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Chemistryf o r C h a n g i n g T i m e s

A01_HILL2026_14_SE_FM_i-xxviv4.0.2.indd 1 16/01/15 3:51 PM

John W. hillUniversity of Wisconsin–River Falls

Terry W. mcCrearyMurray State University

With contributions by: Robert and Elzbieta Cook, Louisiana State UniversityRicardo Delgado, Lindenwood UniversityMarilyn Duerst, University of Wisconsin-River FallsSteven R. Gwaltney, Mississippi State UniversityAndrew Jorgensen, The University of ToledoJeremy Mason, Texas Tech UniversityRill Ann Reuter, Winona State University

Chemistryf o r C h a n g i n g T i m e s

f o u r T e e n T h e d i T i o n


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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hill, John William, 1933- Chemistry for changing times. -- Fourteenth edition / John W. Hill, University of Wisconsin--River Falls, Terry W. McCreary, Murray State University, Doris K. Kolb. pages cm ISBN 978-0-321-97202-6 1. Chemistry--Textbooks. I. McCreary, Terry Wade, 1955- II. Kolb, Doris K. III. Title. QD33.2.H54 2016 540--dc23

2013035235

ISBN 10: 0-321-97202-3; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-97202-6 (Student edition)

www.pearsonhighered.com 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10–V382–18 17 16 15 14


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br i ef contents

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Contents viPreface xiiiTo the Student xviiAbout the Authors xviiiHighlights of the Fourteenth Edition xx

1 chemistry 1

2 Atoms 41

3 Atomic structure 65

4 chemical bonds 95

5 chemical Accounting 136

6 Gases, Liquids, solids . . . and intermolecular forces 164

7 Acids and bases 189

8 oxidation and reduction 216

9 organic chemistry 249

10 Polymers 287

11 nuclear chemistry 316

12 chemistry of earth 352

13 Air 373

14 Water 410

15 energy 437

16 biochemistry 478

17 food 516

18 Drugs 551

19 fitness and Health 603

20 chemistry Down on the farm . . . and in the Garden and on the Lawn 630

21 Household chemicals 658

22 Poisons 694

Appendix: Review of Measurement and Mathematics A-1Glossary G-1Answers Ans-1Credits C-1Index I-1


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Green Chemistry it’s elemental

Summary 59 Review Questions 60 Problems 60 Additional Problems 62 Critical Thinking Exercises 63 Collaborative Group Projects 63

reaction in a Bag: demonstrating the Law of Conservation of matter 64

3 Atomic structure 65 3.1 Electricity and the Atom 66 3.2 Serendipity in Science:

X-Rays and Radioactivity 69 3.3 Three Types of Radioactivity 70 3.4 Rutherford’s Experiment: The Nuclear Model of

the Atom 72 3.5 The Atomic Nucleus 73 3.6 Electron Arrangement: The Bohr Model 76 3.7 Electron Arrangement: The Quantum Model 81 3.8 Electron Configurations and the Periodic

Table 84

Green Chemistry Clean energy from solar fuels


Birthday Candle flame Test 94

4 Chemical Bonds 95 4.1 The Art of Deduction: Stable Electron

Configurations 96 4.2 Lewis (Electron-Dot) Symbols 97 4.3 The Reaction of Sodium and Chlorine 99 4.4 Using Lewis Symbols for Ionic

Compounds 101 4.5 Formulas and Names of Binary Ionic

Compounds 104 4.6 Covalent Bonds: Shared Electron Pairs 107 4.7 Unequal Sharing: Polar Covalent Bonds 109 4.8 Polyatomic Molecules: Water, Ammonia, and

Methane 113 4.9 Polyatomic Ions 114 4.10 Rules for Writing Lewis Formulas 116 4.11 Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Theory 121 4.12 Shapes and Properties: Polar and Nonpolar

Molecules 125

Preface xiiiTo the Student xviiAbout the Authors xviii

1 Chemistry 1 1.1 Science and Technology: The Roots of

Knowledge 2 1.2 Science: Reproducible, Testable, Tentative,

Predictive, and Explanatory 4 1.3 Science and Technology: Risks and Benefits 7 1.4 Solving Society’s Problems: Scientific

Research 10 1.5 Chemistry: A Study of Matter and Its

Changes 12 1.6 Classification of Matter 16 1.7 The Measurement of Matter 19 1.8 Density 25 1.9 Energy: Heat and Temperature 27 1.10 Critical Thinking 30

Green Chemistry green Chemistry: reimagining Chemistry for a sustainable World


rainbow density Column 40

2 Atoms 41

contents

2.1 Atoms: Ideas from the Ancient Greeks 42 2.2 Scientific Laws: Conservation of Mass and

Definite Proportions 43 2.3 John Dalton and the Atomic Theory of Matter 47 2.4 The Mole and Molar Mass 49 2.5 Mendeleev and the Periodic Table 54 2.6 Atoms and Molecules: Real and Relevant 56


contents W vii

6.3 Forces between Molecules 168 6.4 Forces in Solutions 171 6.5 Gases: The Kinetic–Molecular Theory 173 6.6 The Simple Gas Laws 174 6.7 The Ideal Gas Law 180

Green Chemistry supercritical fluids


Blow up my Balloon 188

7 Acids and Bases 189 7.1 Acids and Bases: Experimental Definitions 190 7.2 Acids, Bases, and Salts 192 7.3 Acidic and Basic Anhydrides 196 7.4 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 198 7.5 Neutralization 200 7.6 The pH Scale 201 7.7 Buffers and Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 205 7.8 Acids and Bases in Industry and in Daily

Life 206

Green Chemistry acids and Bases–greener alternatives


acids and Bases and ph, oh my! 215

8 Oxidation and reduction 216

8.1 Oxidation and Reduction: Four Views 217 8.2 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 224 8.3 Electrochemistry: Cells and Batteries 225 8.4 Corrosion and Explosion 231 8.5 Oxygen: An Abundant and Essential Oxidizing

Agent 234 8.6 Some Common Reducing Agents 237 8.7 Oxidation, Reduction, and Living Things 239

Green Chemistry green redox Catalysis


Light my fruit 248

Green Chemistry green Chemistry and Chemical Bonds


molecular shapes: Please don’t eat the atoms! 135

5 Chemical Accounting 136

5.1 Chemical Sentences: Equations 137 5.2 Volume Relationships in Chemical

Equations 141 5.3 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole 143 5.4 Molar Mass: Mole-to-Mass and Mass-to-Mole

Conversions 146 5.5 Solutions 152

Green Chemistry atom economy


Cookie equations 163

6 Gases, Liquids, solids … and intermolecular Forces 164

6.1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases 165 6.2 Comparing Ionic and Molecular

Substances 167


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11 Nuclear Chemistry 316 11.1 Natural Radioactivity 317 11.2 Nuclear Equations 320 11.3 Half-Life and Radioisotopic Dating 324 11.4 Artificial Transmutation 328 11.5 Uses of Radioisotopes 329 11.6 Penetrating Power of Radiation 332 11.7 Energy from the Nucleus 334 11.8 Nuclear Bombs 338 11.9 Uses and Consequences of Nuclear Energy 342

Green Chemistry Can nuclear Power Be green?


The Brief half-Life of Candy 351

12 Chemistry of earth 352

12.1 Spaceship Earth: Structure and Composition 353

12.2 Silicates and the Shapes of Things 355 12.3 Metals and Ores 360 12.4 Earth’s Dwindling Resources 364

Green Chemistry Critical supply of Key elements


fizzy flintstones, Crumbling Calcium Carbonate 372

13 Air 373 13.1 Earth’s Atmosphere: Divisions and

Composition 374 13.2 Chemistry of the Atmosphere 375 13.3 Pollution through the Ages 378 13.4 Automobile Emissions 382 13.5 Photochemical Smog: Making Haze While the

Sun Shines 385 13.6 Acid Rain: Air Pollution S Water

Pollution 388 13.7 The Inside Story: Indoor Air Pollution 390 13.8 Stratospheric Ozone: Earth’s Vital Shield 392 13.9 Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change 394 13.10 Who Pollutes? Who Pays? 400

9 Organic Chemistry 249

9.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 251 9.2 Aromatic Compounds: Benzene and Its

Relatives 260 9.3 Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Many Uses, Some

Hazards 261 9.4 The Functional Group 263 9.5 Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers 265 9.6 Aldehydes and Ketones 270 9.7 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 272 9.8 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds: Amines and

Amides 275

Green Chemistry The art of organic synthesis: green Chemists find a Better Way


saturate This! 286

10 Polymers 287 10.1 Polymerization: Making Big Ones Out of Little

Ones 288 10.2 Polyethylene: From the Battle of Britain to Bread

Bags 289 10.3 Addition Polymerization: One + One + One + ...

Gives One! 293 10.4 Rubber and Other Elastomers 297 10.5 Condensation Polymers 299 10.6 Properties of Polymers 304 10.7 Plastics and the Environment 305

Green Chemistry Life-Cycle impact assessment of new Products


Polymer Bouncing Ball 315


contents W ix

Green Chemistry Where Will We get the energy?


some Like it hot and some Like it Cool! 477

16 Biochemistry 478 16.1 Energy and the Living Cell 479 16.2 Carbohydrates: A Storehouse of Energy 481 16.3 Fats and Other Lipids 484 16.4 Proteins: Polymers of Amino Acids 487 16.5 Structure and Function of Proteins 491 16.6 Nucleic Acids: Parts, Structure, and

Function 497 16.7 RNA: Protein Synthesis and the Genetic

Code 502 16.8 The Human Genome 504

Green Chemistry green Chemistry and Biochemistry


dna dessert 515

17 Food 516 17.1 Carbohydrates in the Diet 517 17.2 Fats and Cholesterol 520 17.3 Proteins: Muscle and Much More 525 17.4 Minerals, Vitamins, and Other Essentials 526 17.5 Starvation, Fasting, and Malnutrition 532 17.6 Flavorings: Spicy and Sweet 533 17.7 Other Food Additives: Beneficial or

Dangerous? 536 17.8 Problems with Our Food 541

Green Chemistry The future of food Waste – a green Chemistry Perspective


how sweet it is to Be fermented by You! 550

Green Chemistry it’s not easy Being green


Let the sun shine 409

14 Water 410

14.1 Water: Some Unique Properties 411 14.2 Water in Nature 414 14.3 Chemical and Biological Contamination 418 14.4 Groundwater Contamination S Tainted Tap

Water 420 14.5 Water: Who Uses It and How Much? 422 14.6 Making Water Fit to Drink 423 14.7 Wastewater Treatment 428

Green Chemistry fate of Chemicals in the Water environment


disappearing dilution 436

15 energy 437 15.1 Our Sun, a Giant Nuclear Power Plant 438 15.2 Energy and Chemical Reactions 440 15.3 Reaction Rates 443 15.4 The Laws of Thermodynamics 444 15.5 Power: People, Horses, and Fossils 446 15.6 Coal: The Carbon Rock of Ages 448 15.7 Natural Gas and Petroleum 451 15.8 Convenient Energy 457 15.9 Nuclear Energy 459 15.10 Renewable Energy Sources 463


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Green Chemistry safer Pesticides through Biomimicry and green Chemistry


Wash away the Weeds 657

21 household Chemicals 658

21.1 Cleaning with Soap 659 21.2 Synthetic Detergents 664 21.3 Laundry Auxiliaries: Softeners and

Bleaches 669 21.4 All-Purpose and Special-Purpose Cleaning

Products 670 21.5 Solvents, Paints, and Waxes 673 21.6 Cosmetics: Personal-Care Chemicals 675

Green Chemistry Practicing green Chemistry at home


happy hands 693

22 Poisons 694 22.1 Natural Poisons 695 22.2 Poisons and How They Act 696 22.3 More Chemistry of the Nervous System 702 22.4 The Lethal Dose 704 22.5 The Liver as a Detox Facility 706 22.6 Carcinogens and Teratogens 708 22.7 Hazardous Wastes 712

Green Chemistry designing safer Chemicals with green Chemistry


salty seeds 720

Appendix: Review of Measurement and Mathematics A-1Glossary G-1Brief Answers to Selected Problems Ans-1Credits C-1Index I-1

18 Drugs 551

18.1 Scientific Drug Design 552 18.2 Pain Relievers: From Aspirin to Oxycodone 554 18.3 Drugs and Infectious Diseases 559 18.4 Chemicals against Cancer 566 18.5 Hormones: The Regulators 569 18.6 Drugs for the Heart 576 18.7 Drugs and the Mind 578 18.8 Drugs and Society 592

Green Chemistry green Pharmaceutical Production


heal my heartburn 602

19 Fitness and health 603 19.1 Calories: Quantity and Quality 604 19.2 Vitamins, Minerals, Fluids, and Electrolytes 606 19.3 Weight Loss: Diets and Exercise 611 19.4 Measuring Fitness 614 19.5 Some Muscular Chemistry 616 19.6 Drugs, Athletic Performance, and the Brain 620

Green Chemistry Your fitness Benefits the Planet


Pumping iron for Breakfast 629

20 Chemistry Down on the Farm 630

20.1 Farming with Chemicals: Fertilizers 632 20.2 The War against Pests 637 20.3 Herbicides and Defoliants 645 20.4 Sustainable Agriculture 648 20.5 Looking to the Future: Feeding a Growing,

Hungry World 650


Green cHemistryThe fourteenth edition of Chemistry for Changing Times is pleased to present the green chemistry essays listed below. The topics have been carefully chosen to introduce students to the concepts of green chemistry—a new approach to designing chemicals and chemical transformations that are beneficial for human health and the environment. The green chemistry essays in this edition highlight cutting-edge research by chemists, molecular scientists, and engineers to explore the fundamental science and practical applications of chemistry that is “benign by design.” These examples emphasize the responsibility of chemists for the consequences of the new materials they create and the importance of building a sustainable chemical enterprise.

Chapter 1 green Chemistry: reimagining Chemistry for a sustainable World

Jennifer MacKellar and David Constable ACS Green Chemistry Institute®

Chapter 2 it’s elemental Lallie C. McKenzie Chem11 LLC

Chapter 3 Clean energy from solar fuels Scott Cummings Kenyon College

Chapter 4 green Chemistry and Chemical Bonds John C. Warner Warner Babcock Institute for Green Chemistry Amy S. Cannon Beyond Benign

Chapter 5 atom economy Margaret Kerr Worcester State University

Chapter 6 supercritical fluids Doug Raynie South Dakota State University

Chapter 7 acids and Bases–greener alternatives Irvin J Levy Gordon College, Wenham, MA

Chapter 8 green redox Catalysis Roger A. Sheldon Delft University of Technology, Netherlands

Chapter 9 The art of organic synthesis: green Chemists find a Better Way

Thomas E. Goodwin Hendrix College

Chapter 10 Life-Cycle impact assessment of new ProductsEric J. Beckman University of Pittsburgh

Chapter 11 Can nuclear Power Be green? Galen Suppes and Sudarshan Loyalka University of Missouri

Chapter 12 Critical supply of Key elements David Constable

Chapter 13 it’s not easy Being green Philip Jessop and Jeremy Durelle Queen’s University

Chapter 14 fate of Chemicals in the Water environment Alex S. Mayer Michigan Technological University

Chapter 15 Where Will We get the energy? Michael Heben University of Toledo

Chapter 16 green Chemistry and Biochemistry David A. Vosburg Harvey Mudd College

Chapter 17 The future of food Waste–a green Chemistry PerspectiveKatie Privett Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence, York, United Kingdom

Chapter 18 green Pharmaceutical Production Joseph M. Fortunak

Chapter 19 Your fitness Benefits the Planet Doris Lewis Suffolk University

Chapter 20 safer Pesticides through Biomimicry and green Chemistry

Amy S. Cannon Beyond Benign

Chapter 21 Practicing green Chemistry at home Marty Mulvihill University of California–Berkeley

Chapter 22 designing safer Chemicals with green ChemistryRichard Williams


W xiii

PrefAce

Chemistry for Changing Times is now in its fourteenth edition. Times have changed immensely since the first edition appeared in 1972 and continue to change more rapidly than ever—especially in the vital areas of bio-chemistry (neurochemistry, molecular genetics), the envi-ronment (sustainable practices, climate change), energy, materials, drugs, and health and nutrition. This book has changed accordingly. We have thoroughly updated the text and further integrated green chemistry throughout. There is a new or revised green chemistry essay in each chapter. Learning objectives and end-of-chapter prob-lems are correlated to each essay. In preparing this new edition, we have responded to suggestions from users and reviewers of the thirteenth edition, as well as used our own writing, teaching, and life experiences. The text has been fully revised and updated to reflect the latest scientific developments in a fast-changing world.

New to This Edition■ New! Chemistry@Home experiments have been

added to the end of each chapter. These simple exper-iments give students the opportunity to apply the information learned in each chapter through experi-mentation that is easily done at home. Live demon-strations with assessment questions are also available in MasteringChemistry.

■ We have placed greater focus on incorporating new data, statistics, and the latest scientific findings. Examples include:

■ In Chapter 2, we reworked the coverage of the laws of conservation of mass and of definite pro-portions.

■ Chapter 4 has been heavily revised to reflect new thinking on how to describe chemical bonding, stressing some important underlying concepts such as the octet rule and electronegativity.

■ Chapter 13 has been rewritten to incorporate the latest data captured during the constant monitor-ing of air quality and makeup of the atmosphere.

■ Green chemistry coverage has been increased and further integrated into the text:

■ A greater emphasis is placed on sustainability—both in the green essays and within chapter appli-cation.

■ All essays have been carefully reviewed. Of the 22 essays, 11 are entirely new and the remaining have been rewritten extensively. Each essay iden-tifies the principles of green chemistry that are applied in it.

■ In each chapter, there are two to five end-of-chap-ter problems that relate to the green chemistry essay. These have been vetted and renewed as necessary.

■ Updated! Content has been streamlined throughout to expand coverage on topics where students strug-gle most. Some examples include:

■ In Chapter 1, we reduced historical content in favor of a greater emphasis on fundamental ideas, including the scientific method, green chemistry, and data assessment.

■ We developed a more intuitive feel for stoichiom-etry in Chapter 5, a concept that nonmajors often find to be the most challenging in this course.

■ Chapter 6 now includes coverage of Gay-Lussac’s law.

■ We adjusted coverage of stability of isotopes in Chapter 11 (another topic that frequently pro-vides a challenge) and the workings of cata-lytic converters in Chapter 13. We also added coverage of heat capacity and specific heat to Chapter 14.

■ Learning objectives, located at the beginning of each chapter and at the start of each section, have been revised as needed for clarity. They are linked to end-of-chapter problems to assist students and professors when assessing mastery of concepts.

■ Updated! At least 25% of the Critical Thinking Exer-cises have been revised or replaced in all chapters. These exercises require students to apply concepts learned in the chapter and stress that critical thinking is a regular part of the work of students and scien-tists.

■ Self-Assessment Questions at the end of each section facilitate student interaction with topics just learned. These multiple-choice items provide immediate feed-back to test students’ understanding of the material and serve as quick checks during reading of the chapter.

■ We have revised or replaced more than 25% of the end-of-chapter problems to highlight the constant changes taking place in chemistry. Between editions, we are constantly sketching out new and interesting problems, which then are incorporated into the fol-lowing edition’s problem sets.

■ Many of the worked-out examples and their accom-panying exercises in the chapters have also been modified or revised to reflect current thinking, appli-cations, and even some novelty. This is especially the case in the first 12 chapters—the core of the course.


xiv W Preface

■ Updated! Each chapter starts with compelling images and a set of questions called “Have You Ever Won-dered?” These real-life questions engage students in the chapter’s content. Many have been changed as we listen to students and the questions they bring up. We watch for new developments that interest the general public, too. Answers to the questions are found in the outer column within the chapter, near the related text content.

■ Updated! Collaborative Group Projects, which follow the end-of-chapter problems, have been revised or replaced in many chapters. These projects can extend the students’ learning of chemistry far beyond the textbook.

To The insTruCTorOur knowledge base has expanded enormously since this book’s first edition, never more so than in the last few years. We have faced tough choices in deciding what to include and what to leave out. We now live in what has been called the Information Age. Unfortunately, informa-tion is not knowledge; the information may or may not be valid. Our focus, more than ever, is on helping students evaluate information. May we all someday gain the gift of wisdom.

A major premise of this book is that a chemistry course for students who are not majoring in science should be quite different from a course offered to science majors. It must present basic chemical concepts with intellectual honesty, but it need not—probably should not—focus on esoteric theories or rigorous mathematics. It should in-clude lots of modern everyday applications. The textbook should be appealing to look at, easy to understand, and interesting to read.

A large proportion of the legislation considered by the U.S. Congress involves questions having to do with science or technology, yet only rarely does a scientist or engineer enter politics. Most of the people who make im-portant decisions regarding our health and our environ-ment are not trained in science, but it is critical that these decision makers be scientifically literate. In the judicial system, decisions often depend on scientific evidence, but judges and jurors frequently have little education in the sciences. A chemistry course for students who are not science majors should emphasize practical applications of chemistry to problems involving, most notably, environ-mental pollution, radioactivity, energy sources, and hu-man health. The students who take liberal arts chemistry courses include future teachers, business leaders, law-yers, legislators, accountants, artists, journalists, jurors, and judges.

ObjectivesOur main objectives for a chemistry course for students who are not majoring in science are as follows:

■ To attract lots of students from a variety of disciplines. If students do not enroll in the course, we can’t teach them.

■ To help students become literate in science. We want our students to develop a comfortable knowledge of science so that they may become productive, creative, ethical, and engaged citizens.

■ To use topics of current interest to illustrate chemical principles. We want students to appreciate the impor-tance of chemistry in the real world.

■ To relate chemical problems to the everyday lives of our students. Chemical problems become more sig-nificant to students when they can see a personal con-nection.

■ To acquaint students with scientific methods. We want students to be able to read about science and technology with some degree of critical judgment. This is especially important because many scientific problems are complex and controversial.

■ To show students, by addressing the concepts of sus-tainability and green chemistry, that chemists seek better, safer, and more environmentally friendly pro-cesses and products.

■ To instill an appreciation for chemistry as an open-ended learning experience. We hope that our stu-dents will develop a curiosity about science and will want to continue learning throughout their lives.

Questions and ProblemsWorked-out Examples and accompanying exercises are given within most chapters.

Each Example carefully guides students through the process for solving a particular type of problem. It is then followed by one or more exercises that allow students to check their comprehension right away. Many Examples are followed by two exercises, labeled A and B. The goal in an A exercise is to apply to a similar situation the meth-od outlined in the Example. In a B exercise, students must often combine that method with other ideas previously learned. Many of the B exercises provide a context closer to that in which chemical knowledge is applied, and they thus serve as a bridge between the Worked Examples and the more challenging problems at the end of the chap-ter. The A and B exercises provide a simple way for the instructor to assign homework that is closely related to the Examples. Answers to all the in-chapter exercises are given in the Answers section at the back of the book.

Answers to all odd-numbered end-of-chapter prob-lems, identified by blue numbers, are given in the An-swers section at the back of the book. The end-of chapter problems include the following:

■ Review Questions for the most part simply ask for a recall of material in the chapter.

■ A set of matched-pair problems is arranged accord-ing to subject matter in each chapter.


Preface W xv

green Chemistry ContributorsWe are enormously grateful to Jennifer MacKellar, pro-gram manager at the American Chemical Society’s Green Chemistry Institute®, who coordinated the development of the new and revised green chemistry essays and cor-related the content of these essays. We thank her for

her dedication to this project. We also thank the team of green chemists listed below who contributed the green essays and helped to integrate each essay’s content into the chapter with learning objectives, end-of-chapter prob-lems, summaries, and section references.

Eric Beckman, University of PittsburghAmy Cannon, Beyond BenignDavid Constable, ACS Green Chemistry InstituteScott Cummings, Kenyon CollegeJoseph Fortunak, Howard UniversityTom Goodwin, Hendrix CollegeMichael Heben, University of ToledoPhil Jessop, Queen’s UniversityMargaret Kerr, Worcester State UniversityKaren Larson, Clarke UniversityIrv Levy, Gordon CollegeDoris Lewis, Suffolk University

Jennifer MacKellar, ACS Green Chemistry InstituteAlex Mayer, Michigan Technological UniversityLallie C. McKenzie, Chem11 LLCMartin Mulvihill, University of California–BerkeleyKatie Privett, Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence York, UKDouglas Raynie, South Dakota State UniversityRobert Sheldon, Delft University of TechnologyGalen Suppes, University of MissouriDavid Vosburg, Harvey Mudd CollegeJohn Warner, Warner Babcock InstituteRich Williams; Environmental Science & Green Chemistry

Consulting, LLC

reviewers of Previous editionsDebe Bell, Metro State CollegeMark Blazer, Shasta CollegeMichelle Boucher, Utica CollegeKirsten Casey, Anne Arundel Community College Roxanne Finney, Skagit Valley CollegeLuther Giddings, Salt Lake Community CollegeTodd Hamilton, Georgetown CollegeAlice Harper, Berry College

Alton Hassell, Baylor UniversityScott Hewitt, California State University, FullertonSherell Hickman, Brevard Community College, CocoaBeth Hixon, Tulsa Community CollegeDonna K. Howell, Park UniversityJames L. Klino, SUNY College of Agriculture and Technology,

CobleskillMeghan Knapp, Georgetown College

■ Additional Problems are not grouped by type. Some of these are more challenging than the matched-pair problems and often require a synthesis of ideas from more than one chapter. Others pursue an idea further than is done in the text or introduce new ideas.

AcknowledgmentsFor more than four decades, we have greatly benefited from hundreds of helpful reviews. It would take far too many pages to list all of those reviewers here, but they should know that their contributions are deeply appreci-ated. For the fourteenth edition, we are especially grateful to the following reviewers:

accuracy reviewersGuy Patrick Meier, Spokane Falls Community CollegeChristine Seppanen, Riverland Community CollegeAlice Suroviec, Berry CollegePaloma Valverde, Wentworth Institute of Technology

reviewers of This editionMeltem Arikan, University of Massachusetts-DartmouthDebe Bell, Metropolitan State University of DenverTerrence Black, Nassau Community College

Bruce Burnham, Rider UniversityLeticia Colmenares, Winward Community CollegeMatthew Crawford, Frostburg State UniversityRicardo Delgado, Lindenwood UniversityJeremiah Duncan, Plymouth State UniversityJeannine Eddleton, Virginia TechBradley Fahlman, Central Michigan UniversityEric Goll, Brookdale Community College of MonmouthEllen Kehres, Bloomsburg UniversityIrvin Levy, Gordon CollegeAiye Liang, Charleston Southern UniversitySedef Maloy, University of Hawaii at ManoaGary Martinie, University of North Carolina GreensboroGuy Patrick Meier, Spokane Falls Community CollegeJulie Peller, Indiana University NorthwestAlbert Plaush, Saginaw Valley State UniversityDouglas Raynie, South Dakota State UniversityMark Rockley, Oklahoma State UniversityPhil Silverman, University of Missouri ColumbiaDavid Smith, New Mexico State UniversityPatricia Stan, Taylor UniversitySusanne Swanker, American International CollegeJeffrey Webb, Southern Connecticut State UniversityBrian Zoltowski, Southern Methodist University


xvi W Preface

We also appreciate the many people who have called, written, or e-mailed with corrections and other helpful suggestions. Cynthia S. Hill prepared much of the origi-nal material on biochemistry, food, and health and fitness.

We owe a special debt of gratitude to Doris K. Kolb (1927–2005), who was an esteemed coauthor from the seventh through the eleventh editions. Doris and her husband Ken were friends and helpful supporters long before Doris joined the author team. She provided much of the spirit and flavor of the book. Doris’s contribu-tions to Chemistry for Changing Times—and indeed to all of chemistry and chemical education—will live on for many years to come, not only in her publications, but in the hearts and minds of her many students, colleagues, and friends.

Throughout her career as a teacher, scientist, commu-nity leader, poet, and much more, Doris was blessed with a wonderful spouse, colleague, and companion, Kenneth E. Kolb. Over the years, Ken did chapter reviews, made suggestions, and gave invaluable help for many editions. All who knew Doris miss her greatly. Those of us who had the privilege of working closely with her miss her wisdom and wit most profoundly. Let us all dedicate our lives, as Doris did hers, to making this world a better place.

We also want to thank our colleagues at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls, Murray State University, and Bradley University for all their help and support through the years. We are thankful to the contributors who revised all chapters for this new edition, Robert and Elzbieta Cook, Louisiana State University; Ricardo Delgado, Lindenwood University; Marilyn Duerst, University of Wisconsin-River Falls; Steven R. Gwaltney, Mississippi State University Andrew Jorgensen, The Uni-versity of Toledo; Jeremy Mason, Texas Tech University; Rill Ann Reuter, Winona State University. Thank you to Amy Cannon and Kate Anderson who coordinated the Chemistry @ Home experiments. The Chemistry @ Home demonstrations help bring the subject matter to life for students.

We also owe a debt of gratitude to the many creative people at Pearson who have contributed their talents to this edition. Jessica Moro, program manager, has been

a delight to work with, providing valuable guidance throughout the project. She showed extraordinary skill and diplomacy in coordinating all the many facets of this project. Director of Development Jennifer Hart and De-velopment Editor Donald Gecewicz contributed greatly to this project, especially in challenging us to be better authors in every way. We treasure their many helpful suggestions of new material and better presentation of all the subject matter. We are grateful to Acquisitions Editor Chris Hess for his overall guidance and to Project Manag-ers Francesca Monaco and Lisa Pierce for their diligence and patience in bringing all the parts together to yield a finished work. We are indebted to our copyeditor Betty Pessagno, whose expertise helped improve the consisten-cy of the text; and to proofreaders and accuracy checkers whose sharp eyes caught many of our errors and typos. We also salute our art specialist, Andrew Troutt, for pro-viding outstanding illustrations, and our photo research-er, Carolyn Arcabascio, who vetted hundreds of images in the search for quality photos.

John W. Hill owes a very special kind of thanks to his wonderful spouse, Ina, who over the years has done typing, library research, and so many other things that allow him time to concentrate on writing. Most of all, he is grateful for her boundless patience, unflagging support, understanding, and enduring love. He is also grateful to his beloved daugh-ter Cindy for her help with the house and the yard and so many other things. Terry W. McCreary would like to thank his wife, Geniece, and children, Corinne and Yvette, for their unflagging support, understanding, and love.

Finally, we also thank all those many students whose enthusiasm has made teaching such a joy. It is gratifying to have students learn what you are trying to teach them, but it is a supreme pleasure to find that they want to learn even more. And, of course, we are grateful to all of you who have made so many helpful suggestions. We wel-come and appreciate all your comments, corrections, and criticisms.

John W. [email protected]

Terry W. [email protected]

David Lippman, University of Texas-AustinKim Loomis, Century CollegeJames L. Marshall, University of North TexasJeremy Mason, Texas Technical UniversityDouglas Mulford, Emory UniversityDavid S. Newman, Bowling Green State UniversityCharlotte A. Ovechka, University of St. ThomasJames K. Owen, The Art Institute of TennesseeLois Schadenwald, Normandale Community CollegeChristine Seppanen, Riverland Community CollegeMichael Dennis Seymour, Hope CollegeShirish K. Shah, Towson UniversityJoseph Sinski, Bellarmine University

Kelli M. Slunt, University of Mary WashingtonJulianne Smist, Springfield CollegeJie Song, University of Michigan, FlintWayne M. Stalick, University of Central MissouriDurwin Striplin, Davidson CollegeShashi Unnithan, Front Range Community CollegeMona Uppal, Tarrant County College, NebraskaPaloma Valverde, Wentworth Institute of TechnologyEdward Vitz, Kutztown UniversityDan Wacks, University of RedlandsElizabeth Wallace, Western Oklahoma State CollegeMatthew E. Wise, University of Colorado,

Boulder


to the student W xvii

To The sTudenTTell me, what is it you plan to do with your one wild and precious life?

—American poet Mary Oliver (b. 1935)“The Summer Day,” from New and Selected Poems

(Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1992)

Welcome to Our Chemical World!Learning chemistry will enrich your life—now and long after this course is over—through a better understand-ing of the natural world, the scientific and technological questions now confronting us, and the choices you will face as citizens in a scientific and technological society.

Skills gained in this course can be exceptionally useful in many aspects of your life. Learning chemistry involves thinking logically, critically, and creatively. You will learn how to use the language of chemistry: its symbols, formu-las, and equations. More importantly, you will learn how to obtain meaning from information. The most important thing you will learn is how to learn. Memorized mate-rial quickly fades into oblivion unless it is arranged on a framework of understanding.

Chemistry Directly Affects Our LivesHow does the human body work? How does aspirin cure headaches, reduce fevers, and lessen the chance of a heart attack or stroke? How does penicillin kill bacteria without harming our healthy body cells? Is ozone a good thing or a threat to our health? Do we really face climate change, and if so, how severe will it be? Do humans contribute to climate change, and if so, to what degree? Why do most weight-loss diets seem to work in the short run but fail in the long run? Why do our moods swing from happy to sad? Chemists have found answers to questions such as these and continue to seek the knowledge that will unlock other secrets of our universe. As these mysteries are resolved, the direction of our lives often changes—sometimes dramatically. We live in a chemical world—a world of drugs, biocides, food additives, fertilizers, fuels, detergents, cosmetics, and plastics. We live in a world with toxic wastes, polluted air and water, and dwindling petroleum reserves. Knowledge of chemistry will help you better understand the benefits and hazards of this world and will enable you to make intelligent decisions in the future.

We Are All Chemically DependentEven in the womb we are chemically dependent. We need a constant supply of oxygen, water, glucose, amino acids, triglycerides, and a multitude of other chemical substances.

Chemistry is everywhere. Our world is a chemical system—and so are we. Our bodies are durable but delicate systems with innumerable chemical reactions occurring constantly within us that allow our bodies to function prop-erly. Learning, exercising, feeling, gaining or losing weight, and virtually all life processes are made possible by these chemical reactions. Everything that we ingest is part of a complex process that determines whether our bodies work effectively. The consumption of some substances can initiate chemical reactions that will stop body functions. Other sub-stances, if consumed, can cause permanent handicaps, and still others can make living less comfortable. A proper bal-ance of the right foods provides the chemicals that fuel the reactions we need in order to function at our best. Learning chemistry will help you better understand how your body works so that you will be able to take proper care of it.

Changing TimesWe live in a world of increasingly rapid change. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), Russian-born American biochem-ist and famous author of popular science and science fiction books, once said that “The only constant is change, continuing change, inevitable change, that is the domi-nant factor in society today. No sensible decision can be made any longer without taking into account not only the world as it is, but the world as it will be.” We now face some of the greatest problems that humans have ever encountered, and these dilemmas seem to have no perfect solutions. We are sometimes forced to make a best choice among only bad alternatives, and our decisions often pro-vide only temporary solutions. Nevertheless, if we are to choose properly, we must understand what our choices are. Mistakes can be costly, and they cannot always be rectified. It is easy to pollute, but cleaning up pollution is enormously expensive. We can best avoid mistakes by collecting as much information as possible and evaluat-ing it carefully before making critical decisions. Science is a means of gathering and evaluating information, and chemistry is central to all the sciences.

Chemistry and the Human ConditionAbove all else, our hope is that you will learn that the study of chemistry need not be dull and difficult. Rather, it can enrich your life in so many ways—through a bet-ter understanding of your body, your mind, your envi-ronment, and the world in which you live. After all, the search to understand the universe is an essential part of what it means to be human. We offer you a challenge first issued by American educator Horace Mann (1796–1859) in his 1859 address at Antioch College: “Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity.”


xviii W

John W. Hill John Hill received his Ph.D. from the University of Arkansas. As an organic chem-ist, he has published more than 50 papers, most of which have an educational bent. He has authored or coauthored several introductory-level chemistry textbooks, all of which have been published in multiple editions. He has also presented over 60 papers at national conferences, many relating to chemical education. He has received several awards for outstanding teaching and has long been active in the American Chemical Society, both locally and nationally. Now professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls, he authored the first edition of Chemistry for Changing Times in 1972. Revising and updating this book has been a major focus of his life for four decades.

Terry W. McCreary Terry McCreary received his B.S. from St. Francis University, his M.S. from the Uni-versity of Georgia, and his Ph.D. from Virginia Tech. He has taught chemistry at Murray State University since 1988 and was presented with the Regents Excellence in Teaching Award in 2008. He is a member of the American Chemical Society and the Kentucky Academy of Science and has served as technical editor for the Journal of Pyrotechnics. In his spare time, he designs, builds, and flies rockets with the Tripoli Rocketry Association; he was elected president of the association in 2010. McCreary is the author of several laboratory manuals: General Chemistry with John Hill, Ralph Petrucci, and Scott Perry; and Experimental Composite Propellant, a fundamental trea-tise on the preparation and properties of solid rocket propellant.

Without the help of several chapter contributors, the fourteenth edition would not exist. We are grateful to the following people who updated all 22 chapters of this new edition to make it more current.

Chapter Contributors of the fourteenth editionRobert and Elzbieta Cook, Louisiana State UniversityRicardo Delgado, Lindenwood UniversityMarilyn Duerst, University of Wisconsin-River FallsSteven R. Gwaltney, Mississippi State UniversityAndrew Jorgensen, The University of ToledoJeremy Mason, Texas Tech UniversityRill Ann Reuter, Winona State University

About tHe AutHors


About our sustAinAbiLity initiAtives

Pearson recognizes the environmental challenges facing this planet, as well as acknowledges our responsibility in making a difference. This book is carefully crafted to minimize environmental impact. The binding, cover, and paper come from facilities that minimize waste, energy consumption, and the use of harmful chemicals. Pearson closes the loop by recycling every out-of-date text returned to our warehouse.

Along with developing and exploring digital solutions to our market’s needs, Pearson has a strong commitment to achieving carbon-neutrality. As of 2009, Pear-son became the first carbon- and climate-neutral publishing company. Since then, Pearson remains strongly committed to measuring, reducing, and offsetting our carbon footprint.

The future holds great promise for reducing our impact on Earth’s environ-ment, and Pearson is proud to be leading the way. We strive to publish the best books with the most up-to-date and accurate content, and to do so in ways that min-imize our impact on Earth. To learn more about our initiatives, please visit https://www.pearson.com/social-impact.html

W xix


Learning objectivesLearning Objectives for each section in the text and related green chemistry have been added to every chapter and link to end-of-chapter problems in the textbook and in MasteringChemistry®.

end-of-chapter QuestionsEach chapter includes two to five end-of-chapter problems that relate to the green chemistry in that chapter.

Learning Objectives

Explain the electrical properties of an atom. (3.1) Problems 1, 20

Describe how the properties of electricity explain the structure of atoms. (3.1) Problems 4, 18

Describe the experiments that led to the discovery of X-rays and an explanation of

radioactivity. (3.2)

Problems 2, 21

Distinguish the three main kinds of radioactivity: alpha, beta, and gamma. (3.3) Problems 3, 19

Sketch the nuclear model of the atom, and identify its parts. (3.4) Problems 5, 9

List the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom, and give their relative masses and

electric charges. (3.5)

Problems 6–8, 16, 17, 22

Identify elements and isotopes from their nuclear particles. (3.5) Problems 10, 11, 15, 23–27, 29

Define quantum. (3.6) Problems 12, 13, 48

Arrange the electrons in a given atom in energy levels (shells). (3.6) Problems 45, 50–52

Relate the idea of a quantum of energy to an orbital. (3.7) Problems 14, 28

Write an electron configuration (in subshell notation) for a given atom. (3.7) Problems 30–36, 49

Describe how an element’s electron configuration relates to its location in the periodic

table. (3.8)

Problems 37–44, 46, 47

Distinguish the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy in a solar cell from the con-

version of solar energy into the chemical-bond energy of a solar fuel.

Problems 54–56

Explain why splitting water into the elements hydrogen and oxygen requires an energy input

and producing water by the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen releases energy.

Problem 53

SUMMARYSection 3.1—Davy, Faraday, and others showed that matter

is electrical in nature. They were able to decompose com-pounds into elements by electrolysis or by passing electric-ity through molten salts. Electrodes are carbon rods or metal strips that carry electricity into the electrolyte, the solution or compound that conducts electricity. The electrolyte con-tains ions—charged atoms or groups of atoms. The anode is the positive electrode, and anions (negatively charged ions) move toward it. The cathode is the negative electrode, and cations (positively charged ions) move toward it. Experi-ments with cathode rays in gas-discharge tubes showed that matter contained negatively charged particles, which were called electrons. Thomson determined the mass-to-charge ratio for the electron. Goldstein’s experiment showed that matter also contained positively charged particles. Mil-likan’s oil-drop experiment measured the charge on the electron, so its mass could then be calculated.

Section 3.2—In his studies of cathode rays, Roentgen acciden-tally discovered X-rays, a highly penetrating form of radia-tion now used in medical diagnosis. Becquerel accidentally discovered another type of radiation that comes from cer-tain unstable elements. Marie Curie named this new discov-ery radioactivity and studied it extensively.

Section 3.3—Radioactivity was soon classi�ed as three differ-ent types of radiation: Alpha particles have four times the mass of a hydrogen atom and a positive charge twice that of an electron. Beta particles are energetic electrons. Gamma rays are a form of energy like X-rays but more penetrating.

another by a quantum, or discrete unit of energy. An atom drops to the lowest energy state, or ground state, after being in a higher energy state, or excited state. The energy emitted when electrons move to lower energy levels mani-fests as a line spectrum characteristic of the particular ele-ment, with the lines corresponding to speci�c wavelengths (colors) of light. Bohr also deduced that the energy levels of an atom could hold at most 2n2 electrons, where n is the number of the energy level, or shell. A description of the shells occupied by the electrons of an atom is one way of giving the atom’s electron con�guration , or arrangement of electrons.

Section 3.7—de Broglie hypothesized that electrons have wave properties. Schrödinger developed equations that described each electron’s location in terms of an orbital, a volume of space that the electron usually occupies. Each orbital holds at most two electrons. Orbitals in the same shell and with the same energy make up a subshell, or sublevel, each of which is designated by a letter. An s orbital is spherical and a p orbital is dumbbell-shaped. The d and f orbitals have more complex shapes. The �rst main shell can hold only one s orbital; the second can hold one s and three p orbitals; and the third can hold one s, three p, and �ve d orbitals. In writing an electron con�guration using subshell notation, we give the shell number and subshell letter, followed by a superscript indicating the number of electrons in that sub-shell. The order of the shells and subshells can be remem-bered with a chart or by looking at the periodic table.

Green Chemistry Emphasis

71. Sulfuric acid is produced from elemental sulfur by a three-step process: (1) Sulfur is burned to produce sulfur diox-ide. (2) Sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide using oxygen and a vanadium (V) oxide catalyst. (3) Finally, the sulfur trioxide is reacted with water to produce 98% sulfu-ric acid. Write equations for the three reactions.

72. When carbon dioxide mixes with water a weak acid called carbonic acid is formed. Will CO2 reduce the pH of the wa-ter, increase the pH of the water, or leave the pH of the water unchanged?

73. Suppose a certain company has an alkaline waste stream that requires 1 mL of concentrated HCl to neutralize 1 li-ter of waste. If that company chooses to switch to CO2 to neutralize their annual 1 million liter waste stream, how many liters of concentrated HCl are replaced annually by this choice?

74. Carbonated water (pure water in which CO2 is dissolved) has a slightly sour taste. What does this hint indicate about the pH of carbonated water?

75. An important type of chemical substance called an ester can be prepared by heating two chemicals in the presence of a strong mineral acid. No water is used in this reaction. Suggest a greener alternative to the strong mineral acid.

end-of-chapter summariesEach chapter includes end-of-chapter summaries, with key terms highlighted in blue, as well as a section summarizing the green chemistry highlighted within each chapter essay.

the fourteenth edition emphasizes green chemistry through a framework of twelve principles. each chapter contains a Green Essay, written by an expert in the field, which identifies the principles within the application. chapter Learning Objectives, End-of-Chapter Summaries, and Problems now include green chemistry content to reinforce the principles for students.

Green chemistry essaysGreen chemistry essays, written by experts in the field, introduce students to one or more of the twelve principles of green chemistry, while highlighting references to the chapter when applicable.

GREEN CHEMISTRYScott Cummings, Kenyon College

Clean Energy from Solar Fuels

as carbohydrates (Section 8.10). This photosynthetic reaction, which is essential to sustain life on the planet, relies on the ability of mol-ecules in the plant to split water using sunlight. Chemists are hoping to unlock the secrets of the leaf to develop “artificial photosynthesis,” which uses solar energy to produce hydrogen fuel from water.

In natural photosynthesis, plants employ many different mol-ecules to capture and convert solar energy. Chlorophyll molecules absorb part of the solar spectrum, giving a leaf its green color. To mimic this process, chemists are designing colorful synthetic dyes to

Principles 1, 6, 7, 9

Imagine a world powered by a clean fuel manufactured using sun-light and water that produces no carbon dioxide emissions when used. This has been the dream of chemists around the world, who have been working for many years to develop a “solar fuel” that might someday replace some of the fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) that are so important to modern society.

Sunlight is a free and abundant power source. The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface in one hour is as much as all of the fossil fuel energy humans use in one year. The goal for chemists is to develop efficient methods to capture just a tiny part of this sunlight and convert it into a useful form. Of course, the most common approach is to convert solar energy into electricity using solar panels, devices constructed from photovoltaic cells that are usu-ally made of silicon. But sunshine is intermittent, so this solar electric-ity is only available on sunny days.

A different approach is to use the energy of sunlight to promote a chemical change, converting radiant solar energy into chemical energy in the form of fuel that can be stored and used even when the sun has gone down. One idea for a solar fuel is hydrogen. Using sun-light to make hydrogen is one of the grand challenges of chemistry.

A full hydrogen energy cycle uses solar energy to split water (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) and then uses the hydro-gen as a clean fuel to produce either heat (when burned) or electric-ity (using a fuel cell). Splitting water requires energy input to break the chemical bonds that hold together the O and H atoms in water mol-ecules. One of the simplest ways to do this is by electrolysis (Section 3.1), which requires electrical energy. If the electricity is produced using a solar panel, then the hydrogen formed is a solar fuel. This

solar energy

heat orelectricity

water (H2O) hydrogen (H2) andoxygen (O2)

Clean energy cycle. Solar energy is used to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water (top). Hydrogen fuel reacts with oxygen to produce water and releases energy as either heat or electricity.

Learning Objectives Distinguish the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy in a solar cell from the conversion of solar energy into the chemical bond energy of a solar fuel. Explain why splitting water into the elements hydrogen and oxygen requires an energy input and why producing water by the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen releases energy.


critical thinkingIn order to help students improve their critical thinking skills, Chapter One introduces the principles used to test a claim (falsifiability, logic, replicability, and sufficiency; identified by the acronym FLaReS). Each end-of-chapter section reinforces their importance by including a section of Critical Thinking questions, allowing students to use these principles to test each of the claims. Instructors can assign Critical Thinking questions in MasteringChemistry, which provide wrong answer feedback to help students learn from their mistakes and ultimately gain a stronger grasp of the process of science.

Worked examplesWorked examples within each chapter guide students through the process of solvings particular types of problems. Examples are followed by one or more exercises allowing students to immediately check their problem-solving skills.

CRIT ICAL THINKING EXERCISESApply knowledge that you have gained in this chapter and one or more of the FLaReS principles (Chapter 1) to evaluate the following statements or claims.

3.1 Suppose you read in the newspaper that a chemist in South America claims to have discovered a new element with an atomic mass of 34. Extremely rare, it was found in a sample taken from the Andes Mountains. Unfortunately, the chemist has used all of the sample in his analyses.

3.2 Some aboriginal tribes have rain-making ceremonies in which they toss pebbles of gypsum up into the air. (Gypsum is the material used to make plaster of Paris

by heating the rock to remove some of its water.) Some-times it does rain several days after these rain-making ceremonies.

3.3 Some scientists think that life on other planets might be based on silicon rather than carbon. Evaluate this possibility.

3.4 You come across a website selling water made from only single isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. A testimonial on the website claims that drinking only the isotopically pure water helps a person feel more refreshed throughout the day.

Example 3.1 Number of Neutrons

How many neutrons are there in the 235 92U nucleus?

SolutionWe simply subtract the atomic number Z (number of protons) from the mass number A (number of protons plus number of neutrons).

A - Z = number of neutrons235 - 92 = 143

There are 143 neutrons in the 235 92U nucleus.

EXERCISE 3.1AHow many neutrons are there in the 60

27Co nucleus?

EXERCISE 3.1BAn iodine isotope has 78 neutrons in its nucleus. What are the mass number and the name of the isotope?

Exercise A allows students to apply the problem-solving method just explained to a similar situation.

Exercise B prompts the student to combine the specific problem-solving method just taught with concepts learned in previous sections.


Applications

current and relevant ApplicationsEssays throughout the new edition focus on interesting, relevant applications to help students connect the chemistry covered in a particular chapter or section to the world around them.

it Does matter! Marginal boxes briefly discuss a specific application or phenomenon and show students how the material being studied relates to their world.

It DOES Matter!When light hits a photovoltaic “solar” cell, photons are absorbed, promoting electrons to excited states. Those excited state electrons are captured by the photovol-taic cell to produce an electrical current. Scientists are working to create new materials that will absorb more of the sun’s photons and more efficiently convert those photons into electrical energy. Scientists are also working on creating new materials that will lower the cost to make solar cells. Depending on where you live and how much sunlight you get, solar electricity may already be cheaper than the electricity you buy from the power company.

EmulsionsWhen oil and water are vigorously shaken together, the oil is broken up into tiny, microscopic droplets and dispersed throughout the water, a mixture called an emulsion. Unless a third substance has been added, the emulsion usually breaks down rapidly, as the oil drop-lets recombine and �oat to the surface of the water.

Emulsions can be stabilized by adding a type of gum, a soap, or a protein that can form a protective coating around the oil droplets and prevent them from coming together. Lecithin in egg yolks keeps mayon-naise from separating, while casein in milk keeps fat droplets suspended. Compounds called bile salts keep tiny fat droplets suspended in aqueous media dur-ing human digestion. This greatly aids the digestive process. The tiny emulsi�ed droplets provide a much greater surface area on which the water-soluble lipase enzymes can break down the triacylglycerides to glyc-erol and fatty acids.

▲ Many foods are emulsions. Milk is an emulsion of butterfat in water. The stabilizing agent is a protein called casein. Mayonnaise is an emulsion of vegetable oil in water, stabilized by egg yolk.

NEW! chemistry@HomeThe Chemistry@Home experiments located at the end of each chapter give students the opportunity to apply the information learned in each chapter through experimentation they can easily do at home.

Materials required Yeast (jar)

Large measuring cup: 2 cup or larger capacity Measuring spoons (teaspoon and tablespoon) 6 resealable plastic bags 1 tablespoon of sugar 1 tablespoon of sweetener (Equal®, Sweet'N Low®) 1 tablespoon of flour 2 breakfast cereal samples (each with sugar listed as

ingredient) Lukewarm water Paper towels (for clean-up)

What does yeast need to survive and thrive? Can yeast also di-gest arti�cial sweeteners and �our?

Yeast is most commonly used in the kitchen to make dough rise. Have you ever watched pizza crust or a loaf of bread swell in the oven? Yeast makes the dough expand. But what is yeast exactly and how does it work? Yeast strains are made up of living eukaryotic microbes, meaning that they contain cells with nuclei and are classified as fungi. In this experiment, we will watch yeast come to life as it breaks down sugar, also known as sucrose, through a process called fermentation.

To begin, create a data table for your experiment results. The data table should include columns for 6 bags, their contents, and your observations. Label bags 1 through 6.

Bag 1 will be your control.--To bag 2, add 1 tablespoon of sugar.--To bag 3, add 1 tablespoon of sweetener (Sweet’N Low®

or Equal®).--To bag 4, add 1 tablespoon of flour.--To bag 5, add 1 tablespoon of breakfast cereal A, crushed.--To bag 6, add 1 tablespoon of breakfast cereal B, crushed.

Next add 14 cup of lukewarm water and 2 teaspoons of yeast to each bag.

How Sweet It Is to Be Fermented by You!

▶ Figure 2

Carefully, without spilling any of the contents, squeeze out as much air as possible and seal each bag. Put the bags in a warm place for 20 minutes. (Either a window or a large bowl with warm water works well.) Observe the bags periodically. After 20 minutes, remove the bags from the warm place and observe them.

▶ Figure 3

What changes have occurred? Which bag has grown in size the most?

To measure the volume of the bags, fill the large measuring cup with 1 cup water and lower the bag into the large measur-ing cup. To find the estimated volume, you will use displacement measurement. Record the volume of the water with the bag in it and subtract the initial starting volume of 1 cup of water to obtain your volume. (Don't forget to account for any volume change of your control bag.)


Resources

resourceAvailable in Print

Available online

instructor or student

resource Description

Study Guide and Selected Solutions Manual ISBn: 0133889041

✓ Resource for Students

The Study Guide and Selected Solutions Manual assists students with the text material. It contains learning objectives, chapter outlines, key terms, additional problems with self-tests and answers, and answers to odd-numbered problems in the text.

Chemical Investigations for Changing Times ISBn: 0133891852

✓ Resource for Students

This resource contains over 60 laboratory experiments that correspond to topics covered in Chemistry for Changing Times, 14th edition.

Online Instructor Resource Center ISBn: 013388922X

✓ Resource for Instructor

This resource contains the following: All illustrations, tables, and photos from the text in

JPEG format Four pre-built PowerPoint Presentations (lecture,

worked examples, images, CRS/ clicker questions) TestGen computerized software with the TestGen

version of the Testbank Word files of the Test Item File

Instructor’s Manual (Download Only) ISBn: 0133889025


Organized by chapter, this useful guide includes objectives, lecture outlines, references to figures and solved problems, as well as teaching demonstrations.

Instructor Manual for Lab Manual (Download Only) ISBn: 0133901459


The Instructor Manual for the Lab Manual provides instructors with useful tips, lab notes, and answers to lab report questions and pre- and post-lab questions.

Test Bank ISBn: 0133888991


The Test Bank contains more than 2500 multiple choice, true/false, and matching questions.


MasteringChemistry®

masteringchemistry® from Pearson is the leading online teaching and learning system designed to improve results by engaging students before, during, and after class with powerful content. ensure that students arrive ready to learn by assigning educationally effective content before class, and encourage critical thinking and retention with in-class resources such as Learning catalytics. students can further master concepts after class through traditional homework assignments that provide hints and answer-specific feedback. the mastering gradebook records scores for all automatically graded assignments while diagnostic tools give instructors access to rich data that helps assess student understanding and identifies class-wide misconceptions. mastering brings learning full circle by continuously adapting to each student and making learning more personal than ever—before, during, and after class.

reading QuizzesReading Quizzes give you the opportunity to assign reading and test students on their comprehension of chapter content before they come to class, empowering you to assume a certain baseline level of knowledge and helping you to spend more time on the toughest topics that require your expertise.

Dynamic study modulesHelp students quickly learn chemistry!now assignable, Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) enable your students to study on their own and be better prepared to achieve higher scores on their tests. When your students use DSMs outside of class, you can take knowledge transfer out of the classroom, allowing class time to be spent on higher-order learning. The mobile app is available for iOS and Android devices for study on the go.

Learning catalyticsLearning Catalytics “is a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. With Learning Catalytics you can: Assess students in real time, using open-ended tasks to probe

student understanding. Understand immediately where students are and adjust your

lecture accordingly. Improve your students’ critical-thinking skills. Access rich analytics to understand student performance. Add your own questions to make Learning Catalytics fit your

course exactly. Manage student interactions with intelligent grouping and

timing.

BEfOrE CLaSS

DurinG CLaSS


student tutorialsTutorials, featuring specific wrong-answer feedback, hints, and a wide variety of educationally effective content, guide your students through the toughest topics in chemistry. The hallmark Hints and Feedback offer scaffolded instruction similar to what students would experience in an office hour, allowing them to learn from their mistakes without being given the answer.

Materials Required 2 lemons

2 kiwis Copper wire (or a penny) Zinc strip (galvanized nail) Voltmeter 2 connection wires with alligator clips A 2 milliamp, 1.5 volt diode (LED)

Can fruits make electricity? Do you think comparing lemons and kiwis will show how redox reactions work?

In this experiment, you will compare a lemon and a kiwi. Both the lemon and kiwi have juicy and acidic characteristics that make for the exact properties needed in a conductive solution, or electrolyte, which is any acid, base, or salt solution that is rich in ions. The chemical bath within these fruits allows the transference of electrons from different elements and, thus, makes a single cell electric battery. This means the charge “wants to” move from one metal to the other—creating electric potential.

Begin by gathering your supplies. Start by squeezing the fruit gently so the juice goes to the middle. Be careful not to burst the skin.

Connect the copper to the other side of the diode, and con-nect the zinc to the side of the diode with the metal strip. (Figure 4)

Predict what will happen next. Record the amount of time it took to light up and the amount of time it was on. Repeat for the other fruit and compare your results.

l dddteeririirialallalalsssss ReRReRReReReRReequququqququq iiiiriirirriririr ddededededededed

Light My Fruit

aftEr CLaSS

The interactive Chemistry@Home demonstrations bring the subject matter to life and are assignable with follow-up assessments in MasteringChemistry.


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