

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Electrolyte An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive stimulating the muscles. To maintain water and electrolyte balance, the body must replace water and electrolytes that are lost as the body performs its necessary functions. The body loses water and electrolytes primarily in urine and sweat. The body obtains water and electrolytes primarily from beverages and foods consumed. A healthy body can adjust the amount of water and electrolytes lost and consumed. Thirst, hunger, and the kidneys help with these adjustments. For example, a person who feels thirsty usually drinks more fluids. When a person becomes dehydrated, the brain releases a hormone called antidiuretic hormone. This hormone signals the kidneys to retain more water by making and excreting less urine. Electrolyte drinks contain essential elements like sodium, potassium and magnesium, along with carbohydrates and sweeteners. These drinks were originally designed to help people recover quickly from electrolyte loss due to excessive exercise, dehydration and illness. Diuretics Diuretics are any compound which helps the user to shed water weight fast. Although they have a legitimate medical use, they are abused by athletes looking to drop weight quickly, mainly by those who participate in sports with weight classes such as wrestling and weightlifting. Some supplements such as caffeine or vitamin C will have a natural diuretic effect, but prescription drugs will work in a much more powerful way and pose a real danger to the athlete's health. A number of athletes have died as a result of diuretic use. Erythropoietin (EPO) Erythropoietin – Better known as EPO, Erythropoietin is a drug used to treat anaemia by increasing red blood cell count. It has replaced the practice of blood doping used in sports during the 70’s and 80’s and its use has been attributed by many to the increasingly faster times set in long distance aerobic sports such as running, and cycling, where its use has become synonymous with the sport. EPO use has been shown to increase the risk of death due to coagulation (clotting) of the blood causing heart attacks as the increased red blood cell count makes the blood much thicker than normal. A number of professional athletes’ deaths have been blamed on EPO. Anabolic Steroids Anabolic steroids are used to increase muscle mass and strength. If over-used, it can cause heart, liver, and immune system problems. Blood cholesterol levels often increase because steroid use changes how sugars and fats are handled. This and increased blood pressure can lead to risk of heart attacks and strokes. Oily skin and acne are also common among steroid users. Behaviour changes may include aggression, paranoia, mood swings and depression.

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Human growth hormone - HGH Human growth hormone is used to decrease fat and increase muscle mass. The side effects are heart and nerve diseases, glucose intolerance, and higher levels of blood fats. Beta blockers Beta blockers decrease anxiety, have a positive effect on fine motor control but a negative effect on aerobic capacity.

4a. Exam Style Question: In order to optimise performance, athletes may take supplements. Discuss the potential benefits and harmful effects to an athlete in taking caffeine, creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplements. (14 marks)

4b. Exam Style Question: (i) How does the body regulate temperature, when an elite performer is exercising in a warm climate? (4 marks) (ii) What are the effects of dehydration on an athlete and how does this affect performance? (4 marks)

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Plyometrics

Plyometrics is a type of exercise training designed to produce fast, powerful movements, and improve the functions of the nervous system, generally for the purpose of improving performance in a specific sport. Plyometric movements, in which a muscle is loaded and then contracted in rapid sequence, use the strength, elasticity and innervation of muscle and surrounding tissues to jump higher, run faster, throw farther, or hit harder, depending on the desired training goal. Plyometrics is used to increase the speed or force of muscular contractions, often with the goal of increasing the height of a jump.

For a muscle to cause movement, it must shorten; this is known as a concentric contraction. There is a maximum amount of force with which a certain muscle can concentrically contract. However, if the muscle is lengthened while loaded (eccentric contraction) just prior to the contraction, it will produce greater force through the storage of elastic energy. This effect requires that the transition time between eccentric contraction and concentric contraction be very short Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): This is a form of stretching which aims to improve joint mobility. A simple form of this is outlined below:

Work the stretch slowly with the aid of a partner (Passive stretch) to the limit of its range.

Hold the stretch for 6-10 seconds- Isometric contraction (held)

The muscle starts to relax due to the effects of Golgi Tendon Organ Stimulation

The coach/ partner can now move the stretch beyond its previous limit. With continued practice of PNF, the athlete may be able to increase the mobility of a joint. It should however be noted that pain is only the body’s way to say that damage is occurring.

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ALTITUDE TRAINING At Altitude the Partial Pressure of Oxygen (PO2) is lower than it is at sea level, therefore less O2 is available to the athlete. As a result the athlete’s body adapts in the following ways:

Red blood cell concentration increases

Muscle Myoglobin levels increase

Increase in capillarisation

Ventilation rate increases The benefit for the athlete lays in his/ her return to sea level. As PO2 is higher than at altitude and red blood cell count etc is also higher as a result of the altitude training, the athlete has the capability to perform aerobic exercise at a higher intensity without producing lactic acid as quickly. The body is now able to utilise O2 better than it did previously.

N.B. It is suggested that 3-4 weeks of altitude training is required with 7 days re-acclimatisation at sea level. Altitude training does not aid in anaerobic work-100m

Blood Doping

The practice of blood doping involved athletes taking a certain amount of blood out of their systems, and then, later, when their bodies had made up for the blood taken out, injected back into their systems after the blood being kept in a refrigerated state in the meantime. This practice would increase red blood cell count allowing blood doping to improve performance in sports requiring high levels of aerobic activity. It was a dangerous practice though and risks of infection and heart trouble were relatively high, as well as very inconvenient having to keep the blood stored in a fridge. In the modern era blood doping has largely been replaced by the use of the drug Erythropoietin (EPO) which we will discuss later in the syllabus.

5. Exam Style Question: For an elite performer, comment on the Physiological effects of a period of training whilst at altitude, and on overall performance at altitude and on return to sea level. (5 marks)

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Periodisation This is the process of structuring a training year into periods. The three common periods used are:

Competition– or ‘season’. This is the part of the year when the

athlete will be looking to peak. Training will be designed to optimise performance through maintenance of fitness levels or slight gains.

Transition- or rest. This period usually involves prolonged rest. The

athlete will allow the body to recuperate but may do some light training to maintain fitness.

Preparation- or Pre-season. During this period, the athlete will work

on intense Cardio-vascular work before specialising on the routines required.

Macro Cycle Long terms plan, basically the full programme of training over year/two year Meso Cycle Medium term cycle, periods of 2-8 months perhaps Micro Cycle Short term plans, day or week training programmes

Macro = the full

programme Meso = one

section/block of

work

Micro =

individual

training session

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Periodisation

First, a solid training base is needed, which will include both general strength and endurance training. For a runner this might involve hill running, long interval training or circuit training with weights.

After this foundation has been laid, the runner can develop more specific skills and training sessions will begin more intense, focusing on a pace more closely related to that required in competition.

In order to prepare for competition the runner will need to taper their training. Here, the quantity of training may be reduced to enable the body to recoup maximum energy store prior to competition, and, more race-specific training, such as sprint starts for a sprinter, will be the norm. Also the athlete will prepare psychologically through techniques such as mental practice. This should enable the athlete to peak for their most important race in the season and this would normally last between one and three weeks.

The final phase is arguably the most important – the transition period. This is essentially a period of active rest, where the athlete can escape the stresses and strains of training and competition and prepare themselves for the following season.

Playing season - maintenance of acquired fitness levels

Anaerobic endurance – harder Intervals, repetition sprints etc. Weights – general strength and power.

Bounding – power Some aerobic work

High intensity, low volume Aerobic emphasis – steady runs

Some aerobic work – intervals and sprints Mixed aerobic/anaerobic work – Fartlek Weights and circuits – muscular endurance

Easy Bounding – power Build up to high volume, low intensity

Period of ‘active rest’ Light aerobic exercise – jogging, swimming perhaps twice weekly

PHASE 3

(7-8 Months)

PHASE 2

(6 Weeks)

PHASE 1

(6 – 8 Weeks)

PHASE 4

(1 Months)

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Food is of course the basic source of energy for the body. The three main energy providing nutrients are:

1. CARBOHYDRATES- which get stored as Glycogen in the muscles and liver

2. FATS- which are stored as Triglycerides and are broken down to free fatty acids and provide energy

3. PROTEINS- which can be used for energy when converted to Glucose.

CARBOHYDRATES:

Carbohydrate rich foods include Pasta, rice and potatoes

A balanced diet will contain 60-75% carbohydrate

The main purpose of Carbohydrate is to store and produce energy

Carbohydrate is usually stored as Glycogen (chains of Glucose molecules) in the muscles and liver

When energy is required, Glycogen is broken down into Glucose for energy production

The beauty of carbohydrate is that it is stored as Glycogen and can be broken down for energy with or without oxygen (aerobically or anaerobically)

If oxygen is not present, the series of reactions sees pyruvic acid being converted to Lactic Acid

If it is present the pyruvic continues to the Krebs Cycle. Most athletes recognise the value of a high carbohydrate intake and the energy it can provide. In order to try and maximise their stores, many athletes follow the process of Carbohydrate loading or Glycogen loading. It is believed that if the body is starved of carbohydrate, when it is replenished it will store more than normal, thus athletes follow this:

The athlete should eat very little carbohydrate for three days

The next day or so, the athlete should exercise hard to fully deplete their Glycogen stores

The athlete should then undertake very light exercise and eat lots of Carbohydrate

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FAT: Fat is also a potential source of energy for the body. If it is to be used for energy production, the Triglyceride (what it is stored as) must be broken down to free fatty acids. The transport of the free fatty acids to the muscle is very slow and requires the presence of oxygen, so the body prefers to use Carbohydrate (Glycogen).

Fats can be used for energy production

They require oxygen to be present so can only be used in events where oxygen available equals energy demand- e.g. jogging

In a marathon the body will use a mixture of fats and carbohydrates. If the athlete is able to provide a plentiful supply of oxygen to the working muscles, the body can use fats as well as carbohydrates quite quickly. This will prevent ‘over-use’ of carbohydrates. If the athlete runs out of Glycogen (hitting the wall) the body finds it extremely difficult to use fats alone.

PROTEIN:

Protein typically provides energy for muscle growth and repair.

It is usually used as an energy source when Glycogen levels become low.

It makes much more sense to keep Glycogen levels high!! Food Fuels/ Time % Fuels used PC Glycogen fat & Glycogen 10 seconds 20 mins 35 mins

Exercise Intensity Exercise Duration Fuel Used

maximal sprint

short

carbohydrate

low to moderate

moderate up to 2 hours e.g. jogging

carbohydrate and fat equally

severe

prolonged e.g. cycling

less carbohydrate more fat

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Fat requires oxygen if it is to be used for energy

Therefore as exercise increases, there is less chance that fat will be used as the reliance on carbohydrates increases.

High intensity, short duration activities like sprinting will predominantly use carbohydrates

Low intensity, long duration exercise will use fat and carbohydrates

Appropriate training can increase the body’s ability to provide O2 to the working muscles and therefore increase the ability to use fats as an energy source.

TEMPERATURE AND WATER REGULATION DURING EXERCISE:

Body temperature reflects the balance between heat production and heat loss. All body tissues produce heat, those that are the most active metabolically produce the most heat.

At Rest: Liver, heart and brain produce most heat. Muscles 20-30% of total.

During Exercise: Muscles produce 30-40 times rest of body put together.

Body temperature under normal conditions is in narrow range of 36.1-37.8 °C. This rarely varies by more than 1°C throughout the day. Blood is the major player in the conservation and loss of heat. When too hot, the body flushes the capillaries in the skin with blood. When too cold, blood is restricted to internal organs. Mechanisms of Heat Exchange The body uses four mechanisms of heat transfer:

1. Radiation

2. Conduction

3. Convection

4. Evaporation

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RADIATION involves an object being warmer than its environment and therefore giving off heat- e.g. a radiator. The body can do this but also gain heat through radiation-e.g. sunbathing CONDUCTION is the transfer of heat between two touching objects. CONVECTION is when the body shell transfers heat to the surrounding air. Together, conduction and convection account for 15% to 20% of heat loss to the environment. These processes are enhanced by anything that moves air more rapidly across the body surface, such as wind or a fan.

EVAPORATION is when water molecules absorb heat from the environment and become energetic enough to escape as gas. Because water absorbs a great deal of heat before vaporising, its evaporation from body surfaces removes large amounts of body heat.

Evaporative heat loss becomes an active process when body temperature rises and sweating provides increased amounts of water for vaporisation. Intense exercise can thrust body temperature upward as much as 2-3°C. During vigorous muscular activity, when sweating is profuse, 1-2 L/hour of perspiration can be produced and evaporated, causing 2000 kcal of heat to be removed from the body each hour.

Role of the Hypothalamus in Heat Regulation

The hypothalamus is the major integrating centre for thermoregulation and it receives temperature information

Much like a thermostat, the hypothalamus responds to this input by initiating the appropriate heat promoting or heat-loss reflex mechanisms. Heat-Promoting Mechanisms

Vasoconstriction of blood vessels

Increase in metabolic rate

Shivering

Behaviour modification (posture, activity, clothing)

Heat Loss Mechanisms

Vasodilation of blood vessels

Increased sweating

Behaviour modification (clothing, shade)

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Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)

In one breath, you normally breathe in more molecules of oxygen than you breathe out molecules of carbon dioxide. The ratio between these CO2 / %O2 is the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participant is nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system

RER = VCO2/VO2

During rest, the respiratory exchange ratio usually equals the respiratory quotient (RQ) Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide released to the volume of oxygen consumed by a body tissue or an organism in a given period. The RQ can be used to determine which foods are being used as an energy source. During aerobic respiration, respiration of fat gives an RQ of 0.7; respiration of protein gives an RQ of 0.9; and respiration of carbohydrate gives an RQ of 1.0. An RQ of more than 1.0 indicates that anaerobic respiration is taking place Lactate Sampling Lactate sampling is used not only to determine your lactate threshold but also the correct intensity from recovery to intense interval training. It can be used to accurately determine exercise intensity zones. It can also be used to see if the current training is having the desired effect.

At the of your Lactate Threshold fatigue onset is rapid, but efforts just below the LT can be sustained for hours by well trained athletes.

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Sports Injuries The body's reaction to an injury In many instances, no matter how small the injury, tissues will have either been stretched or an impact received causing blood vessels to be torn or damaged. Blood will flow out until the vessels are restricted (vasoconstriction), so preventing further blood leaking into the tissues. It is important to stop bleeding into tissues as the blood will increase inflammation, and must be cleared from the tissues before the healing process can properly commence. Cells starved of nourishment from the blood due to injury will soon die. These dying cells stimulate the release of histamine causing the blood vessels to dilate, thereby bringing increased blood supply and extra nutrients to help repair and rebuild the damaged tissues. During this phase of increased but slower and more viscous blood supply, the capillary walls become much more permeable and quantities of protein and inflammatory substances are pushed into the area causing swelling. Oxygen Tents Sleeping in a sealed low-oxygen tent to speeds up injury recovery time. Known as a hypoxic tent, it simulates the effect of high altitude to help maintain fitness while his injury heals. Muscles get used to using less oxygen and creating more RBC’s. Hyperbaric Chambers Hyperbaric chambers provide an oxygen rich environment that assist in the recovery process. RBC’s are fully saturated with oxygen providing muscles with energy and enabling recovery. Ice Baths Ice baths have become popular in contact sports like rugby and also with endurance athletes. For contact sports whole body ice baths can be considered and for sports that predominantly stress the legs, such as football, hockey, running etc. immersion of the lower limbs only can be considered. In simple terms, it's about helping the muscles, tendons, bones, nerves and all the different tissues used in sport recover from their workout.

When you get into an ice bath for five to 10 minutes, the icy cold water causes your blood vessels to tighten and drains the blood out of your legs. After 10 minutes your legs feel cold and numb. So when you get out of the bath, your legs fill up with 'new' blood that invigorates his muscles with oxygen to help the cells function better. At the same time, the more blood coming into your legs will have to leave as well, draining away and at the same time taking with it the lactic acid that has built up from the competition.

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Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness DOMS Muscle soreness that occurs some 24 to 48 hours after intense exercise usually involves eccentric contractions NOT Lactic Acid. The soreness can be an indication of potential muscle adaptation to follow, but if it persists or is debilitating then it could indicate over training or large muscular tissue damage. A theory recently developed states that DOMS is caused by the breakdown of muscular fibres. This is particularly apparent in Strength/Resistance programs. The breakdown occurs due to stress, and allows the muscles to grow stronger and larger, as shown through hypertrophy. Exercises that involve many eccentric contractions, such as downhill running, will result in the most severe DOMS. This has been shown to be the result of more muscle cell damage than is seen with typical concentric contractions, in which a muscle successfully shortens during contraction against a load. An appropriate warm up and cool down may help to reduce DOMS.

6a. Exam Style Question: Explain how the use of ice bath can help to reduce the ‘delayed onset of muscle soreness’ (DOMS) (4 marks)

6b. Exam Style Question: Elite swimmers follow structured training programmes to develop exceptional levels of fitness. Outline the relationship between ‘VO2 max’ and ‘lactate threshold’. (3 marks) Explain how a swimmer would use ‘periodisation’ to prepare for competitions (4 marks)

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The understanding of Biomechanical principles is of the highest importance in studying Sport and PE at Advanced level, but it should be kept simple. SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

SPEED: Speed is a scalar quantity; it is measured on a scale of 0-whatever, but does not take into account the direction a body is moving. e.g. a runner may run at 10 miles per hour but the direction is not known. SPEED is measured as DISTANCE TRAVELLED TIME When considering motion at an advanced level it is better to use a mixture of speed and direction, thus a vector quality. Velocity is a vector quantity. Therefore, a vector quantity has both size and direction. e.g. A sprinter may well run at 10mph but his/her direction is in the path of start to finish. Therefore his/ her velocity is 10mph from start to finish VELOCITY is measured as DISPLACEMENT TIME e.g. Displacement (distance in a straight line) = 3km START PATHWAY OF RUNNER

FINISH

Distance run= 10km

Time taken = 1 hr

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This example shows that a runner has run 10km in 1 hour. However, to calculate his/her velocity we must know the displacement- how far in a straight line they have been moved- in this case –3km. Therefore velocity equals

Displacement 3km = 3kmph from start to finish Time 1hr This shows that for every hour, this runner was displaced 3 km (as they were!!) As velocity increases or decreases (as is often the case in athletics) this is known as acceleration or deceleration

Acceleration is defined as a change in velocity per second

Acceleration = change in velocity Time taken

Acceleration is the change in velocity per second so it is measured in metres per second per second e.g. If a runner increases his/her speed from 7 metres per second to 9 metres per second in 2 seconds-

Change in velocity = 9m/s -7m/s = 2m/s

Time taken for the change = 2seconds

Acceleration is 2m/s in 2 seconds, therefore 1 m/s in 1 second

Therefore acceleration is 1m/s/s

Vectors and scalars Distance and speed can be described in terms of magnitude (amount) and are known as scalars. Displacement, velocity and acceleration require magnitude and direction and are known as vectors.

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Force represents ‘push’ or ‘pull’.

When a body/ object is at rest, if a large enough force is exerted upon it will move. Thus its Inertia is overcome.

Inertia refers to the resistance a body/ object has to change its state of motion- e.g a large rock in a field will have high inertia as it difficult to change its current state of motion-i.e. rest.

State of motion can be not moving or moving- it is what an object/ body is doing at that time.

A force which is large enough will tend to overcome an object/ bodies state of motion

LAW ONE- Newton’s First Law of Motion The Law of Inertia-“ every body continues in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a force”

Basically, an object/ body at rest or in motion will continue to be in rest or in that state of motion unless a big enough force is applied to change it. This law applies to objects at rest or moving in a straight line (KNOWN AS Linear Motion)

E.g. a golf ball will remain on a tee (theoretically forever) until a force is applied to move it

LAW TWO- Newton’s Second Law of Motion The Law of Acceleration- “the acceleration of a body is proportional to the force causing it, and the acceleration takes place in the direction in which that force acts” This can be summarised by the equation:

Force= mass x acceleration or F=ma

Basically this means that a moving object will change its pathway when a force acts upon it in proportion to the direction and amount of force applied.

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e.g. Direction football is moving

initially Football now moves in this direction at a velocity proportional to the force applied The ball has been hit hard enough in the direction of the to cause it to move in that direction.

A A passes to B

B C B wants to get the ball to C

A

B D

C i.e. The ball was moving as much this way as it was that way. The result is plus equals

Point of

impact

A passes to B, the ball is moving in the direction of B

and would continue past B unless B applies a force.

B applies an equal force in the direction of D

The two forces combined, of equal strength result in the

ball going to C

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LAW THREE- Newton’s third Law of Motion The Law of Action/ Reaction: “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”

Basically this implies that if you exert a force onto something –e.g. a sprinter on his/her blocks, you will receive an equal force back in the opposite direction-i.e. from the blocks.

This can also be seen by a high jumper that exerts a force on the ground, resulting in an equal force back to propel them into flight.

Have I pushed hard enough?

.

As the athlete produces force into the blocks, so the blocks give an equal force back in the opposite direction.

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COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: The Coefficient of friction refers to the ease of movement between two surfaces.

A high coefficient of friction is seen for example between a Football boot and grass. The studs create friction allowing a good grip.

A low coefficient of friction could be seen between a toboggan and ice. The toboggan is designed to slide across the ice with little friction.

There are many examples in the world of sport of how athletes try to increase the coefficient of friction- e.g

Many Rugby players now wear gloves to increase their grip on the ball

Grips on rackets are now designed to stop slip

Athletes wear spikes on running tracks

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MOMENTUM: Momentum is the property possessed by a moving object. It is the amount of motion it possesses. It can be measured as Momentum = Mass x Velocity Thus, which of the two Rugby players would have more momentum??

1. 75kg player running 10 m/s 2. 125kg kg player running 10 m/s

Answer: Of course the heavier player (player 2) would have more momentum because: Player 1. Player 2. Momentum = mass x velocity Momentum = mass x velocity 75 x 10 125 x 10 750 kg m/s 1250 kg m/s It makes sense, for example that it would take much more to stop a large moving object moving at the same speed as a small moving object.

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IMPULSE: Impulse is the principle of applying a force over the correct amount of time so as to create optimum momentum. It therefore follows that any increase in the amount of force applied or in the time that the force is applied for, will increase the resulting momentum. e.g.’s – (to help you understand!)

In tennis, if the player wants to hit a hard shot back across the net they will use a follow through so that the force applied on impact lasts as long as possible, creating a large change in momentum in the opposite direction

If the same tennis player wants to ‘kill’ the ball over the net they will not follow through.

In catching a fast moving ball, the catcher should cushion the ball, moving their hands in the direction of the balls flight so as to stop the ball gradually and so it doesn’t just bounce off their hand.

Impulse can be demonstrated in graphical format. 1. 2. 3.

In these graphs, the first curve (down) shows

the amount of force/ time applied to the

ground. The second curve (up) shows the

impulse of the body as a reaction from the

ground.

Thus, in the first graph, a quick force is

applied and a large reaction occurs - e.g. a

high jumper.

The second graph shows a large force applied

over time with little reaction from the ground-

e.g. a gymnast landing from a vault, cushions

their landing by bending their knees. The

contact with the ground is prolonged so there

is little reaction upwards.

The third graph shows the same reaction from

the ground as was given to the ground-e.g.

jogging.

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AIR RESISTANCE: Air resistance affects many sporting performances and can be easily seen when implements are thrown. Air resistance will affect the PARABOLIC FLIGHT PATH of an object- the shape it makes when it travels through the air. Take a shuttlecock.

Flight is determined by the ratio between weight and air resistance. Air resistance is determined by the size, shape and speed of an object. So if the shuttle is hit hard it will maintain its flight path until it slows down so much that weight becomes the determining factor. This can be seen when a shuttle is played high. It keeps going high until it slows, then the weight in the cork causes it to drop down quickly. Depending on the amount of force placed on a shuttle, its parabolic flight path will change. This can be seen when serving.

1. 2.

WEIGHT

AIR RESISTANCE

DIRECTION

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In picture one, the shuttle has been hit high, with force. The fast moving shuttle encounters air resistance. As it slows it drops quickly. In picture two, a soft short serve has been played, with little speed and therefore drops immediately. The slow moving shuttle has little air resistance.

A general rule is that slow moving objects generally do not suffer from air resistance. This can be seen if you stick your hand out of the window of a slow moving car (little air resistance on your hand), if you do the same out of a fast moving car what happens????

When an object is projected through the air there are three main factors that determine the distance it will travel.

The speed of release

The angle of release

The relative height of release

APPLYING NEWTONS LAWS OF LINEAR MOTION TO A PRACTICAL

EXAMPLE: LONG JUMP

LAW ONE: Law of Inertia. At the start of the long jump, the long jumper will remain standing there unless they apply a force to make them move. LAW TWO: Law of acceleration. The long jumper will move from the standing position in a fashion, which is proportional to the force applied, and the direction of the force. In this case the long jumper will apply a large force in the direction of the sand pit so as to quickly get into his run up. LAW THREE: Law of motion. As the jumper hits the board, they will receive an opposite and equal reaction force from the board which will propel them into the air.

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FLUID DYNAMICS: When a uniform object, such as a Football travels slowly through the air, the layers of air pass the ball smoothly, in what are known as smooth symmetrical flow lines or laminar flow. oncoming air flows past smoothly

However, many objects move at a very fast speed in sport. Laminar flow is not allowed in this instance because the air quite simply doesn’t have the time to flow smoothly past the object. The result is that air breaks away from the back of the object, causing fast moving eddies of air. This is turbulent flow.

oncoming air eddies of air

The fast moving air at the back of the ball creates low pressure. Pressure always moves from high to low, so in this instance Drag is created slowing the ball down. Direction of ball

HIGH pressure LOW pressure

In activities where speed is very important, the athlete must try to minimise the amount of drag caused. This is achieved through Streamlining. This can be seen in the picture below whereby the cyclists helmet and body position help to minimise drag.

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(Not on syllabus!) Experiments by Bernouilli have shown that when the airflow lines get closer together, the velocity of the object increases, as there is a resultant drop in pressure. This, of course has been most noticeable in the design of aeroplane wings, so that a pressure differential occurs i.e.

Shape of wing creates low pressure above

shape of wing creates high pressure below

AS PRESSURE MOVES FROM HIGH TO LOW PRESSURE THE

AEROPLANE WILL LIFT

This effect is also applied in sport to spinning objects. This is known as the Magnus effect. When an object – e.g Football spins, the air molecules in contact with the ball spin too Boundary layer. This is explained below: TOP SPIN Boundary layer of air spins

on-coming air on-coming air collides with boundary layer here Boundary layer of air spins

high pressure/ low velocity at point of collision

low pressure/ high velocity

Where the boundary layer collides with the on-coming air, high pressure is formed. As it is higher on this part of the ball than on the bottom the ball is forced downwards (high to low). This can be seen with top-spin as the ball appears to dip sharply.

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The Magus effect can be made stronger in Tennis balls by using ‘new balls’ as the fuzz traps more air.

Footballers will apply this principle when taking free kicks, trying to spin/ bend the ball round a wall.

In this instance Beckham would hit the ball slightly right of centre to create high pressure on the right of the ball.

As pressure moves from high to low, the ball would bend/ spin from right to left.

High pressure Low pressure

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Angular motion can take place in a clockwise or anti-clockwise motion. This motion will take place round an axis or fulcrum- in a similar action to the hands of a clock.

ANGULAR EQUILIBRIUM: Angular equilibrium occurs when the clockwise force is equal to the anti-clockwise force. This can be seen when a biceps curl is held as shown below.

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT: Just as you can measure how far something has moved in a straight line, you can also measure how far something has turned in an angular form. This is measured in degrees. One complete rotation is 360 degrees. ANGULAR VELOCITY: Angular velocity is basically how quickly something has rotated about its axis. This is usually measured in degrees per second. For example, if a somersault takes 2 seconds, the angular velocity would be 180 degrees per second.

Force clockwise Is the same as…….. Force anti clockwise The weight will be held in this position (Isometric contraction)

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ANGULAR ACCELERATION: This represents the rate of change in angular velocity. MOMENT OF INERTIA: Moment of Inertia can be summarised by saying it is how reluctant something is to turn about its axis. It is determined by: Moment of Inertia= the sum of (the body’s mass x the distance it is from the axis) This can be shown in diagrammatical form:

In this picture, the trampolinist is preparing for a somersault. Their body mass is located far away from their axis shown by a , so the Moment of Inertia is high

In this case the body is tucked. The mass of the body is close to the axis of rotation so the Moment of Inertia is low.

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LAW ONE: A rotating body will continue to turn about its axis at constant angular momentum unless a force is exerted upon it.

Basically, this means that something will continue to turn at the same speed unless something (a force) makes it speed up, slow down or stop.

It is also known as the law of conservation of angular momentum, where

Angular momentum = Moment of Inertia x angular velocity When looking at the diagram on Page 53, you can see how moment of Inertia and angular velocity are inversely proportional. This basically means as one goes up the other comes down. Because of this, angular momentum stays the same. LAW TWO: The angular acceleration of a body is proportional to the torque causing it and takes place in the direction in which the torque acts.

N.B. TORQUE is the turning effect. If something has a high torque, it has a high ability to turn.

Basically, this law means that if a body is rotating it will only change its rotation in proportion to the turning effect (torque) applied and the direction in which it is applied. Therefore, if someone is doing a somersault, they will only speed up if a torque is applied –e.g. by tucking up increases the force of the turn. This would speed the somersault up in the direction in which it was already turning.

To speed the rotation up in the same direction, the child could reduce his moment of Inertia, thus increasing angular velocity. He would do this by

tucking up, reducing the distance that his mass is from its axis.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGULAR VELOCITY, MOMENT OF INERTIA AND ANGULAR VELOCITY

STRAIGHT SLIGHT TUCK FULL TUCK STARTING TO STRAIGHT OPEN OUT LANDING

ANGULAR MOMENTUM

MOMENT OF INERTIA

ANGULAR VELOCITY

ANGULAR MOMENTUM STAYS THE SAME BECAUSE THE MOMENT OF

INERTIA AND ANGULAR VELOCITY ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL.

THIS MEANS THAT AS ONE GOES UP, THE OTHER COMES DOWN. WHEN

MOMENT OF INERTIA IS LOW (TUCKEDS UP FULLY) THE SPIN OR

ANGULAR VELOCITY IS HIGHER.

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LAW THREE: For every torque exerted by one body on another, there is an equal and opposite torque exerted by the second on the first.

This is basically like the action-reaction law in linear motion but it is now in an angular form. It can be summarised with the example below:

If this girl was to pike off of the diving board, bringing her arms down would cause the equal and opposite reaction of her legs coming up. WHEN REVISING BIOMECHANICS KEEP IT SIMPLE, REVISE THE BASICS –E.G. NEWTONS LAWS AND BECOME CONFIDENT IN YOUR USE OF THE VARIOUS TERMS.

When the arms of a trampolinist or a long jumper are brought down (rotate anti clockwise at the shoulder) the legs will automatically come up (rotate clockwise at the hip). The equal and opposite reaction (if arms go down legs come up) can be seen when on a trampoline (pike or seat drop) and also whilst going through the air in long jump.

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7a. Exam Style Question: Sketch a diagram to show the flight path of a shot from the moment of release to the moment prior to landing. Include vectors to represent the vertical and horizontal components of velocity of the shot at:

a. the point of release b. the highest point of flight c. a point immediately before landing

(4 marks)

7b. Exam Style Question: What is angular equilibrium (2 marks)

7c. Exam Style Question: Using ‘Newton’s First and Second Laws of Motion’, explain how the swimmer dives off the starting blocks. (4 marks)

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Various forms of research by sports psychologists have tried to allow us to understand, explain, predict and influence the behaviour and performance of sports people. TRAIT THEORISTS: Trait theorists concentrate on the person as opposed to the situation. Trait theorists believed that traits were consistent of an individual irrespective of the situation they found themselves in, and could be used to predict a person’s behaviour in a variety of situations. 1. EXTROVERT INTROVERT 2. STABLE NEUROTIC

Extroverts cope better with pain

Extroverts perform better in highly stressful

Extroverts cope better with distractions (audience)

Trait theorists received wide criticism for a variety of reasons-

simplistic view of a person’s personality

did not take the situation fully into account

did not recognise that individuals are involved in constructing their own personalities

questionnaires were unreliable as participants would lie, try to make themselves look good, may answer differently depending on their mood, time of day etc.

personality evaluation was seen as too complex to merely answer with yes/no.

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THE INTERACTIONIST APPROACH TO PERSONALITY Acknowledged that in trying to predict an individual’s behaviour, the person and the situation they found themselves in has to be considered. This view was seen as more individualistic and recognised that coaches need to have an in-depth knowledge of their student’s needs, personality, and levels of arousal in various situations etc. An example of this would be a golf coach trying to stop his pupil from ‘yipping’ puts, or from suffering from anxiety on big occasions. Is there a particular personality profile for top class performers??

Psychologists generally suggest that there is no specific personality type that distinguishes participants from non-participants.

There is no evidence to show that team players are always extroverts

Few personality differences have been found between male and female sports performers

Morgan (Iceberg profile) identified a relationship between athletic success and mental states, suggesting that top performers have greater positive mental health (vigour) than less successful athletes or the general population.

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Profile of Mood States (POMS) A psychological test designed to measure a person's affective states. These include tension, depression, anger, vigour, fatigue, and confusion. Unlike personality traits, mood states are thought to be specific to a given situation, although moods can also be measured for recent prolonged periods such as the past several months. POMS is a popular research tool among sport psychologists. Psychologists compared successful athletes with unsuccessful athletes and results showed a difference in their scores. Elite athletes produced an ‘Iceberg Profile’

High

Successful Athlete

Test Unsuccessful Athlete

Score

Low

Tension Depression Anger Vigour Fatigue Confusion

REMEMBER PERSONALITY TESTS SUCH AS EYSENCK AND CATTELLS ARE OFTEN UNRELIABLE AND DON’T OFTEN PROVIDE REASONS FOR A PERSON’S ACTIONS IN A SPECIFIC SITUATION.

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‘The need to achieve is a relatively stable disposition to strive for success’

‘A person who has high levels of achievement motivation would have a

tendency to strive for success, persist in the face of failure and experience pride in accomplishments’ (Gill)

Basically, Achievement motivation is how hard a person is motivated to achieve something, why is it that some people are highly motivated to achieve and others are not? ATKINSON SUGGESTED THAT A PERFORMERS ABILITY IS GREATLY AFFECTED BY THEIR:

NEED TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS (n.Ach)

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (n.Af) ALL SPORTS PERFORMERS ARE MOTIVATED BY A COMBINATION OF BOTH.

RESEARCH SHOWS THAT HIGH SPORTING ACHIEVERS TEND TO BE : HIGH n.Ach AND LOW n.Af , WHEREAS

LOW ACHIEVERS TEND TO BE LOW n.Ach AND HIGH n.Af

N.B. LOW ACHIEVERS DO NOT FEAR FAILURE BUT THEY FEAR THE NEGATIVE EVALUATION/ CONSEQUENSES ASSOCIATED WITH IT.

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ATKINSON’S MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Incentive Value and Probability Atkinson also felt that the incentive to succeed as well as the situation played a large part in how motivated an individual is to achieve. Thus he came up with the following equation: Prediction that Achievement Motivation is generated through a combination of personality and situational factors. View that Achievement Motivation as a personality trait which is activated by a situation. The situation comprises the probability of success and the incentive value of success.

Probability of success- The extent to which success is likely. If the task is found easy success is more likely to happen.

Incentive value of success The degree of pleasure experienced when success is achieved. The harder the task the greater the incentive value.

EG: Average player takes on a Professional, probability of success = LOW Incentive value of winning for the average player = HIGH (Satisfaction)

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE

NEED TO ACHIEVE

PERSONALITY FACTORS

INCENTIVE VALUE OF SUCCESS

PROBABILITY OF SUCCESS

SITUATIONAL FACTORS

RELATES TO

*COMPETITIVENESS

*PERSISTENCE

*STRIVING FOR PERFECTION

THE DRIVE TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS FOR ITS OWN SAKE

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

(ATKINSON)

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Current thinking:

Suggests that a performer’s goals to achieve can be task or outcome orientated:

•OUTCOME GOALS- to beat others, egotistical, to win etc. when unsuccessful, this type of performer attribute failure as a result of low ability and develop low expectations of future success. •TASK GOALS- comparison with them self, improve, better performance, effort. This type of performer focuses on effort and personal standards. An important point for your exam is that teachers and coaches should tend to set Task/ Performance goals as they tend to be more realistic than- ‘you must win’ (outcome).

A performer motivated to achieve: WILL •Look for challenges •have high standards •persist •enjoy evaluations •not be afraid of failure •be optimistic •be confident •be task-goal orientated •attribute success-effort and failure-lack of concentration

A performer motivated to avoid failure: WILL •Avoid challenge •dislike 50/50’s •give up easily •not like feedback •dislike evaluations •have no personal responsibility •attribute failure to internal factors-ability etc •be pessimistic •have low confidence •is outcome goal orientated

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FFaaccttoorrss iinn ::

Developing achievement motivation

•childhood experiences •social environment •cultural differences •significant others •emphasis on task/outcome goals •expectations •attributions conveyed by teacher/ performer

8. Exam Style Question Two players are asked to take part in a penalty shoot- out. One accepts and the other refuses. Explain in terms of achievement motivation the decision of each player. (4 marks)

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AROUSAL can be defined as a combination of physiological and psychological levels of activity experienced by a performer varying from deep sleep to intense excitement. It is “This is the energised state or the readiness for action that motivates us to behave in a particular way.” Arousal theories recognise the importance of balancing the physiological and psychological activity levels so as to perform appropriately in sport. For example, a Power Lifter will need to be in a very different physiological and psychological state than an Archer. The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is part of the spinal cord’s link with the brain stem and is responsible for maintaining the general level of arousal in the body. HULL’S DRIVE THEORY

performance level

arousal level

Hull suggested that drive (to do something) is synonymous with arousal.

As Arousal increases, so does the potential performance level to go up.

This basically suggested that performance levels were related to the amount of drive (arousal) and the habit or amount of experience and learning an athlete had in that skill

Thus an experienced performer could perform well with drive (arousal) as they knew the skill

Whereas a novice with a high arousal level reverts to the response they have learned previously, which may be incorrect.

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THE INVERTED ‘U’ HYPOTHESIS

performance level

arousal level

CATASTROPHE THEORY 1.

performance level 2.

arousal level

OPTIMUM LEVEL

Performance levels increase as arousal increases to an Optimal point

If arousal continues to increase then performance level will drop/ deteriorate

This theory acknowledges the affects of ‘over-arousal’ and the detrimental effect it can have on performance

The optimal point of arousal varies depending on the skill that is being done. For a fine skill (sewing) arousal needed is low, but for a gross skill (Rugby tackle) arousal needed is high.

Catastrophe theory has some similarities to the Inverted U theory in that arousal has a positive effect on performance up to an optimal point.

However with this theory, the difference occurs when arousal levels continue past the optimal point. In certain highly competitive situations, over arousal can cause a catastrophe to the performance and if this continues (as shown at point 2 by the red arrow), performance can continue to drastically deteriorate.

As also shown at point 2, it is possible in some circumstances to control / reduce arousal levels through various ‘calming techniques’ allowing the performer top return to a better performance level. (see arrow )

N.B. To perform such a recovery is extremely difficult and requires a high level of mental toughness.

OPTIMUM LEVEL

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Peak Flow Experience Another term, the “flow experience” describes an optimal psychological state, one involving total observation in the task or activity. Some researchers have identified that the peak performance athletes deal more readily with their competitive mistakes, possessed higher levels of self-confidence, engaged in more positive self-talk, and were able to employ vivid mental imagery to their advantage. In general, when athletes’ energies are totally focused (e.g., utilising a disciplined concentration routine), they may begin to experience peak concentration and confidence that can lead to “flow.” It is in this state that lifetime peak performance in sports often occurs. Therefore, the challenge for athletes and coaches is to develop the necessary psychological skills and strategies within an individualised game plan, which will give athletes the opportunity to perform closest to their optimal level of performance on any given day. Peak concentration and confidence that can lead to “flow.

• Peak flow occurs when somatic arousal has reached an appropriate threshold and cognitive arousal is low.

• Flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced perception of the demands of the situation and his / her ability to cope.

• There is a self confident belief that nothing can go wrong. During these rare moments in sport, the athlete assumes control over all internal and environmental variables and a time of great happiness and self-fulfilment is experienced

9. Exam Style Question Sometimes elite performers fail to replicate the level of performance demonstrated in training when competing in a major event. (i) Apart from drive theory, name two other theories of arousal. (3 marks) (ii) Describe how over arousal may affect a players performance (4 marks)

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Anxiety is a negative emotional state that a person feels as a result of the mental and Physiological effects of stress and arousal. It is usually associated with feelings such as worry, nervousness, apprehension etc. In relation to Sport, Anxiety is generally split into two main components: Cognitive and Somatic anxiety. COGNITIVE ANXIETY: is typified by the apprehension a sportsperson has about under-achievement. These negative expectations are often as a result of stress. This type of anxiety is a result of negative mental thoughts. It often causes poor concentration levels as images of failure remain at the forefront of one’s thoughts. This type of anxiety usually occurs before somatic anxiety Cognitive relates to negative thoughts SOMATIC ANXIETY: is generally caused as a result of a performers negative interpretation of their body’s reaction to stress. Increased sweating, clammy palms, ‘butterflies in the stomach’ etc can sometimes be construed as a negative thing and cause further worry/ anxiety. Some perceive these bodily responses as being natural- just part of doing something nerve wracking. Others find sweat etc as something to further worry about, not normal and a cause for concern. Somatic relates to negative thoughts about the body’s responses to stress

STATE AND TRAIT ANXIETY

State anxiety (A-State) refers to anxiety that is felt in a specific situation. Increased arousal that is felt in certain situations leads to increased anxiety. State anxiety can either be cognitive or somatic- e.g. In the last minute of a game, a defender remembering past poor performances in the final minutes may be very sweaty and therefore suffer from Somatic anxiety. They may also however think negative thoughts about the situation and suffer from Cognitive anxiety. Trait anxiety is a stable characteristic of an individual to become nervous. It is natural to that person, often inherited. A person with high levels of Trait anxiety (High A-Trait) is likely to react to a situation in a nervous manner. They are more likely to suffer from State anxiety. N.B. HIGH A-TRAIT TENDS TO LEAD TO HIGH A-STATE.

FATORS AFFECTING A-STATE

BEFORE COMPETITION DURING COMPETITION

Fear of failure Success/ failure

Fear of evaluation Reaction of others- team/ fans etc

Fear of competition/ injury / danger Weather/ environment

Lack of control due to opposition/ ref etc

Nature of task- contact etc

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TESTING ANXIETY Martens developed a 15-item scale to test the ‘competitive anxiety’ of individuals. This test of trait anxiety is a simple way to test how individuals respond to competition. It is carried out just before competing. It is known as the SCAT test (sport competition anxiety test).

The SCAT test is simple to administer & GIVEN BEFORE COMPETITION

Can be used with large groups

However, is open to bias as it is a self –report test

Does not take into account the situation-e.g Cup final e.g. question

Before I compete I am calm Hardly ever Sometimes Often

ANXIETY LEADING UP TO A MAJOR COMPETITION:

Somatic State anxiety (Physiological): would start off low and rise quickly a few hours before the event, then decrease during competition

Cognitive state anxiety (psychological): increase during the days before competition, but does not increase just before. During the competition, it will fluctuate due to success or failure

STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) The STAI is an instrument for measuring anxiety. It clearly differentiates between the temporary condition of “state anxiety” and the more general and long-standing quality of “trait anxiety”. The STAI has forty questions with a range of four possible responses to each.

Determines anxiety in a specific situation and as a general trait

Two twenty-item scales

For individual or group administration

Provides norms for clinical patients, high school and college students, and working adults

Efficiently scored

Can be completed in about ten minutes CSAI-2 (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory)

The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory or CSAI-2 takes into account the difference between A-State and A-Trait and distinguishes between cognitive and somatic anxiety.

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10. Exam Style Question: In the build up to a major competition performers may get anxious. What are the possible effects on performance when a performer enters a major competition with a high level of anxiety? Discuss the strategies and techniques the performer may use to manage anxiety in the build up to the competition. (14 marks)

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Stress is often used synonymously with anxiety. It is sometimes used instead of anxiety or alongside it. It is generally seen as “ a state of psychological tension produced by certain perceived physiological and/ or psychological pressures or forces acting on a performer within a certain environment or situation” (Wesson et al 2000) Studies have shown that although stress is usually regarded as a bad thing, certain top sports performers thrive upon stress inducing situations- i.e. pressure to succeed. Extreme sports people –e.g. Rock climbers, bungee jumpers thrive upon the need to feel that they are tested to the limit. They argue that the stress allows them to focus. The word for good stress is EUSTRESS.

THE FOUR BASIC STAGES OF STRESS

STAGE 1 Causes of stress: External or environmental demands or

pressures

Stress is said to be caused when there is a task set which

is perceived as being uncontrollable

STAGE 2 Person’s reactions: Physiological

effects within a person

If the person reacts with e.g sweat, their physiological

response can further the stress

STAGE 3 Psychological interpretation: Of

stage 1 and 2

If they perceive the situation and their physiological reaction as negative, stress will occur

STAGE 4 Actual behaviour and coping strategies to deal with them

The person may act stressed or may even find a way of coping

with it- see below

Performance CAUSES OF STRESS IN SPORT:

Competition

Frustration at ref, personal performance, opposition, team mates

A need to avoid failure

A win at all costs attitude

Fear of evaluation from peers

Parental pressure

Audience

Pressure games - e.g. Cup Final

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GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME The General Adaptation syndrome by Selye (1956) basically explains how a person’s body responds to stress. Selye identified three main stages:

ALARM REACTION STAGE: This stage is concerned with the Physiological changes to the body as a result of stress. It relates to the immediate reaction of ‘fight’ – to try and

resist or ‘flight’ to try to get away from the situation. The Sympathetic nervous system causes adrenaline, heart rate and blood pressure to rise.

RESISTANCE STAGE: If the level of stress continues, the body will try to resist the effects of the Sympathetic nervous system- thus heart rate etc tends to lower slightly.

EXHAUSTION/ COLLAPSE STAGE: If stress continues, the body’s physiological function can start to fail. Heart disease, ulcers and high blood pressure can occur and the body becomes unable to fight infection. In extreme circumstances, death can be the final

result!

Symptoms of stress

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIOURAL

Heart rate increase Worry Biting nails

Blood pressure increase Attentional narrowing Muscle twitching

Sweating Apprehension Screw up face

Pupil dilation Negative self talk Yawning

Headaches Feeling out of control Broken voice

Clammy palms Dazed look in eyes

Butterflies in stomach Irritability

Increased muscle tension

Trembling

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In trying to reduce levels, teachers and coaches should be aware of individual needs. The main methods of stress reduction are either: COGNITIVE- to do with thought processes, or SOMATIC- to do with actually doing something with the body-e.g. physical movements The key to reducing stress lies in control. If an individual feels in control of a situation they are less likely to feel stressed. Thus, teachers should look to understand their students, not pressurise them with too much competition, provide opportunities for success and use cognitive re-appraisal where appropriate (Changing the mind thoughts of an individual-e.g. you CAN do it….. or …. Don’t worry, it’s the taking part that counts)

Techniques

COGNITIVE SOMATIC

MENTAL REHEARSAL/ imagery- visualising the perfect performance, or imagining yourself to be in a calm place.

BIOFEEDBACK- performers are taught to control muscular tension by being linked to a machine that amplifies nervous muscular action. The performer then tries to apply relaxation techniques to lower the recorded tension levels

SELF- TALK- speaking to yourself in a positive (positive self-talk) or negative (negative self talk) so as to change your thoughts on something

PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION- performer performs deep breathing coupled with tensing various muscles. He/ she then slowly releases the tension whilst still deep breathing

THOUGHT STOPPING - This trick is easy; whenever you have a thought you can do without, visualise a big, red STOP sign. Let that fade away with the unwelcome thought, and move on with what you were doing

DEEP BREATHING- controlled regular deep breaths

Other methods can include:

Setting appropriate realistic goals

Provide opportunities for success

Attribute failure to external, unstable factors

Attribution re-training

Positive feedback

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ATTENTIONAL NARROWING

Many sports people sometimes appear unable to process the relevant information available to them in their sport. This is particularly noticeable in Lower Ability sports people (Cognitive learners). This inability to recognise relevant ‘cues’ (e.g. a player making a run in an attempt to receive the ball in Football) has often been explained by Cue Utilisation Theory, or Perceptual Narrowing. The following stages apply:

As arousal increases a performer tries to focus on the cues/ signals/ signs that are most relevant to what they are doing (this is cue utilisation)

Attention is focused or narrowed on certain things (perceptual narrowing)

As arousal continues to increase so does perceptual narrowing

The performer may then miss some important cues

Performance levels may decrease

If this continues to an extreme state, whereby the performer loses his/her ability to concentrate or make rational decisions, this is known as ‘blind panic’ (similar to the expression ‘ running round like a headless chicken’)

AROUSAL AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO PERFORMANCE

THE ACTIVITY Gross (large muscle) and simple skills require high arousal levels-e.g. Running

Fine/ Complex skills require low arousal levels – e.g. darts

THE LEVEL OF EXPERTISE Highly skilled performers tend to need higher levels of arousal

THE PERFORMERS PERSONALITY

Generally speaking, extroverts need higher levels of arousal than introverts

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The setting of goals can be a very powerful tool in helping individuals to overcome stress. When goals are realistic and the performer feels in control, it can help them deal with their anxieties or worries. If the goals are not realistic, the opposite can happen and the performer can suffer a major lapse in self- belief. Goals can set a standard for success and failure, but when used appropriately, they can provide direction and enhance motivation. Goals can:

Increase effort level

Ensure effort is sustained

Increase focus to task Goals should be: Specific Measurable Accepted Realistic Time Phased Exciting Recorded TYPES OF GOALS: OUTCOME GOALS- Generally focus on the end product –e.g. Winning/ losing/ result etc. People who continually compare themselves to their peers are generally seen as Outcome orientated-e.g. must win attitude. PERFORMANCE GOALS- Focus more on the standard of performance compared with the previous. This could be improving a personal best or improving their ability to perform a task. Performance goals do not pressurise individuals into social comparison and can often allow them to enjoy their sport more- without fear of losing and its consequences.

Performers must agree with the goals set

They should be difficult but realistic

They must be recorded

Achievement strategies should be formulated, e.g. a training plan to improve a personal best

Support should be provided

Goals should be re-evaluated

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An attitude is:

A subjective evaluation of someone/thing

Beliefs, emotional feelings POSITIVE ATTITUDE is seen as important to sports people as a positive attitude generally leads to participation, dedication and motivation. Components of attitude: COGNITIVE – What you know. Your beliefs/ ideas etc N.B. a positive attitude means that you know doing sport is beneficial to your health. AFFECTIVE – What you feel. Reasons for what you know. Emotional response. N.B. A positive attitude would be that you feel good about doing sport. You enjoy it. BEHAVIOURAL – What you do. Your behaviour or intentions to do something. N.B. a positive attitude would result in regular participation. A Negative Attitude can occur because of:

Fear of failure (N.af)

Believe you have low ability

Previous poor performances

Learned helplessness

Negative role models

Negative feedback

Attribute failure to internal factors-e.g. ability

Poor fitness level

Belief that task is difficult

Use of outcome goals

Personality INFLUENCES ON ATTITUDES:

Family and Peers

Educational experiences

Enjoyment of PE

Wanting to be accepted by peers

Achieving goals

Conforming to society norms (socialisation)

Thus, boys tend to perform ‘traditional’ boys sports- e.g. Rugby

Girls tend to play aesthetic games

Classical conditioning- being conditioned to perform in certain ways (they might not like it)

Operant conditioning- may have been positively reinforced. Therefore may enjoy it and have a positive attitude.

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ATTITUDES CAN PREDICT BEHAVIOUR It can be argued that Attitude can predict behaviour. Attitudes can be used if they are strong enough to allow a greater prediction of behaviour. Examples of specific behaviours that can affect attitudes:

POSITIVE NEGATIVE

GOOD PERFORMANCES

SELECTION FOR TEAMS/ REPRESENTATIVE HONOURS

RESPONSIBILITY- E.G. CAPTAIN

ACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS

BAD PERFORMANCE

LOSING YOUR PLACE IN THE TEAM

BAD DECISIONS FROM OFFICIALS

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

INDIVIDUALS WHO POSSESS A POSITIVE ATTITUDE: WILL tend to participate regularly in sport. They would tend to believe that it has a benefit to them, feel that they enjoy it, and continue to play it. A negative attitude can of course cause a lesser involvement in sport. Positive and negative attitudes generally evolve as a result of experiences and influences-e.g. positive and negative role models. HOW TO CHANGE ATTITUDES

All three components of attitude can be changed. KNOWLEDGE: through education, the media etc FEELING: through enjoyment, success, feedback BEHAVIOUR: role models, positive reinforcement, criticism. How to change a team’s attitude:

Reward success

Provide encouragement for all individuals

Agree on targets (SMART GOALS)

Give everyone a role within the team How to change an individual’s negative attitude to Sport:

Stress the health benefits

Avoid comparison with better others

Give praise for success

Provide opportunities for success

Make it an enjoyable experience

Use of positive role models

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COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FESTINGER)

Cognitive dissonance is a theory that can be used to explain how attitudes can be changed.

The theory states that humans can be mentally dissonant or consonant. Consonance is a mental balance where humans feel content and happy in their mind. Dissonance is the opposite; it can be caused by change, worry or something that seems unreasonable- e.g. a new belief.

When people experience a conflict of attitudes- dissonance (perhaps due to being presented with a new attitude) they will react in one of two ways:

1. Change one of the attitudes, or 2. Add an extra belief in to explain the conflict.

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION

You can try to change a performers attitude through persuasive communication-e.g. ‘ you can do it!’

The message must be clear and acceptable (believable) When persuading someone to change their attitude the following variables are important: WHO THE MESSAGE IS FROM: Their status, credibility, trustworthiness etc WHAT THE MESSAGE IS: is it accurate, easily understood, appealing, amount of emotion put into it TO WHOM THE PERSUASION IS FROM: Their level of education, individual differences (gender, age etc) their understanding of the topic in question etc WHERE THE PERSUASION OCCURS: Formal/ informal, real life experience etc

11. Exam Style Question: (i) Name and explain the components of attitude, giving an example of how a tennis player would display a positive ‘attitude’. (3 marks) (ii) Name a ‘cognitive stress management technique’ and describe how a player could use this technique to control their arousal level (3 marks)

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STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE A PERFORMERS ATTITUDE TO A SPORTING ACTIVITY: Reward success Positive reinforcement

Attribute failure to

External factors Use positive role models

Criticise negative influences Give the performer Make it enjoyable responsibility

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE A PERFORMERS ATTITUDE TO A

SPORTING ACTIVITY

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The word aggression is sometimes used wrongly when related to sport. When a coach for example, demands aggression to ‘win a ball’ it does not necessarily satisfy the criteria for something to actually be aggressive. Aggression is often confused with assertiveness. AGGRESSION is defined by Baron (1977) as being “any form of behaviour toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” For the sake of the exam, you should understand that AGGRESSION is:

An act of hostility

Involves physical or verbal actions/ behaviour outside of the rules of the sport

Is deliberate (this can be difficult to judge)

Has the intention to harm (physically or mentally) Anger is not aggression. Aggression is usually the action that follows anger. In trying to clarify what is actually aggression and what is not, several theorists identified two types of aggression:

1. HOSTILE / REACTIVE AGGRESSION: with the intention solely of causing pain, injury or harm

2. INSTRUMENTAL/ CHANNELLED AGGRESSION: with the intention to achieve a non-aggressive goal –e.g. praise, money, victory etc

It would seem that Channelled aggression is more acceptable, but it also involves intent to harm, albeit with a non-aggressive goal at the end. To solve the confusion, the word Assertive is used: ASSERTIVE behaviour is seen as forceful but acceptable behaviour.

It is goal directed

Uses legitimate verbal or physical force for that sport (it may be seen as unacceptable outside of that sport)

There is no intention to harm or injure

It does not (or appear to) be outside of the rules of that sport –e.g. strong tackle in Football

The biggest problem is in the official’s interpretation: is it aggressive or assertive?

A boxer punches his opponent (assertive)

A Footballer verbally abuses the referee (aggressive)

A Rugby player intentionally tackles high (aggressive)

A Hockey player catches the ankles of his/ her opponent with their stick (aggressive)

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There is clearly a ‘grey area’ that depends on how someone (usually the official) interprets the action. This is demonstrated below: ASSERTION grey AGGRESSION area of Ambiguity

Key Revision points

Aggression refers to active behaviour. Merely wishing harm on someone is not aggressive.

Aggressive behaviour is intentional

Aggression is usually physical but it can be verbal if mental harm is inflicted on another

Aggression refers to harm to another human, not to an implement - e.g. golf club!

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The main theories relating to aggression are:

Instinct theories

Frustration- aggression (drive) theories

Social learning theories

Revised frustration/ aggression theory

INSTINCT THEORY Instinct theory, suggests that humans are naturally aggressive. As evolution has developed, human nature has made aggression a natural, innate state in the ‘fight for survival’. It is believed that all humans build up a natural aggression that must be released in some way.

If aggression is released in a way that is seen as appropriate this is known as CATHARSIS.

Sport is seen as an appropriate way to release aggression DRIVE THEORY: FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS The main part of this theory suggests that aggression results from frustration (at someone/thing). This frustration arises from a person’s goal being blocked in some way-e.g. an opponent continually having the better of you- and thus, the person is driven to aggressive tendencies to stop the source of his/ her frustration.

The person has a drive to achieve a goal (to win)

There is an obstacle in the way of achieving that goal (continually being fouled)

Aggression is the result Frustration occurs

Unsuccessful aggression tends If ‘successful with aggression, to lead to more frustration frustration may lower

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Criticisms of the early theory

Not all frustration leads to aggression

Aggression may just be a learned response, not as a result of frustration

Individual and situational circumstances are not taken into account

An increase in arousal and anger will only lead to aggression if that is the learned response (socially re-enforced)

The Frustration aggression model was then revised:

Frustration at failure, or being unsuccessful, or losing etc

Arousal levels increase

IF it has previously been socially learnt/ re-enforced in the past- e.g. by coach

Then, aggression will occur

It is often the case that a sportsperson will act in an aggressive manner if they feel it is the right thing to do in the minds of their coach, team mates etc

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION

Social Learning theory basically argues that aggression is a learnt process. Bandura for example, sees aggression as a learned response, not as a natural instinct. Vicarious (copying) learning of aggressive behaviour tends to occur very early in a sports performers development. This is particularly the case when the reward as a result of their aggression seems to outweigh the possible punishment that may occur-e.g. getting sent off. Imitation depends upon observers - attention - retention - motor reproduction - motivation response (Bandura’s Model)

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POSSIBLE STRATEGIES TO CONTROL OR LIMIT AGGRESSION IN SPORT

Reduce the emphasis on winning

Increase the profile of positive role models

Educate players/ coaches on the difference between assertive and aggressive behaviour

Stress management techniques – as shown on Page 13

Reward appropriate behaviour

Emphasise the bad publicity that surrounds negative, aggressive role models

Punishment for bad behaviour

Set non-aggressive goals

Remove the player from the situation when aggressive

12. Exam Style Question: In order to achieve optimal performance, sports performers need to control certain psychological factors such as aggression. (i) Discuss the social learning theory of aggression. (4 marks) (ii) What can a referee do to control aggression during a major sporting competition? (4 marks)

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Self-efficacy is a generally regarded as situation specific confidence – i.e. a person’s level of confidence in a specific situation.

Some performers are self –efficific (confident) in some situations but not in others.

BANDURA’S SELF EFFICACY THEORY Bandura believed that a person’s self-efficacy was affected by four key stages:

PRIOR SUCCESS- successes from the past would make you confident in that situation in the present

VICARIOUS PROCESSES- the ability to copy or imitate something perceived as worthwhile would make the person confident in that situation

VERBAL PERSUASION- if they have received positive feedback in that situation

PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNS- their ability to control arousal/ anxiety in that situation

Research has shown that a performer is more likely to have high self-efficacy if they perceive the situation as being realistic to them. Thus, Bandura suggested that the level of a person’s self-efficacy will affect their:

CHOICE OF ACTIVITY- whether they do it or not

AMOUNT OF EFFORT APPLIED- if they believe the situation is realistic for them to succeed in they are more likely to apply effort

LEVEL OF PERSISTENCE- high self-efficacy in a situation will generally lead to a performer persisting in their efforts.

SELF-EFFICACY MAY GO DOWN IF:

Failure occurs

Negative feedback is given

The coach sets unrealistic goals- outcome goals such as ‘you must win’ rather than task goals such as ‘you need to try your hardest’

If reward praise is not given appropriately

STRATEGIES TO KEEP SELF-EFFICACY HIGH:

The coach must ensure that individual goals are set as well as team goals that are realistic

The coach must understand the individuals needs

Praise should be used appropriately

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Social facilitation is the tendency for people to be aroused into better performance on simple tasks (or tasks at which they are expert or that have become autonomous) when under the eye of others Complex tasks (or tasks at which people are not skilled), however, are often performed in an inferior manner in such situations. This effect is strongest among those who are most concerned about the opinions of others, and when the individual is being watched by someone who has a strong knowledge in that field. E.g. if you are being watched by a scout as a footballer Zajonc’s Drive Theory on Social Facilitation Drive Theory is an explanation of the audience effect. The audience effect notes that in some cases the presence of a passive audience will facilitate the better performance of a task; while in other cases the presence of an audience will inhibit the performance of a task. Drive Theory states that due to the unpredictable nature of people, a person performing a task rarely knows for certain what others are going to do in response. An individual's presence can cause us to be in a state of alert arousal. Increased arousal (stress) can therefore be seen as an instinctive reaction to social presence. This arousal creates a "drive" that causes us to enact the behaviours that form our dominant response for that particular situation. If the dominant response is "correct" (that is to say, if the task we are to perform is subjectively perceived as being easy), then the social pressure produces an improved performance. However, if the dominant response is "incorrect" (the task is difficult), then social presence produces an impaired performance.

Barons Distraction-Conflict Theory

The suggestion that when a person is performing a task the mere presence of others creates a conflict between concentrating on the task and concentrating on the other people. This conflict increases arousal, which leads to social facilitation.

Cottrell’s Evaluation Apprehension Theory Cottrell argued it is not the presence of others that causes arousal, but the apprehension of being evaluated by others – a form of social anxiety. If we are confident about our own ability then the awareness of being watched means we will perform well. If we are not confident about our own ability then we will worry about how others are evaluating us. The more expert the audience the more performance is impaired. E.g. performing in front of family may be done well but when performing in front of a panel of judges mistakes are likely to be made.

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The reasons given by a team/ individual for their success/ failure These reasons may affect emotions, behaviour, future participation, motivation, aspirations etc The four categories of ‘causal attributions’ are 1. Luck 2. Effort 3. Task difficulty 4. Ability.

Weiner (1972) proposed that achievement is related to attributions.

Internal External

Stable Attribution Skill, talent, ability Task difficulty

Unstable Attribution Effort, strategy, form Luck, officiating, opponent

INTERNAL/ STABLE- Lack of talent or ability EXTERNAL / STABLE- previous results were poor at venue of event/ task difficulty/ level of coaching or equivalent INTERNAL/ UNSTABLE- Lack of concentration/ effort/ practise (relating to the person themselves) EXTERNAL / UNSTABLE- Delayed in traffic/ bad luck/ false start/ stumble etc If a performance is repeated- e.g. a replay or rematch then,

Internal stable is very hard to change in a short period of time

External/ stable will remain the same if the venue is the same

Internal / Unstable could change due to more effort or training

External/ Unstable could vary slightly by – e.g. avoiding traffic jams, ensuring there is no false start etc...

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In summary:

Attributions are the reasons given by a performer for success or failure

Weiner believed that performers should attribute their successes and failures to certain things

In attributing their success or failure to certain things, performers can affect their psychological state and feelings about what they are doing/ will do.

Internal attributions are controlled by the performer- e.g. effort

External attributions are not controlled by the performer- e.g. luck

Stable attributions are unchanging- e.g. ability

Unstable attributions are changeable- e.g. effort Thus, FAILURE should be attributed to external, unstable reasons, out of the control of the performer, e.g. luck and SUCCESS should be attributed to internal, stable reasons, in the control of the performer, e.g. skill (This approach should be adopted by Successful Athletes)

THE LOCUS OF CONTROL Weiner added another dimension - CONTROL The Locus of Control has been shown to relate how much control a person suggests that they had in their attribution of success or failure i.e. Ability/ Effort – much control, Luck/ Opposition – very little control Such attributions relate to feelings of pride/shame A performer will be proud of their success if they feel it was down to them. A performer will feel shame/guilt if they feel failure was down to them.

ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING: Attribution Retraining is the process of a coach or teacher retraining a performer to attribute success to themselves and failure to others. They would:

Use 1-2-1 attention

Give task goals

Monitor the performers attributions

Ensure that success is attributed to Internal factors- e.g. ability and failure to external factors- e.g. luck

SELF-SERVING BIAS:

Self serving bias is when someone always attributes successful events or outcomes to themselves and failure to external factors-e.g. luck

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Self serving bias can be the result of a conscious decision to do this, or a defensive motive to protect the persons self-esteem/ image

13a. Exam Style Question: Explain the concept of ‘social facilitation’ and how it can affect performance. Outline the possible strategies which the performer and coach may use to limit any negative effects that may occur (14 marks)

13b. Exam Style Question: Discuss the effect that the presence of an audience may have upon the level of performance for a:

* Novice performer * Elite Performer

(4 marks)

13c. Exam Style Question: After a competition, games players may explain their success or failure using a variety of factors called attributions. Some attributions may be damaging to the player’s future performances through the development of learned helplessness. (i) What are the four main groups of attributions? (2 marks) (ii) What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and what strategies may a coach use to prevent this happening? (5 marks)

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Learned helplessness is:

An acquired psychological state

Relates to a performers belief that they have no control over the situation facing them

Failure will definitely be the outcome / inevitable

Can be global (to every situation) or specific (to one) Embarrassment Can be specific or general Feelings of

low ability Attribute (blame) failure on usually occurs as a result of bad

themselves previous experiences Causes of learned helplessness: Negative feedback previous bad experiences criticism Lack of success low self esteem

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNED

HELPLESSNESS

Causes of learned

helplessness

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STRATEGIES TO PREVENT THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

Give individual (one to one) attention

Avoid using outcome goals (-e.g. you must win) and promote performance/ task goals-e.g. better technique, effort

Attribute (blame) success to internal/ stable factors such as ability

Attribute (blame) failure to external/ unstable factors such as luck

Attribution retraining- encourage the previous two points

14. Exam Style Question: If a performer lacks self-efficacy, how could a coach help them to develop self-efficacy? Use examples to illustrate your answer. (5 marks)

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A group is defined as two or more people that interact with one another and share a common goal.

TUCKMAN’S FOUR STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION Tuckman suggested that a group goes through four main stages in its development. These are:

FORMING When the group meet and form together

STORMING There is tension in the group as various members manoeuvre for positions-e.g. Leader

NORMING The group starts to get on and forms ‘norms’ – like rules, behaviour etc

PERFORMING The group is now fully settled and performs together as a unit

All of these stages take time to develop

There is no time scale for the four stages

New players/ players leaving etc would cause the stages to vary- new players (form again)

GROUP COHESION:

Cohesion is a set of invisible forces that act on a group

Cohesion keeps the group together

It ensures the group follow the same goals

It ensures the group resist disruption

It is a shard commitment and sense of co-operation COHESION can be

Co-acting: doing the same thing together e.g. Rowers

Co-interacting: doing different things for the same goal e.g. Footballers playing different positions

HOW TO MEASURE GROUP COHESION

Observation

Questionnaire

Sociogram- involves plotting how conversations go between a group to establish friendship patterns etc

i.e. 1. 3. 4. 6. 7. 2. 5. 8. 9.

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GROUP ROLES:

There are three main group roles, they are 1. Formal roles- such as coach or captain 2. Informal roles- such as the team ‘hardman’, team ‘joker’ etc 3. Performance roles- such as positional roles

CARRON’S ANTECEDENTS

Carron identified a framework of variables/ factors (Antecedents) that determine group cohesion. STEINER’S MODEL OF TEAM PRODUCTIVITY

As a result of his research, Steiner came up with an ‘equation’ to show how productive a group is together:

Actual Productivity= potential productivity- losses due to faulty processes In effect, this suggests that to establish how productive a group is, depends upon their potential, minus things that have gone wrong-e.g. sendings off, poor individual decision making etc Thus a group only has the potential to perform to a standard that their abilities, fitness and experience will allow them to.

This of course means that a group with the best individuals has the best chance or potential for success!

Factors that

determine group

cohesion

Environmental factors

Size of group

Age of group

Geography

Personal factors

Gender

Same motivational reasons

Leadership factors

Participative style helps cohesion

Team factors

All desire success

Winning/ losing creates cohesion

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GROUP SIZE AND THE RINGLEMANN EFFECT

As group size increases, so does the number of individuals that a coach has to attempt to motivate. Over 100 years ago, Ringlemann discovered a correlation between increasing group size and decreasing effort. In effect, Ringlemann argued that as a group increased in size, so individuals tend to show less effort and overall group productiveness decreases. Ringlemann’s research was carried out on tug of war teams who tended to put less effort in individually as the size of their team increased. He noted that: 1 person = 100 % effort 2 people = 93 % effort 3 people = 85% effort 4 people = 77 % effort 5 people = 70 % effort 6 people = 65 % effort 7 people = 58% effort In summary it was believed that the continual increase in lack of effort was down to decreased motivation levels. SOCIAL LOAFING

This idea of decreased motivation levels due to an increase in the size of a team can be referred to as social loafing. In effect, the individual hide’s in the crowd, not wanting to do the work that others could do for them. They do not apply the same amount of effort they may do in a smaller group. Performers do just enough to ‘get by’. Strategies to reduce social loafing:

Acknowledge individuals contributions

Provide regular feedback to all group members

Ensure the members understand their importance (role) to the team

Ensure fitness is good enough so rests are not needed regularly

Provide extrinsic rewards for individual contributions (Man of the match)

Evaluate individual contributions regularly (stats tables)

15. Exam Style Question: Explain the term ‘task cohesion’ and why it is vital for success in any game. (4 marks)

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Barrow (1977) describes leadership as ‘the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals’. There are many theories on leadership but all psychologists agree that leader is an important aspect of any successful team. Leaders can be seen as important, not only for the performance of the team, but also for their psychological well-being. NATURE vs NURTURE One of the biggest leadership debates circles around whether leaders are born (nature) or made (nurture) GREAT MAN THEORY: Argument that great leaders were born. They naturally had the traits to be a leader-e.g. the looks, height, self-confidence, intelligence etc. However, if that was the case, it would seem to be the case that leaders who are born, would be good in any situation that a leader is required? Psychologists gradually came round to the idea the situation is one of the most important factors. Thus, different types of leaders are needed for different situations. Two ways in which leaders develop:

1. Prescribed leaders: In formal situations, the leader is chosen (prescribed)-e.g. the English cricket captain.

2. Emergent leaders: This is when a leader emerges or comes through the ranks. Their skills, expertise etc are seen as suitable to become the leader.

Fiedlers Contingency Model of Leadership The theory posits two classifications of leaders: (1) those motivated by the need to accomplish assigned tasks (task-orientated) (2) those motivated by close and supportive relations with members of the group (people-orientated). The effectiveness of the leader is contingent upon both the leader’s personality and the characteristics of the leadership situation. The style that is adopted should depend on the situation. Fiedler specifically stated that the leadership style chosen should depend upon how ‘favourable’ the situation is. According to Fiedler, the favourableness of the situation depended upon:

1. The quality of the leader’s relationship with the team 2. The structure of the task itself 3. The leader’s position of power and resources available to them.

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Leadership Styles

Autocratic styles Democratic styles Laissez- faire

very task-orientated

leader centred

strong rule structure

personal authority of the leader is very important

more likely to be effective in tasks with large numbers

better in least and most favourable situations

decisions made after discussing with group

show an interest in the group

performer centred

co-operative approach

better in moderately favourable situations

leaves the group to get on by themselves

makes no decisions

‘que sera’ – whatever will be approach

the group determines the pace of events

The choice of leadership style should of course relate to the demands of the situation.

Chelladurai Multi-Dimensional Model of Leadership This model suggests that the characteristics of the situation, the leader and the group members must be considered before adopting a leadership style. The 3 types of leader behaviour which affect the outcome are:

Required Behaviour – depending on the situation and task

Actual Behaviour – leaders action in a situation

Preferred Behaviour – what the group wants depending on its skills and goals

Situational

Characteristics

Leader’s

Characteristics

Member’s

Characteristics

Required

Behaviour

Actual

Behaviour

Preferred

Behaviour

Quality

of

Performance

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There have been many attempts to link leadership styles with sporting contexts. One of the main theorists in this area is Chelladurai. He argues that the style adopted by a leader in sport, and its effectiveness, depends upon

The demands of the situation

The characteristics of the leader, and

The demands of the group Chelladurai argued that a leader had to be dynamic and changeable to the situation, their characteristics, and the characteristics of the group. Such a dynamic leader would produce:

REQUIRED BEHAVIOUR: The type of behaviour appropriate to the situation-e.g. coaches are expected to follow behavioural norms with young children

PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR: The type of behaviour preferred by the group- e.g. different groups have different preferences in how their leader should act-e.g. aerobics teachers may be expected to be lively, energetic, fun, encouraging etc

ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR: The actual behaviour of the leader. Usually as a result of required and preferred behaviour.

Chelladurai’s model basically suggests that optimum performance in sport and enhanced satisfaction are more likely to occur when a leader acts in a similar fashion to the required and preferred behaviour.

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GLOSSARY Aerobic Capacity - The maximum amount of oxygen that can be taken in and used by the body in one minute. Aerobic Respiration - The complete breakdown of fats and

carbohydrates to CO2 and water. This process requires oxygen.

Alactacid Component - Part of the recovery process (oxygen debt) where the muscle phosphagen stores are replenished. Anaerobic Respiration - The partial breakdown of

carbohydrate to pyruvic acid. This process does not require oxygen.

Anaerobic Threshold - This is the point at which the intensity of exercise leads to a dramatic increase in the anaerobic production of energy. Angular Motion - Movement around the axis Arteries - Blood vessels that always carry

blood away from the heart. ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate. A form of chemical energy found in all cells. Basal Metabolic Rate - How much energy we would use to carry out all necessary actions if we remained at rest. Blood Pressure - Blood flow x resistance. The

resistance is caused by friction between the blood and the vessel walls.

Bohr Effect - A drop in pH causes oxygen to

dissociate from haemoglobin more readily.

Capillaries - The smallest type of blood vessel.

Their walls are only one cell thick. This is where the exchange of gas and nutrients takes place.

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Carbo-loading - Initial depletion of carbohydrate stores, followed by a high carbohydrate diet.

Cardiac Output - The amount of blood ejected from one ventricle in one minute.

Centre of Gravity - The point where all the mass of an

object is concentrated. Chronic Response - A long term physiological adaptation that occurs as a result of training. Diastole - The relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle. Expiratory Reserve Volume - The amount of air that can be forcibly be exhaled from the lungs in addition to the tidal volume. External Respiration - The exchange of respiratory gases

(oxygen and CO2) between the lungs and the blood.

Fasciculus - A group of individual muscle fibres bound together by connective tissues to form a bundle. Fulcrum - The fixed point that a lever acts

around. In the body the joint acts as the fulcrum.

General Adaptation Syndrome - A way of explaining how our bodies

respond to stress. It involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion.

Glycogen - A complex chain of sugars, made up

of a number of glucose molecules. Glycogen in the body’s main medium for storing carbohydrate.

Haemoglobin - A protein in red blood cells with a

high affinity for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Homeostasis - The maintenance of a stable internal

environment.

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Hypertrophy - Where an increase in cell size leads to an increase in tissue size. Inertia - A body or an object is said to be in a state of inertia and needs a force to

be applied before any change of velocity can occur.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume - The amount of air that can be forcibly

be inspired into the lungs in addition to the tidal volume.

Internal Respiration - The exchange of respiratory gases

(oxygen and CO2) between the blood and the tissues.

Linear Motion - Movement in a straight line. Metabolism - The sum of all the chemical reactions

that take place within our body. Minute Ventilation - The amount of air taken into or

pushed out of the lungs in one minute. It is calculated by the number of breaths taken by how much air is inspired or expired in one breath.

Mitochondria - The powerhouse of the muscle cell which plays central role in production of ATP under AEROBIC conditions. Size and number of mitochondria can be increased through exercise. Momentum - The product of velocity x mass Myocardium - Cardiac muscle tissue that forms the middle layer of the heart wall. Responsible for pumping blood around the body Myoglobin - A form of haemoglobin in muscle cell

that transportsO2 from the capillary to the mitochondria

Oxygen Debt - The amount of oxygen consumed

during recovery above that which would have ordinarily been consumed at rest in the same time.

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Oxygen Deficit - When insufficient oxygen is being distributed to the tissue the tissues for all the energy production to be met aerobically.

Partial Pressure - The pressure a gas exerts within a

mixture of gases. PNF - Proprioceptive Neuromuscular

Facilitation is a form of flexibility training.

Pulmonary Ventilation - The movement of air into the lungs. Stroke Volume - The volume of blood pumped out of

the heart by each ventricle during one contraction.

Systole - The contraction phase of the cardiac

cycle. Tidal Volume - The amount of air breathed into or

out of the lungs in one breath. Vasoconstriction - A decrease in the size of the lumen

of the blood vessel as the smooth muscle of the tunica media contracts.

Vasodilatation - A increase in the size of the lumen of

the blood vessel as the smooth muscle of the tunica media relaxes.

Veins - Blood vessels that always carry

blood towards the heart. Vital Capacity - The maximum amount of air that can

be forcibly exhaled after breathing in as much as possible.

VO2 (Max) - the maximum amount of oxygen that

can be taken into and used by the body in one minute, expressed in millilitres per minute per kilogram of body mass.