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A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has manysecondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance.[1] A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors,varying from 3 m  [2]  to 6 m;[3] some authors set a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter (30 cmgirth).[4] Woody plants that do not meet these definitions by having multiple stems and/or 

small size are called shrubs. Compared with most other plants, trees are long-lived, somereaching several thousand years old and growing to up to 115 m (379 ft) high.[5]

Trees are an important component of the natural landscape because of their prevention of erosion and the provision of a weather-sheltered ecosystem in and under their foliage. Theyalso play an important role in producing oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide in theatmosphere, as well as moderating ground temperatures. They are also elements inlandscaping and agriculture, both for their aesthetic appeal and their  orchard crops (such asapples). Wood from trees is a building material, as well as a primary energy source in manydeveloping countries. Trees also play a role in many of the world's mythologies (see trees inmythology).[6]

Contents[hide]

A tree is a plant form that occurs in many different orders and families of plants. Trees showa variety of growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics and reproductive organs.

The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants, in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic example of  parallel evolution. With an estimateof 100,000 tree species, the number of tree species worldwide might total 25 percent of allliving plant species.[7] The majority of tree species grow in tropical regions of the world andmany of these areas have not been surveyed yet by botanists, making species diversity and

ranges poorly understood.[8]

Tropical tree in Campeche, Mexico.

The earliest trees were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests in theCarboniferous period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails and lycophytesare not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous period. Mostspecies of trees today are flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers. For the listing of examples of well-known trees and how they are classified, see List of tree genera.

A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape coveredby a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees

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that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of treesscattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called asavanna. A forest of great age is called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK).A young tree is called a sapling.

Morphology

Beech leaves.

Tree roots anchor the structure and provide water and nutrients. The ground haseroded away around the roots of this young pine tree.

The parts of a tree are the roots, trunk (s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consistmainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells,and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be

grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of trees (all conifers,

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and almost all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediatelyunder the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g., palms and dragontrees), but also cacti, grow by addition of new material inwards.[clarification needed ]

As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings as new wood is laid down concentricallyover the old wood. In species growing in areas with seasonal climate changes, wood growth

produced at different times of the year may be visible as alternating light and dark, or soft andhard, rings of wood.[3] In temperate climates, and tropical climates with a single wet-dryseason alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being oneyear of growth; these are known as annual rings. In areas with two wet and dry seasons eachyear, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall. [9] Intropical rainforest regions, with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and thegrowth rings are not visible nor is there a change in the wood texture. In species with annualrings, these rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past, a practice known as the science of  dendrochronology.Very few tropical trees can be accurately dated in this manner. Age determination is also

impossible in endogenous trees.The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. However, while groundnutrients are essential to a tree's growth the majority of its biomass comes from carbondioxide absorbed from the atmosphere (see photosynthesis). Above ground, the trunk givesheight to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves tosunlight.

Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palmtrees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree

ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these arenonetheless generally regarded as trees. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generallyhaving smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub.However, no precise differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their smallsize, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference tothe form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling doesnot fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees.

Record breaking treesThe world's champion trees can be rated on height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, andage.

Tallest trees

The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute andmuch exaggeration. Modern verified measurements with laser rangefinders, other measuringdevices, or with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers (such as those carried out bycanopy researchers or members of groups like the U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society), haveshown that some older measuring methods and measurements are often unreliable, sometimesproducing exaggerations of 5% to 15% or more above the real height. Historical claims of trees growing to 130 m (427 ft), and even 150 m (492 ft), are now largely disregarded asunreliable, and attributed to human error. Historical records of fallen trees measured prostrateon the ground are considered to be somewhat more reliable. The following are now accepted

as the top ten tallest reliably measured species:

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1. Coast Redwood  (Sequoia sempervirens): 115.56 m (379.1 ft), RedwoodNational Park, California, United States  [10] 

2. Australian Mountain-ash  (Eucalyptus regnans): 99.6 m (326.8 ft), southof Hobart, Tasmania, Australia  [11] 

3. Coast Douglas-fir  (Pseudotsuga menziesii): 99.4 m (326.1 ft), BrummitCreek, Coos County, Oregon, United States[12]

4. Sitka Spruce  (Picea sitchensis): 96.7 m (317.3 ft), Prairie CreekRedwoods State Park, California, United States[13]

5. Giant Sequoia  (Sequoiadendron giganteum): 94.9 m (311.4 ft), RedwoodMountain Grove, Kings Canyon National Park, California, United States[14]

6. Tasmanian Blue Gum  (Eucalyptus globulus): 90.7 m (297.6 ft),Tasmania, Australia[15]

7. Manna Gum  (Eucalyptus viminalis): 89 m (292 ft), Evercreech ForestReserve, Tasmania, Australia[15]

8. Shorea faguetiana  : 88.3 m (289.7 ft) Tawau Hills National Park, in Sabah on the island of Borneo  [16] 

9. Alpine Ash  (Eucalyptus delegatensis): 87.9 m (288.4 ft), Tasmania,Australia[15]

10.Noble Fir  (Abies procera): 87.5 m (287.1 ft) Mount St. Helens NationalVolcanic Monument, Washington, United States[17][18]

A view of a tree from below; this may exaggerate apparent height

Stoutest trees

The girth of a tree is usually much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this,

UK tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yewtrees:

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— 

As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'. This is cited as dbh (diameter atbreast height) in tree and forestry literature.[3][20] Breast height is defined differently indifferent situations, with most forestry measurements taking girth at 1.3 m above ground,[20]

while those who measure ornamental trees usually measure at 1.5 m above ground;[3] in mostcases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "aboveground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching thetrunk,[3][20] but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground[citation

needed ]. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some pastexaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress.[19]

Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference. Diameter of thetree is calculated by finding the medium diameter of the trunk, in most cases obtained by

dividing the measured circumference by π; this assumes the trunk is mostly circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). Accurately measuring circumference or diameter is difficult inspecies with the large buttresses that are especially characteristic in many species of rainforest trees. Simple measurement of circumference of such trees can be misleading whenthe circumference includes much empty space between buttresses.

One further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store largeamounts of water  in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year (though not more than about 2.5%[21]), swelling to a maximum at the endof the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season.

The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter are:

1. African Baobab  Adansonia digitata: 15.9 m (52 ft), Glencoe Baobab (measured near the ground), Limpopo Province, South Africa.[22]. This treesplit up[clarification needed ] in November 2009 and now the stoutest baobab couldbe Sunland Baobab (South Africa) with idealised diameter 10.64 m andcorrect circumference - 33.4 m.

2. Montezuma Cypress  Taxodium mucronatum: 11.62 m (38.1 ft), Árbol delTule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico.[23] Note though that thisdiameter includes buttressing; the actual idealised diameter of the area of its wood is 9.38 m (30.8 ft).[23]

3. Giant Sequoia  Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m (29 ft), General Grant

tree, General Grant Grove, California, United States[24]

4. Coast Redwood  Sequoia sempervirens: 7.9 m (25.9 ft), Lost Monarch Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park, California, United States.

5. Australian Oak  Eucalyptus obliqua: 6.72 m (22 ft)

6. Australian Mountain-ash  Eucalyptus regnans: 6.52 m (21.4 ft), Big Foot

7. Western Redcedar  Thuja plicata: 5.99 m (19.7 ft), Kalaloch Cedar,Olympic National Park

8. Sitka Spruce  Picea sitchensis: 5.39 m (17.7 ft), Quinalt Lake Spruce,Olympic National Park

9. Alerce  Fitzroya cupressoides: 5.0 m (16.4 ft)

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An additional problem lies in instances where multiple trunks (whether from an individualtree or multiple trees) grow together. The Sacred Fig is a notable example of this, formingadditional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which then thickenup when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single Sacred Fig tree can havehundreds of such trunks.[1]

Largest trees

The coniferous Coast Redwood is the tallest tree species on earth.

The largest trees in total volume are both tall and large in diameter and, in particular, hold alarge diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branchvolume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been madefor a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been madeto include root volume. Measuring standards vary.

The top ten species measured so far are*:

1. Giant Sequoia  Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1,487 m³ (52,508 cu ft),General Sherman  [25] 

2. Coast Redwood  Sequoia sempervirens: 1,203 m³ (42,500 cu ft), LostMonarch  [17] 

3. Montezuma Cypress  Taxodium mucronatum: 750 m³ (25,000 cu ft), Árboldel Tule  [26] 

4. Western Redcedar  Thuja plicata: 500 m³ (17,650 cu ft ), Quinault LakeRedcedar  [25] 

5. Tasmanian Blue Gum  Eucalyptus globulus: 368 m³ (13,000 cu ft), RullahLongatyle (Strong Girl, also Grieving Giant) [15]

6. Australian Mountain-ash  Eucalyptus regnans: 360 m³ (12,714 cu ft), ArveBig Tree  [15] 

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7. Coast Douglas-fir  Pseudotsuga menziesii 349 m³ (12,320 cu ft) Red CreekTree

8. Sitka Spruce  Picea sitchensis 337 m³ (11,920 cu ft) Queets Spruce

9. Australian Oak  Eucalyptus obliqua: 337 m³ (11,920 cu ft) Gothmog[15]

10.Alpine Ash  Eucalyptus delegatensis: 286 m³ (10,100 cu ft), located in StyxRiver Valley[15]

(*)This list does not take into account now dead specimens.

Smallest Tree

Many fully grown mature trees may be very short due to environmental factors or disease.However healthy and well grown specimens of a few species of tree only reach a height of afew centimetres. Amongst these is Lepidothamnus laxifolius believed to be the shortestconifer in the world.

Oldest trees

The oldest trees are determined by growth rings, which can be seen if the tree is cut down, or in cores taken from the bark to the center of the tree. Accurate determination is only possiblefor trees that produce growth rings, generally those in seasonal climates. Trees in uniformnon-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It isalso only possible for trees that are solid to the center. Many very old trees become hollow asthe dead heartwood decays. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on thebasis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually largely speculation.White (1998)[27] proposes a method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in theUnited Kingdom through the correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character andage.

The verified oldest measured ages are:1. Great Basin Bristlecone Pine  (Methuselah) Pinus longaeva: 4,844 years[28]

2. Alerce  Fitzroya cupressoides: 3,622 years[28]

3. Giant Sequoia  Sequoiadendron giganteum: 3,266 years[28]

4. Sugi  Cryptomeria japonica: 3,000 years[29]

5. Huon-pine  Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2,500 years[28]

Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata(probably over 2,000 years[30][31]) and Western Redcedar  Thuja plicata. The oldest knownEuropean Yew is the Llangernyw Yew in the Churchyard of  Llangernyw village in NorthWales, which is estimated to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old.

The oldest reported age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi SacredFig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. This is also the oldesthuman-planted tree with a known planting date.[citation needed ]

Damage

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El Grande, about 280 feet high, the most massive (though not the tallest)Eucalyptus regnans was accidentally killed by loggers burning-off the remains of legally loggable trees (less than 280 ft) that had been felled all around it.

The two major sources of tree damage are biotic (from living sources) and abiotic (from non-

living sources). Biotic sources include insects that bore into the tree, deer that rub bark off,and fungi.[32]

Abiotic sources include lightning, vehicles impacts, and construction activities. Constructionactivities can involve a number of damage sources, including grade changes that preventaeration to roots, spills involving toxic chemicals such as cement or petroleum products, or severing of branches or roots.

Both damage sources can result in trees becoming dangerous, and the term "hazard trees" iscommonly used by arborists, and industry groups such as power line operators. Hazard treesare trees that, due to disease or other factors, are more susceptible to falling in windstorms, or having parts of the tree fall.

Evaluating the danger a tree presents is based on a process called the Quantified Tree Risk Assessment.[33]

Assessment as to labeling a tree a hazard tree can be based on a field examination.Assessment as a result of construction activities that will damage a tree is based on threefactors: severity, extent and duration. Severity relates usually to the degree of intrusion intothe TPZ and resultant root loss. Extent is frequently a percentage of a factor such as canopy,roots or bark, and duration is normally based on time. Root severing is considered permanentin time.

Trees are similar to people. Both can withstand massive amounts of some types of damageand survive, but even small amounts of certain types of trauma can result in death. Arboristsare very aware that established trees will not tolerate any appreciable disturbance of the root

system.[34] However, lay people and construction professionals are seldom cognizant of howeasily a tree can be killed.

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One reason for confusion about tree damage from construction involves the dormancy of trees during winter. Another factor is that trees may not show symptoms of damage until 24months or longer after damage has occurred. For that reason, persons uneducated inarboriculture science may not correlate the actual cause and resultant effect.

Various organizations, such as the International Society of Arboriculture, the British

Standards Institute and the National Arborist Association (about 2007 renamed the TreeIndustry Association), have long recognized the importance of construction activities thatimpact tree health. The impacts are important because they can result in monetary losses dueto tree damage and resultant remediation or replacement costs, as well as violation of government ordinances or community or subdivision restrictions.

As a result, protocols for tree management prior to, during and after construction activitiesare well established, tested and refined. These basic steps are involved:

• Review of the construction plans

• Development of the related tree inventory

• Application of standard construction tree management protocols

• Assessment of potential for expected tree damages

• Development of a tree protection plan (providing for pre-, concurrent, andpost construction damage prevention and remediation steps)

• Development of a tree protection plan

• Development of a remediation plan

• Implementation of tree protection zones (TPZ)

• Assessment of construction tree damage, post-construction

• Implementation of the remediation plan

International standards are uniform in analyzing damage potential and sizing TPZs (treeprotection zones) to minimize damage. For mature to fully mature trees, the accepted TPZcomprises a 1.5-foot set-off for every 1 inch diameter of trunk. That means for a 10-inch tree,the TPZ would extend 15 feet in all directions from the base of the trunk at ground level.

For young or small trees with minimal crowns (and trunks less than 4 inches in diameter) aTPZ equal to 1 foot for every inch of trunk diameter may suffice. That means for a 3-inchtree, the TPZ would extend 3 feet in all directions from the base of the trunk at ground level.Detailed information on TPZs and related topics is available at minimal cost fromorganizations like the International Society for Arboriculture.

Trees in cultureMain article: Tree (mythology)

The tree has always been a cultural symbol. Common icons are the World tree, for instanceYggdrasil,[35] and the tree of life. The tree is often used to represent nature or the environmentitself. A common misconception is that trees get most of their mass from the ground.[36] Infact, 99% of a tree's mass comes from the air .[36]

Tree value estimationStudies have shown that trees contribute as much as 27% of the appraised land value incertain markets.[37]

Basic tree values (varies by

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region)[38]

diameter

(inches)

value

(1985 US$)

10 $1,72914 $3,388

18 $5,588

26 $11,682

30 $15,554

These most likely use diameter measured at breast height, 4.5 feet (140 cm) above ground— not the larger base diameter. A general model for any year and diameter is Value =

17.27939*( diameter ^2)*1.022^( year -1985) assuming 2.2% inflation per year.[39]

(Note, theright side of this equation is written to paste into Excel or  Google to perform the calculation.)Extrapolations from any model can cause problems, so tree value estimates for diameterslarger than 30 inches might have to be capped so trees do not exceed 27% of the totalappraised property value.

See also

• Arboretum 

• Arboriculture 

• Axel Erlandson 

• Bonsai • Christmas tree 

• Deforestation 

• Dendrology 

• Dendrometry 

• Evolution of plants#Evolution of trees

• Exploding tree 

• Frost crack 

• Fruit trees 

• Gilroy Gardens 

• John Krubsack 

• List of famous trees 

• List of tree genera 

• List of trees and shrubs by taxonomic family

• Mother of the Forest 

• Multipurpose tree 

• Plantation 

• Topiary 

• Tree allometry 

• Tree climbing 

• Tree line 

• Trees of the world 

• Tree Shaping 

• Urban forestry 

• Woodland management 

References

Notes

1. ^ a b Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan

ISBN 0-333-47494-5.

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2.  ̂ Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe. Collins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.

3. ^ a b c d  e Mitchell, A. F. (1974). A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe. Collins ISBN 0-00-212035-6

4.  ̂ Utkarsh Ghate. " Field Guide to Indian Trees, introductory chapter: Introduction to Common Indian Trees" (RTF).http://home.att.net/~spiderhunters/attachments/trintro.rtf . Retrieved2007-07-25.

5.  ̂ Gymnosperm Database: Sequoia sempervirens

6.  ̂ Going Out On A Limb With A Tree-Person Ratio, Morning Edition,National Public Radio. 12 Nov 2008.

7.  ̂ "TreeBOL project". http://www.talkbx.com/2008/05/02/scientists-to-capture-tree-dna-worldwide/#more-835. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

8.  ̂ Friis, Ib, and Henrik Balslev. 2005. Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local, regional, and global dimensions : proceedings of an

international symposium held at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciencesand Letters in Copenhagen, Denmark, 25–28 May 2003. Biologiske skrifter,55. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. pp 57-59.

9.  ̂ Mirov, N. T. (1967). The Genus Pinus. Ronald Press.

10. ̂ "Gymnosperm Database: Sequoia sempervirens"  .http://www.conifers.org/cu/se/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. "Hyperion,Redwood National Park, CA, 115.55 m"

11. ̂ "Tasmania's Ten Tallest Giants". Tasmanian Giant Trees ConsultativeCommittee. http://www.gianttrees.com.au/tall.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-07.

"Height (m): 99.6; Diameter (cm): 405; Species: E. regnans; Treeidentification: TT443; Name: Centurion; Location: south of Hobart; Yearlast measured: 2008"

12. ̂ "Gymnosperm Database: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii"  .http://www.conifers.org/pi/ps/menziesii2.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. "TheBrummit Fir: Height 99.4 m, dbh 354 cm, on E. Fork Brummit Creek inCoos County, Oregon; in 1998"

13. ̂ "Gymnosperm Database: Picea sitchensis"  .http://www.conifers.org/pi/pic/sitchensis.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. "Thistree also has a sign nearby proclaiming it to be 'the world's largestspruce'. The two tallest on record, 96.7 m and 96.4 m, are in Prairie Creek

Redwoods State Park, California"14. ̂ "Gymnosperm Database: Sequoiadendron giganteum"  .

http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. "Thetallest known giant sequoia is a specimen 94.9 m tall, first measuredAugust 1998 in the Redwood Mountain Grove, California"

15.^ a b c d  e f  g [1]. "Tasmanian Giant Trees Register". Forestry Tasmania.

16. ̂ "Tallest Tropical Trees". http://www.landmarktrees.net/tropical.html.Retrieved 2010-04-14.

17.^ a b Prof Stephen Sillett's webpage with photogallery including: a generalgallery, canopy views, epiphytes, and arboreal animals.

18. ̂ "The Gymnosperm Database: Abies procera".http://www.conifers.org/pi/ab/procera.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-14.

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19.^ a b Mitchell, A. F. (1972). Conifers in the British Isles. ForestryCommission Booklet 33.

20.^ a b c Hamilton, G. J. (1975). Forest Mensuration Handbook . ForestryCommission Booklet 39. ISBN 0-11-710023-4.

21. ̂ Fenner, M. 1980. Some measurements on the water relations of baobabtrees. Biotropica 12 (3): 205-209.

22. ̂ "List of Champion Trees published for comment, 2005, South AfricanDepartment of Water Affairs and Forestry".http://www2.dwaf.gov.za/dwaf/download.asp?f=4148___list+of+proposed+Champion+trees.pdf&docId=4148. Retrieved2010-01-18.

23.^ a b Gymnosperm Database: Taxodium mucronatum

24. ̂ "Gymnosperm Database: Sequoiadendron giganteum"  .http://www.conifers.org/cu/se2/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. "theGeneral Grant tree in Kings Canyon National Park, CA, which is 885 cm

dbh and 81.1 m tall"25.^ a b "Gymnosperm Database: A Tale of Big Tree Hunting In California".

http://www.conifers.org/topics/biggest.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10."Sequoiadendron giganteum is 1489 m³, Sequoia sempervirens 1045 m³,Thuja plicata 500 m³, Agathis australis ca. 400 m³"

26. ̂ ENTSTrees - Árbol del Tule

27. ̂ White, J. (1990). Estimating the Age of Large and Veteran Trees inBritain. Forestry Commission Edinburgh.

28.^ a b c d  Gymnosperm Database: How Old Is That Tree?. Retrieved on2008-04-17.

29. ̂ Suzuki, E. 1997. The Dynamics of Old Cryptomeria japonica Forest onYakushima Island. Tropics 6(4): 421–428. Available online

30. ̂ Harte, J. (1996). How old is that old yew? At the Edge 4: 1-9. Availableonline

31. ̂ Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew - no core, no curve? InternationalDendrology Society Yearbook 2005: 41-46 ISSN 0307-332X

32. ̂ Wiseman, P. Eric, Integrated Pest Management Tactics, ContinuingEducation Unit, International Arboricultural Society Vol 17, Unit 1, February2008

33. ̂ Ellison, M. J. Quantified Tree Risk Assessment Used in the Management

of Amenity Trees. Journal Arboric. International Society of Arboriculture,Savoy, Illinois. 31:2 57-65, 2005

34. ̂ Schoeneweiss, D.F., "Prevention and treatment of constructiondamage", Journal of Arborculture 8:169

35. ̂ Mountfort, Paul Rhys (2003). Nordic runes: understanding, casting, and interpreting the ancient Viking oracle. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company.p. 41. ISBN 9780892810932. http://books.google.com/?id=_3B7EmvAqngC.

36.^ a b Jonathan Drori on what we think we know | Video on TED.com

37. ̂ "Protecting Existing Trees on Building Sites" p.4 published by the City of 

Raleigh, North Carolina, March 1989, Reprinted February 2000

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38. ̂ "How Valuable Are Your Trees" by Gary Moll, April, 1985, AmericanForests Magazine

39. ̂ based on 1985 to 2009, using NASA inflation calculator

Bibliography

• Pakenham, T.  (2002). Remarkable Trees of the World . ISBN 0-297-84300-1• Pakenham, T. (1996). Meetings with Remarkable Trees. ISBN 0-297-83255-

7

• Tudge, C  . (2005). The Secret Life of Trees. How They Live and Why They Matter . Allen Lane. London. ISBN 0-713-99698-6

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Trees

Look up tree in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Gymnosperm database 

• Silvics of North America 

• University of Florida's Landscape Plants website 

• Global Trees Campaign (campaigning to save the world's most threatened trees)

• International Society of Arboriculture 

• Eastern Native Tree Society 

• Western Native Tree Society 

• The Arbor Day Foundation 

• Tree Encyclopedia  Extensive collection of diagnostic photos, MortonArboretum Specimens

• Forest and Tree program of Bioversity International 

• Wondermondo - Trees  Largest and most unusual trees of the world

• Venerable Trees  Venerable trees of the planet

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"

Categories: Forestry | Trees | Plant morphology

Hidden categories: Wikipedia semi-protected pages | All pages needing cleanup |Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2010 | All articles withunsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2007 |Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009

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