A STUDY OF FACTORS 01 CREATIVITY IN THREE

SELECTED FIELDS 0? STUDY

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR 0? EDUCATION

By

Edward E« Schutz, B» S., M. A,

Denton, Texas

May. 1973

Schutz, Edward E M A Study of Factors of Creativity

in Three Selected Fields of Study. Doctor of Education

(College Teaching), May, 1973, 236 pp., 34 tables, 6

illustrations, bibliography, 55 titles.

The problem of this study is the formulation of a

"base for a theory of creativity.

The purposes of the study are to identify factors of

creativity which have been revealed in the fields of

personality and cognitive theory, art education, and

science, and to formulate a base for a theory of

creativity.

Three authorities from each of the fields were

chosen, based on their fulfillment of designated criteria.

Data for the study were gathered from books, reports,

periodical articles, and personal correspondence.

The organization of the study involves seeking

factors of creative performance identified by the authori-

ties from each field, analysing the factors in terms of

agreement, drawing assumptions based on the agreements,

postulating the assumptions in the form of theoretical

construct as to the nature of creativity in the fields,

analysing the postulates to determine their similarities

to those in the literature, and formulating a base for a

heuristic theory from this evidence.

The study involves studies reported by Guilford,

Torrance, and Jackson from the field of personality and

cognitive theory? Burkhart, Feldman, and Hubbard from the

field of art education; Haefele, Roe, and Taylor from the

field of science.

The study reveals that there are traits, factors,

events, and responses encompassed in creative performance

agreed upon by the authorities.

A cross-fields comparison resulted in a base model

for a heuristic theory of creativity. It is structured on

the parameters of personality traits, process events and

mental factors, and product response properties.

Personality traits of creative performers differ from

traits of noncreatives in the magnitude of the functions

of these traits. They reveal stronger tendencies to be~

have in patterns that permit the identified traits to

perform dominant functions in their strategies of

performance.

The posed flow of the process allows for conditions

that exist in each stage which distinguish creative from

noncreative thinking. These differences lie in the mental

factors that permeate and, at times, dominate the process.

The products of creative performance are the manifesta-

tions of the exercise of the creativity factors through a

strategy of performance. The discernment of them involves

variables which rely on value judgments arrived at through

an overlapping of subjective choices and fixed criteria.

The resulting response properties pertain to the categories

of events relating to specific roles which the product

fulfills.

This base for a heuristic theory of creativity is

compatible with the concepts of creative performance

revealed in the studies.

A STUDY OF FACTORS 01 CREATIVITY IN THREE

SELECTED FIELDS 0? STUDY

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR 0? EDUCATION

By

Edward E« Schutz, B» S., M. A,

Denton, Texas

May. 1973

TABLE 0? CONTENTS

Page

LIST OP TABLES v

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS viii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the Problem Purposes of the Study Definition of Terms The Design of the Study The Value of the Study

II. SELECTED STUDIES OP THREE AUTHORITIES IN PERSONALITY AND COGNITIVE THEORY . . . 15

Guilford: Studies of the Structure of Intellect

Torrance: The Minnesota and Georgia Studies

Jackson; Studies of Gifted Children Summary

III. SELECTED STUDIES OP THREE AUTHORITIES IN ART EDUCATION . . . . . . . . 102

Burkhart: Strategies of Learning in Art Peldman: The Plow of Creative Performance in Art

Hubbard: Creative Production Summary

IV. SELECTED STUDIES OP THREE AUTHORITIES IN SCIENCE 135

Haefele: Innovation and Creation Roe: Creativity in Science Taylor: Scientific Creativity Summary

Chapter

TABLE 0? CQjffrBfl TS--0ontinued

Page

V. THE UNIFYING 0? TRAITS, FACTORS, AMD EVENTS OF THE GREATI YE PROCESS AS REVEALED 111 THE STUDIES .177

Personality and Cognitive Theory: Guilford, Torrancej and Jackson

Art Education j Burkhart, re Id man, and Hubbard

Science: Haefele, Roe, and Taylor Personality and Cognitive Theory, Art, and Science

VI, A BASE EOR A THEORY OP CREATIVITY . . . . 206

Introduction Personality Traits of Creative Performers The Events of the Creative Cycle The Mental Factors Involved in

Creative Behavior Product Response Properties Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY 232

LIST OP TABLES

Table Page

I. Cognition Pastors 21

II. Production Pactors: Convergent Thinking . . 25

III. Production Pactors: Divergent Thinking . . 28

IV. Evaluation Pactors . 29

V. Memory Pactor3 31

VI. Cognition Pactors 33

VII. Convergent Production Pactors . . . . . 34

VIII. Divergent Production Pactors 35

IX. Evaluation Pactors . . . . . . . . . 36

X. Memory Pactors 37

XI. Transformation Pactors Identified by 1969 . 40

XII. Divergent Production Pactors Identified by 1970 42

XIII. Creative Thinking Pactors Identified from 1917 to I960 . . . . . . . . 62

XIV. Interactions Occurring in the Creativity Domain According to Jackson 89

XV. Characteristics of Spontaneous and Deliberate Performers as Identified by Burkhart 108

XVI. Comparison of Three Strategies of Performance According to Burkhart . . . 112

XVII. Personality Traits of Creative Performers as Revealed by the Studies of G-uilf ord, Torrance, and Jackson . 178

LIST OP TABLES—Continued

Table Page

XVIII. Creativity Factors Revealed in Studies "by Guilford, Torrance, and Jackson . . . 180

XIX. The Flow of the Creative Process as Revealed in the Studies of Guilford and Torrance 181

XX. Creative Product Response Properties Revealed in the Studies of Guilford, Torrance, and Jackson 183

XXI. Personality Traits of Creative Performers as Revealed by the Studies of Burkhart, F eld man, and Hubbard 186

XXII. Creativity Factors Revealed in Studies by Burkhart, Feldman, and Hubbard . . . . 188

XXIII. The Flow of the Creative Process as Re-vealed in the Studies of Burkhart, Feldman, and Hubbard 190

XXIV. Creative Product Response Properties Revealed in the Studies of Burkhart, Feldman, and Hubbard 191

XXV. Personality Traits of Creative Performers as Revealed by the Studies of Haefele, Roe, and Taylor 195

XXVI. Creativity Factors Revealed in the Studies by Haefele, Roe, and Taylor 198

XXVII. The Plow of the Creative Process as Revealed in the Studies of Haefele, Roe, and Taylor 199

XXVIII. Creative Product Response Properties Revealed in the Studies of Haefele, Roe, and Taylor 199

XXIX. A Comparison of the Dominant Personality Traits of Creative Individuals as Revealed in Studies from the Selected Fields . . . 201

VI

LIST OP TABLES—Continued

Table Page

XXX. A Comparison of the Dominant Factors of Creativity as Revealed in Studies from the Selected Fields . . . . . . . 203

XXXI. A Comparison of the Flow of the Creative Process as Revealed in Studies from the Selected Fields. 204

XXXII. A Comparison of the Response Properties of Creative Products as Revealed in Studies from the Selected Fields . . . 205

XXXIII. Summary of the Dominant Traits, Events, and Factors Involved in the Cycle of Creative Production 209

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Plow Chart of the Study . 1 2

2. Guilford's Model of the Structure of Intellect 38

3. Guilford's Model for Problem Solving and Creative Production . . . . . . 46

4. The Plow of the Creative Process According to Peldman 118

5. A Summary of McPee's Perception-Delineation Theory of Creative Performance . . . .126

6. Base Model for the Development of a Theory of Creativity . . . . . . . 208

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Since the close of World War II, the advocates and

the critics of American educational programs have "been

confronted more than ever before with the realization

that reliable efforts had not been made toward the develop-

ment of a more adaptive and inventive individual. They

have found that far too few individuals are capable of

the flexible adjustments necessary to maintain operations!

procedures on the levels demanded by the rapidly changing

patterns brought on by society's technological, sociological,

and philosophical advancements. Gowan (6, pp. vii-viii),

Guilford (7, pp. vii-viii), Heist (10, p. 191), and Parnes

(15, pp. 1-2) each have pointed out the need for individu-

als with these capabilities. Teaching that will allow for

the development of interpretative abilities as well as of

research abilities, of skill in synthesis as well as in

analysis, is advocated by Guilford (8) in his factor analy-

sis studies. In these studies, conducted at the University

of Southern California, he has shown a close correlation

between these strategies and has concluded that neither is

specifically stronger nor weaker in the populations

involved.

2

The ensuing years have borne out the importance of this

observation in recognizing the futility of educating

individuals for one specific skill.

During this era the groundwork was laid that in-

fluenced meaningful change in educational philosophies

and trends. Significantly affecting this change was the

realisation that there might be a place in man's develop-

ment of his inner mental self where his abilities to

innovate, to invent, and to create could be reached and

stimulated. Torrance (2 ) is one authority who holds

this beliefJ and, although still in its infancy, the themg

has begun to show some promising results in the attempt to

help prepare man for an adaptive role in a constantly

changing world, as well as prepare him with a more

developed ability to extend himself beyond the realm of

known facts.

An overview of some of the events that occurred

during the late forties and early fifties directly re-

lated to the expanding emphasis on the development of

creative abilities includes such conferences and insti-

tutes as The Creative Problem Solving Institute, Creative

Education Foundation, Industrial Research Institute Con-

ference on the Nature of Creative Thinking, Ohio Conference

on Creativity, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Creative Engineering Institute, and the University of

Pittsburg's experimental brainstorming sessions• As

concluded "by Bruner (1), this is an indication of the wide-

spread interest in creative development from the diverse

fields of human performance.

Although concern for the need of restructuring educa-

tional systems was voiced many times prior, the major

impetus for educational change came with Sputnik in 1958.

Prom this date the desire "became manifest in the various

programs and curricula throughout the country that, hope-

fully, would produce an individual who would "be more

capable in dealing with the complexities of the society te

must face in adulthood.

By 1959> if an observer were to have looked across

the nation, he could have seen distinguished mathemati-

cians , physicians, biologists, and chemists reworking

programs of instruction in such places as Boulder, Colorado,

Kansas City, Missouri, Portland, Oregon, Cambridge,

Massachusetts, and Urbana, Illinois. Prom these groups of

professional people a conference was planned for September,

1959* at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, to synthesize the re-

sults of the many experimental and pilot programs that

were being conducted in these cities. Bruner's (1) ac-

count of the conference .includes men from the fields of

psychology, medicine, cinematography, and history, as we31

as those previously mentioned. The essence of the conference

was the conclusion that, in all areas considered, the

traditional approaches to problem solving were not

effectual enough in the development of an adaptive indi-

vidual and the suggestion that there was a need for more

intuitive approaches to the educational process.

Along with this concern for the inadequacy of

established methodologies in education for the intellec-

tually superior student, there arose a deep concern for

the development of a program to foster the advancement

of creative abilities in people. Heist (10), Guilford

(7), Torrance (22), and Cobb (3) report the findings of

many research programs, which indicated that other goals

were necessary for educating an individual than bringing

him up to some pre-established norm.

Certain factors had been observed in the traditional

creative fields for many decades. Similar ones had been

extracted from the strategies of the creative men in

fields not normally associated with creativity. Guilford's

(8) studies of scientists and engineers had isolated

several such factors in his factor analysis studies. The

trend has been for all disciplines to enter into this

search for the essentials in providing for the education

of the creative student. Such was the theme of centers

like those established at the University of California

(Center for Research and Development in Higher Education)

and at the University of Utah (The Identification of

Creative Scientific (Talent) •

The substance of most of the investigations into this

realm of man's make-up falls into one or more of the three

broad categories: 1) the identification and definition of

creativity, 2) the nurturing of creativity, and 3) the

evaluation of creativity and the created product. In the

first of these categories lies the greatest disparity

among the many disciplines seeking involvement in the pro-

cess of creative development.

Statement of the Problem

The problem was a study to formulate a base for a

theory of creativity.

Purposes of the Study

The purposes of the study were

1. To isolate and consider factors of creativity in

certain areas of personality and cognitive theory, art edu-

cation, and biological and physical science.

2. To seek out factors of creativity which are oommn

to certain areas of personality and cognitive theory, art

education, and biological and physical science.

3. To determine which factors of creativity were

unique to personality and cognitive theory, art education,

and biological and physical science.

4. To formulate a base for a theory of creativity

warranted by the common and unique factors found in these

three areas•

Guideline Questions of the Study

The framework of the study was established in the

pursuit of answers to the following questions:

1. Are there factors of creativity which have a

common meaning in the fields of personality and cognitive

theory, art education, and biological and physical scienos?

2. Are there factors of creativity in the fields of

personality and cognitive theory, art education, and bio-,

logical and physical science which are unique to the

field?

3. Can a base for a theory of creativity, heuris-

tically derived, be constructed that will accommodate a

theory of creativity encompassing the fields of personali-

ty and cognitive theory, art education, and biological and

physical science?

4. Will a base for a theory of creativity, formu-

lated from selected studies in the fields of personality

and cognitive theory, art education, and biological and

physical science be compatible with existing theories

found in the literature from these fields?

Definition of Terms -

For the purposes of this study the following defini-

tions were observed.

Art Education*— The realm of education which pertains

to "behavioral changes involved in the formation, evalua-

tion, presentation, and appreciation of art products.

Biology.—The science of the origin, structure, re-

production, growth, and development of life processes.

Its two main divisions are botany and zoology (5)*

Cognitive theory.—Theory pertaining to central in-

termediaries, or brain processes, acquisition of cogni-

tive structures, and insight in problem solving (11, p.11).

Convergent production.--"Production involving the re-

generation of information from given information where the

emphasis is upon achieving unique or conventionally ac-

cepted best outcomes (14, p. 19)•

Divergent production.—Production involving the gen-

eration of information from given information where the

emphasis is upon variety and quality of output from the

same source (14, p. 20).

Heuristics.-—A designated educational method by which

an individual is stimulated to make his own investigations

and discoveries (5).

8

Physical science.—The sciences that treat of the

structure, properties, and energy relations of matter,

apart from life, as in physics, astronomy, chemistry, or

geology (5).

Science*—As used in this study, the term science

will encompass both biological science and physical

science.

The Design of the Study

She design of the study was as follows:

. 1. Three authorities were selected who have conducted

research in each of the following areas: learning theory,

art education, and science. The basis for this selection

was the fulfillment of at least two of the three following

criteria:

a. Proficiency in their field as evidence by

1. Amount of research and writing published

as revealed in the listings in the Art

Index, Psychological Abstracts, Education

Index, Applied Science and Technology Ih-

dex, and Index Medicus.

2. Esteem of their colleagues as indicated

by the frequency of reference to their

studies as shown in the literature.

b. Currency of research, and publications. The

major sources of material used in this study

were published since 1950.

c. The particular area of development the chosen

investigator was reporting.

Information for the study was gathered from work

published in the form of books, reports, and periodical

articles as well as from personal correspondence with

the authorities.

2. The selected authorities were

a. Learning theory.

1. Guilford, studies of the structure of

intellect (8).

2. Torrance, the Minnesota and Georgia

studies (22).

3. Jackson, studies, of gifted children and

personality-product response (13)*

b. Art education.

1. Burkhart, strategies of learning in

art (2).

2. Feldman, the flow of creative perform-

ance in art (4).

3. Hubbard, creative production in art (12). *

c. Science.

1. Haefele, innovation and creation (9)•

2. Roe, creativity in science (15> 16).

10

3. Taylor, scientific creativity (18, 19,

20, 21).

3. The parameter of the study included

a. Personality traits of creative performers.

b. Process events and mental factors involved

in creative performance,

c. Product properties.

4* The strategy of the study was

a. Seek out factors "believed "by the authorities

to be affecting creative performance in the

fields of learning theory, art education, and

science.

b. Analyse the factors in terras of agreement

among the authorities in each field under

consideration, eliminating single listings.

c. Draw assumptions based on agreement or dis-

agreement among authorities concerning the

factors of creativity commonly identified.

d. Draw postulates from these observations in

the form of theoretical construct as to the

nature of creativity in learning theory, art

education, and science that may offer feed-

back to each area that will

1« Provide more uniformity of interpretation.

2. Determine degrees of uniqueness and com-

monality of the factors of creativity.

1.1

e. Analyze these postulates to determine their

likeness and unlikeness to those currently

dominant in the literature.

f. Formulate a "base for a heuristic theory of

creativity from the evidence discovered in

the study.

The Value of the Study

The value of this study lies primarily in

1.. Possible articulation of creative theory into a

statement which will be consistent in cross-discipline

fields.

2. Indication to individuals involved in the nur-

turing of creative performance the possibility of a higher

degree of clarity in attempting to formulate objectives and

attitudes that are consistent with the factors relevant to

the creative process in general as well as to the specific

areas they foster.

3. Appropriateness to the enrichment and enlighten-

ment of individuals who may be in the process of develop-

ing or redefining philosophies, theories, and strategies

of performance concerning the creative realm of man's

behavior.

12

Personality and Cognitive theory

Guilford Torrance

Jackson

Art Education

FeIdman Hubbard

Burkhart

Feedback

- * •

Postulates

Science

Taylor Roe

Haexele

y

Fundamental

Questions Treatise

Fig. 1—Flow Chart of the Study

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bruner, Jerome S., The Process of Education, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., I960.

2. Burkhart, Robert C., Spontaneous and Deliberate Ways of Learning. Scranton, Pennsylvania, "international Textbook Company, 1962,

3. Cobb, Stanvvood, The Importance of Creativity. Metuchen, New Jersey, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1967.

4. Feldman, Edmund Burke, Becoming Human Through Art, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970.

5. Punk and Wagnalls, Standard College Dictionary, text edition, New York", Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1968.

6. Gowan, John Curtis, George D. Demos, and E. Paxil Torrance, editors, Creativity: Its Educational Implications, Hew York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

7. Guilford, Joy Paul, Intelligence. Creativity, and Their Educational Implications, San Diego, California, Robert R. Knapp, Publishers, 1968.

8. _ The Nature of Human Intelligence, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968.

9. Haefele, John ¥., Creativity and Innovation. New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.

10. Heist, Paul, editor, The Creative College Student: An Unmet Challenge. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Publi-cations, 1968.

11. -Hilgard, Ernest R., and Gordon H. Bower, Theories of Learning, third edition, New York, Meredith Publishing Company, 1966.

12. Hubbard, Guy, Art in the High School. Belmont, Cali-fornia, Y/adsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1967.

T*

14

13. Jackson, Philip ?.T. ana Samuel Messick, "The Person, the Product, and the Response," Creativity and Learning, edited by Jerome Xagan, Boston, Beacon Press", 1967.

14. Meeker, Mary Nacol, The Structure of Intellect: Its Interpretation and Uses, Columbus, Ohio, Charles~ E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969*

15. Parnes, S. J. and H. P. Harding, editors, A Source Book for Creative Thinking, New York, Charles Scrxbner's Sons, 1962.

16. Roe, Anne, The Making of a Scientist. Hew York, Dodd, Mead, Inc. ,~1963.~ ~

17. _ , The Psychology of Occupations, lew York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.

18. Taylor, Calvin W., editor, Creativity: Progress and Potential, lew York, McGraw-Hill Book Cornpany," 19~64.

19. . and P. E. Williams, editors, Ins true t i onal Media and Creativity. New York, John V.'iley and Sons, Inc., 1966.

20. and Prank Barron, editors, Scientific Creativity: Its Recognition and Develop-ment . New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963.

21. editor, Widening Horizons in Creativity. New York, John"Wiley and Sons7 Inc., 1964.

22. Torrance, E. Paul, Guiding Creative Talent. Bngle-wood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall,""inc., 1964.

CHAPTER II

SELECTED STUDIES OP THREE AUTHORITIES

IN PERSONALITY AID COGNITIVE THEORY

Guilford: Studies of the Structure of Intellect

On September 5, 1950, in M s President's Address to

the American Psychological Association, Guilford admonished

his colleagues of the need for research into the realm of

creative "behavior of individuals (1, p. 445) • His examin-

ation of the index of Psychological Abstracts for the

previous twenty-three years revealed that of approximately

121,000 titles listed only 186 dealt with the subject of

creativity. He found only two textbooks on general

psychology that treated creativity with separate chapters.

Causes for this apparent unconcern for investiga-

tions into this aspect of human performance were suggested

as follows:

1. The common belief that genius was largely a matter of intelligence and l.Q.

2. The difficulty of establishing practical criteria of creativity because of the rarity of creative acts.

3. The problems of testing methodologies.

4. The emphasis on investigations of learning based on the study of lower animals, or covering the phenom-ena that are easiest to order in logical schema.

16

Guilford further stated that the general consensus

in the field of psychology seemed to "be that all individu-

als possess to some degree all abilities, except for the

occurrence of pathologies. Creative acts can "be expected

of all individuals, hut those persons who are recognized

as "being creative merely have more of what any normal

individual has. This observation is referred to as the

concept of continuity, which makes possible investiga-

tions of creativity among people who have not necessarily

distinguished themselves as being creative. The concept

that, creativity is closely bound to high I.Q. was held by

many psychologists of this time. Positive correlation be-

tween I.Q. as measured on intelligence tests and certain

creative abilities had been shown, but the extent of these

correlations was not known. Guilford doubted the ability

of intelligence tests to cover general creative abilities

because of their nature (1, p. 447) • The tests had been

devised to measure achievement in school, which in turn, had

mostly meant achievement in reading and arithmetic. These

subjects, he felt, were not conspicuously demanding of

creative talent.

Guilford proposed a theory of creativity as a theory

of personality (l, p. 447). It involves a unique pattern

of traits and traits as a matter of individual differences.

He believed these traits, of which there is an undetermirad

number of observable ones, had been placed in categories

11

that were too limiting when they were "based on a" single

concept of intelligence. Conversely, he felt that limit-

less numbers of descriptive terms were unnecessary, because

they could be interrelated both positively and negatively.

Patterns of consistency running throughout the categories

describing abilities, interests, and temperament variables .

could be determined by intercorrelation procedures. He

proposed that the general outline for such factor-analysis

investigation could be followed in identifying these pat-

terns utilizing the following steps.

1. Choose the domain of the investigation.

2. Set up hypothesis as to the factors expected to be found in that domain.

3. Construct test or tests which attempt to measure individual differences in the kind of ability, or other quality, believed to be identified by the factor.

4. Administer the test to a sample of adequate size from a population of appropriate qualifications.

5. Extract and treat the factors.

Guilford observed that prior studies utilizing fac-

torial methods were directed into a domain in which pre-

vious results were always suggestive and that, in similar

studies in the personality domain, there had been very

little illumination of the underlying variables. In the

first instance, hypotheses are derived from hypotheses,

while in the latter, hypotheses must be sought or formu-

lated without prior evidence.

"I 8

Guilford was critical of the approach found in the

literature attempting to describe creative events* These

descriptions abound with vague concepts such as "genius,"

"intuition," "imagination," "reflection," and "inspira-

tion," none of which offer much evidence for scientific

inquiry. There had emerged from the literature consider-

able agreement that the creative act involves four impor-

tant steps. These steps are: preparation, incubation,

inspiration, and verification. Guilford believed this

terminology to be superficial because it tells little

about mental operations and offers little that can be con-

sidered testable (1, p. 451). He believed that the answers

to what happens mentally in each of these events lies not

in the study of the event, but in the study of the nature

of the processes of the events. The individual differ-

ences that prevail in the efficiency of the processes will

offer identifiable factors of creative performance.

Guilford hypothesized that within the factorial

framework there are different types of creative abilities

and that these may vary greatly depending upon the type of

creative person being observed. He believed some of the

thinking factors are in operation during creative per-

formance, which may account for individual differences in

the variables of: sensitivity to problems, fluency factors ,

novel ideas, flexibility of set, synthesizing abilities,

19

reorganization or redefinition, of organized wholes, com-

plexity, and evaluation.

According to Guilford, once factors have been

established as describing the creative domain, there will

have been established a basis for the means of selecting

individuals with creative potential {1, p. 454). Enough

should then be known about primary abilities to do some-

thing toward their improvement and utilization.

As a result of his pursuit of factorial methods of

investigation, Guilford stated in July, 1956, that forty

different factors had been demonstrated (8, p. 267).

Most of these factors were unfamiliar; however, enough of

the intellectual factors were known to suggest the frame-

work of a system. He found that, although its implica-

tions were predominantly theoretical, the system pointed

to other factors that had not appeared.

In prior research Guilford had initiated studies

aimed essentially at adult, human intelligence (2, 7).

One reason for these studies was the belief that thinking

abilities seemed to have been neglected in the pursuit of

understanding of human intelligence. Accordingly, four

areas were arbitrarily designated as distinct realms of

functions in the thought process to be investigated.

These four areas were given the broad headings of reason-

ing, creativity, planning, and evaluation. The result of

ud

the findings was the verificat

factors of intellectual apt it'

about as many new ones (3, p

The total list of intelle

groups, which Guilford classif

memory factors. Most of the f

ing factor group. This group

identified as cognition factor

evaluation factors. The produ

further divided into the class

gent, thinking abilities.

ion of the known nineteen

es and the introduction of

268).

ctual factors fell into two

ied as thinking factors and

actors fell into the think-

was divided into subgroups

3, production factors, and

ction factor group was

es of convergent and diver-

The (Jognitio

The cognition factors per

mental items or constructs of

encompass comprehension, recog

individual. They can be diffe

of two major principles. The

factors tend to pair off accor

content being utilized. The s

thing discovered will fall int

The relationship between the c

covered combine to form a poss

Table I is the matrix tha

trate this relationship and ide

20

n Factors

tain to becoming aware of

one kind or another. They

nition, or discovery by the

rentiated along the lines

first is that thinking

ding to the material or

econd is that the kind of

o an identifiable category,

ontent and the thing dis-

ible factor (8, p. 269)•

t was developed to illus-

•mtify the resulting factors

21

by name. This form was ased in the graphic presentation

of the other factor groups in Guilford's system of

classification.

TABIE I

COGNITION FACTORS

Type of Thing Known or

Type of Content

Discovered Figural 1 Structural Conceptual

Fundaments Figural closure

Verbal comprehensicn

Classes Perceptual classifi-cation

Verbal classifica-tion

Relations Figural relations

Structural relations

Conceptual relations

Patterns or systems

Spatial orienta-tion

Education of patterns

Education of conceptual relations

Problems Sensitivity to problems •

Implications Perceptual foresight

Conceptual foresight

The "Type of Content" column of the matrix v/as sub-

divided into three columns headed "Figural," "Structural,"

and "Conceptual." The figural and conceptual factors had

been recognized in previous studies through tests concerned

o 2

with identification of perceptual, and conceptual'opera-

tions. Guilford reported the discovery of factors where

neither perceived form nor verbal meaning was the basis

of operations (8, p. 269)• This discovery involved tests

whose contents were letters or symbols which led to in-

creasing evidence for the third content category which

he labeled structural. At the time of this report, the

structural column was mostly incomplete; however, evidence

that there may be such factors in each row of the matrix.

The heading of the left column of the matrix changed

with each factor group being described. In the considera-

tion of the cognitive factors the column was given the

"Type of Thing Known or Discovered" heading. The first

row under this heading was named the "Fundaments" row.

Fundament is a term Guilford adopted from Spearman, which

pertains to awareness of items, elements, or things.

The relationship between "Fundaments" and "Type of

Content" revealed the factors of figural closure and verbal

comprehension. No factor was identified that could be

placed in the structural column on this row.

The second row shows the factors of figural proper-

ties and verbal meaning. These two factors were pre-

viously known to be functional in class formation.

Differences in the types of tests used to identify these

factors and the methods of their presentation led to the

belief that there might be a factor having to do with the

23

seeing of classes when class memberskip depended' upon

structural properties. Structural factors had been dis-

covered in tests utilizing letters and simple forms such

as circles and dashes. The question was posed whether

or not mechanical conceptions belonged to this class.

Another question concerned the point at which figural

properties end and structural properties begin and where

structural properties end and conceptual properties begin.

There was an indicision as to whether there was a continuim

in this respect or whether there was a transition between

figural factors and conceptual factors that was so rapid

that there would be no basis for the third, or structural,

factor.

The third row offers a positive identification of

three distinct factors having to do with the seeing of

relationships. The structural factors identified involve

the ability to see trends and sequences. On this row

the known factors of perceptual relations and conceptual

relations were verified.

Three factors also complete the fourth row whicl I i

concerns patterns, or systems. The structural factor

identified on this row involves the discovery of the

principle by which certain symbols are coded in sequence

and the reproduction of this sequence with a new set of

symbols. It also involves the discovery of patterns

24

that exist in diverse alphabetical arrangements. The known

factors of spatial orientation and general reasoning were

verified.

The fifth row pertains to problems. The only factor

found was the known conceptual factor, sensitivity to

problems•

The sixth row, dealing with implications, shows

perceptual foresight to have "been identified as a figural

factor. No structural factor was discovered on this row.

The conceptual factors, foresight and penetration, were

identified.

The Production Pactors: Convergent Thinking.

The production factors involve end results. In the

early literature on thinking processes, there is no evi-

dence of distinction "between the types of operations in-

volved in this syndrome. Guilford's studies showed that

there were two distinct groups of operations involved.

These groups were given the names of convergent thinking

and divergent thinking. Some of the factors involved are

more distinct than others in the groupings. Convergent

thinking usually involves seeking a unique answer or

conclusion "by channeling thought in a specific direction.

In divergent thinking there is deviation from uniqueness

of direction; rather, it involves searching in various

directions, unprescribed, seeking answers unforeseen.

25

Table II is the matrix of the convergent thinking

factors as presented in 1956 (8, p. 27$). The matrix

TABLE II

PRODUCTION FACTORS; CONVERGENT THINKING

Type of Result Produced

Type of Content Type of Result Produced

Pigural Structural Conceptual

Names Object naming

Abstract naming

Correlates Correlates JuU u C w w X 0X1

of correlates

Orders Ordering

Changes Visuali-sation

Redefinition

Unique conclusions

Symbol substitu-tions

Numerical facility

I . .. ,

Symbolic manipulation

follows the same format as the matrix of cognition factors,

the difference being that the first column involves the

type of results produced. The column concerning content

shows the same subdivisions and they, as in the cognition

matrix, were incomplete at the date of its publication.

The first row reveals factors having to do with the

production of names. Two factors were identified. They

26

were object naming, placed under the figural heading,

and abstract naming, placed under the conceptual heading.

There was no structural factor identified on this row.

The second row pertains to correlates. The identi-

fication of the triadic factors of relations in Table II

led to the assumption that there would be a triadic

correlate factor group in convergent production. At the

time of this report, only one education of correlates

factor had been convincingly shown; and since tests from

all three factor columns exhibited its presence, it was

not isolated. Rather, it was placed at a cross factor

position. Guilford believed that three unique factors

compose the identified factor and that they would eventu-

ally become known. He further predicted that the inter-

correlation between them would be very high (8, p. 276).

In the third row only a single ordering factor, con-

ceptual ordering, was revealed. The tests utilized did

not indicate whether there were additional factors

necessary in figural and structural ordering; however,

Guilford suggested that figural ordering may be a signifi-

cant aspect of pictorial art and may be identifiable

(8, p. 276).

Row four indicates the verification of the previously

known factors of visualization and redefinition. A factor

of structural change had not been discovered in the tests

being utilized.

27

Row five reveals the completed triad of factors of

unique conclusions. The factor of numerical facility was

verified and two new factors, symbol substitution and sym-

bol manipulation, were isolated as distinct factors.

The Production Factors: Divergent Thinking

Table III is the matrix of the divergent production

factors. The first three rows indicate the verification

of four established fluency factors. Word fluency

specifies that words begin or end in a stated order. Only

structural requirements are met. Associational fluency

pertains to word meaning as the essential requirement.

Ideational fluency was verified; however, Guilford pointed

out that since fluency tests had been commonly cast in

verbal form, fluency in the production .of figures and

fluency in the production of things distinguished by

their structural properties may well be separate factors,

both operations possibly being distinct from ideational

fluency. The identification of the expressional fluency

factor apart from the ideational fluency factor indicated

that the ability to generate ideas and the ability to put

them in word form are two unique abilities.

The only identified triadic factor group in this ma-

trix is the flexibility factors pertaining to shifts.

Flexibility of closure, adaptive flexibility, and spon-

taneous flexibility were each verified.

28

Originality of novel responses was verified -under

the conceptual heading? however, it posed the question of

whether such a factor measured only "by means of verbal

tests was significantly related to original production in

nonverbal activities. \

TABLE III

PRODUCTION ?ACTORS: DIVERGENT THINKING

Type of Result Produced

Type of Content . . . . .

Type of Result Produced

Pigural Structural Conceptual

Words Word fluency Association-al fluency

Ideas Ideational fluejncy

Expressions Expressional fluency

Shifts Flexibili-ty of closure

Adaptive flexibility

Spontaneous flexibility

Novel responses

Elaboration Elaboration

The elaboration factor was identified in both f iguraL

and conceptual tests. Guilford believed that three dis-

tinct elaboration factors would be distinguished in terms

of content.

29

The Evaluation factors

Evaluation concerns decisions of goodness, suit-

ability, or effectiveness of the results of thinking.

Guilford's hypothesis concerning evaluation was that the

ability to make such decisions will depend upon the area

within which the thinking takes place and the criteria

on which the decision is "based. The results of the study

reveal several evaluation factors,

TABLE IV

EVALUATION MOTORS

Type of Content

Pigural Structural Conceptual

Perceptual evaluation

Logical evaluation 1

Length estimation

Experiential evaluation

Judgment

Speed of Judgment

Table IV is the matrix of the evaluation factors.

They were placed in the figural, structural, conceptual

matrix, although no structural factors were verified. Dis

tinguishing rows were not used because no good way of

identification of the factors in terms of such rows had

50

"been developed. The factor of perceptual evaluation was

used with a degree of reluctance, because Guilford be-

lieved that there were other, unrevealed, factors that

compose this function# He found the factor of length

estimation to he an entity (8, p. 282).

The logical evaluation factor was found to he the

best established one in the conceptual group; however,

two others were also verified in this cell. Logical

evaluation was defined as the ability to judge the sound-

ness of conclusions where logical consistency is the

criterion. An experiental evaluation factor, one in which

evaluation is made upon the basis of past experience, was

identified. The judgment factor, third in this cell, was

listed with some hesitation because, although it was ex-

hibited repeatedly on the tests, it was shown with a

degree of weakness.

The speed of judgment factor was verified; however,

it was found to cut across all three content columns.

The Memory Factors

In Table V, the memory factor matrix, Guilford listed

seven factors. As shown, rote memory which does not

necessitate a knowledge of meanings, was distinguished

from meaningful memory, which necessitates a knowledge of

meanings. Both of these factors deal with associative

connections. No figural associative factor was revealed.

31

A visual memory factor and an auditory memory factor

were listed on the content row under the figural heading.

Guilford suggested that both of these factors may be a

TABLE V

MEMORY FACTORS

Thing or Aspect Remembered

Type of Content Thing or Aspect Remembered

Figural Structural Conceptual

Associative connections

Rote memory Meaningful memory

Content

Visual memory

Auditory memory

Memory for ideas

Span Memory span Integration

unitary factor and may not demand a separate listing.

Another content factor was identified as memory of ideas

and was placed under the conceptual heading of the matrix

(8, p. 284)*

Two factors were verified concerning span. Memory

span, which involves the ability to remember number and

letter sequences, was isolated and placed under the

structural heading. Integration span, which involves the

ability to remember a number of detailed rules, was iso-

lated and placed under the conceptual heading.

32 •

This matrix completed the first effort "by Guilford to

develop a descriptive system of the function of the human

mind as it was observed through the results of many tests

that had been devised for such purposes and the intercor-

relations of the results. The attempt to fill the vacant

cells of the several matrixes with identifiable factors be -

came a continuing challenge for Guilford and his colleagues.

The Structure of Intellect Model

As the result of continuous testing programs, leading

to successive refinement of the original matrixes, several

modifications were made and presented in 1958.

The operations parameter of the original matrixes re-

mained unchanged. The content parameter was expanded, and

two of the existing headings were changed in name. These

headings, structural and conceptual, were changed to sym-

bolic and semantic, and the content parameter was expanded

to include the kind of information involved in the opera-

tions pertaining to human behavior. This column was given

the behavioral title. Modification of the products column

resulted in six categories believed to be consistent with

each of the five operations matrixes. These categories

were identified as units, classes, relations, systems,

transformations, and implications.

At the time of Guilford's first attempt to organize

human intellectual abilities into a system, thirty-seven

35

factors had been identifies» The number had risen to

forty-three in 1958, to eighty-four in 1969, and to

ninety-one in 1970.

TABLE VI

COGNITION FACTORS

Products Content

Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

Units IX XX X X

Classes X X X X

Relations X X X X

Systems X X X X

Transfor-mations X X X X

Implica-tions X X X X

Table VI is the current matrix of the cognition

factors. It reveals that each cell of the matrix has been

filled with an identified factor and two cells; figural

units and symbolic units contain two factors each.

34

Table VII, the current matrix of the convergent

production factors, shows the thirteen factors of this

parameter that have been identified.

TABLE Y U

CONVERGENT PRODUCTION FACTORS

Products Content

Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

Units X

Classes X X X

Relations X X

Systems X X

Transfor-mations I X X

Implica-tions X X

35

Table VIII is the current matrix of the divergent

production factors. It reveals twenty-three factors

identified in this production category.

TABLE VIII

DIVERGENT PRODUCTION FACTORS

Content

Products Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

Units X X X X

Classes X X X X

Relations X X X

Systems X X X X

Transfor-mations X X X X

Implica-tions X X X X

36

Table IX, the current matrix of the evaluation

factors, shows fourteen identified factors which may be

utilised in this category of operations.

TABLE IX

EVALUATION FACTORS

Products

Content

Products Pigural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

Units X X X

Classes X X

Relations X X

Systems X X

Transfor-mations X X X

Implica-tions X X

Table X is the current matrix of the memory factor

group. It reveals fifteen identified factors, two of

which fall in the figural systems cell.

TA3EE X

MBMOSY FACTORS

37

Content

Products Pigural Symbolic Semantic Behaviroal

Units X X X

Classes X X

Relations X X

Systems XX X X -

Transfor-mations X X

Implica-tions X X

Juxtaposition of the five matrixes results in the

structure of intellect cube as presented "by Guilford.

Figure 2 shows the cube which utilizes the three

parameters of operations, products, and content. Guilfcrd

stated that as investigations proceed, if other parameters

become known, they must also be included in the model

(6, p. 63).

33

OPERATION:

Evaluation Convergent Production,

Divergent Production Memory, Cognition

Units

Relations

Systems

Transformations

Implications

CONTENT:

Pigural _ Symbolic a Semantic Behavioral

Pig. 2—Guilford's Model of the Structure of Intellect

The three parameters of the cube allow for a com-

posite of 120 cells. Each cell may "be occupied by one or

more factors, as shown in the tables. Of this total, the

ones most closely associated with creative performance

appear to be those which lie in the divergent and transfor-

mation matrixes.

39

Divergent Production and Transformation Abilities

Paralleling his studies of the nature of human intel-

ligence, and integrated with them, have been Guilford's

attempts to identify those factors which he believes to

be most relevant to creative behavior. He has stated his

belief that they lie within the categories of divergent

production and transformation abilities (4, p. 142).

There is likelihood that other abilities make important

contributions to the creative act. His belief that they

lie mainly within the divergent production and transfor-

mation abilities implies that further considerations of

these parameters is appropriate for the interpretation of

his understanding of the creative process.

In order to synthesize the transformation abilities

into a more comprehensible relationship with the opera-

tions and content parameters of the structure of intellect

model, Guilford presents a matrix of them as a horizontal

layer of cells in the model. This matrix is shown in

Table XI. It exhibits the sixteen transformation factors

that had been revealed at the close of 1969 (3» pp. 20-24).

Six of the factors had been verified prior to these

studies, and ten were verified in the studies. There are

four cells in the matrix that are unoccupied but that are

under investigation by Guilford. A description of the

identified factors follows the table.

TA3XB XI

M M S M M M I M FACTORS IDENTIFIED BY 1969

40

Content **

Operation *

F S M B

C CFT . CST CMT CBT

M MST MMT

D DPT DST DMT DBT

N HPT NST HMT

E EPT EST EMT

* C Cognitive M Memory D Divergent H Convergent E Evaluation

** F Figural S Symbolic M Semantic B Behavioral

Cognitive Figural Transformation. The ability to vis-ualize liow a figure will appear after given specified changes.

Cognitive Symbolic Transformation. The ability to recognize that a specific transformation of symbolic in-formation has occurred.

Cognitive Semantic Transformation. The ability to re-member rearrangement of and regrouping of letters in words .

Cognitive Behavioral Transformation. The ability to respond to visual stimuli, usually drawings of human heads, in a specified way.

Memory Symbolic Transformation. The ability to re-TT!£»m"h A T * — -

41

Memory Semantic Transformation. The ability to remember changes in meaning, or redefinitions.

Divergent Figural Transformation. The ability to process revised figural information.

Divergent Symbolic Transformation. The ability to vary production of changes or alterations in symbolic information such as that composed of numbers or letters.

Divergent Semantic Transformation. The originality factor. The ability to respond in unusual, remote, or clever manners.

Divergent Behavioral Transformation. The ability to change in area of information concerning any of the products.

Convergent Pigural Transformation. The ability to break down given figural units to form new ones.

Convergent Symbolic Transformation. The ability to . break up or destroy symbolic items of information.

Convergent Semantic Transformation. The ability to find new uses for objects by redefining them or by taking them out of their usual context.

Evaluation Pigural Transformation. The ability to present a series of figures from a given model.

Evaluation Symbolic Transformation. The ability to judge the adequacy of symbolic substitutions or orderings.

Evaluation Semantic Transformation. The ability to judge unusualness, cleverness, ingeniousness, comparisons, and useful changes.

The divergent production matrix published in 1967

revealed twenty-four cells of which sixteen had been

filled with demonstrated factors (6, p. 139)• Studies

since that time have verified a factor for each cell

except the one of divergent figural relations (5, p. 6).

Table XII shows the divergent production matrix with the

twenty-three verified factors in their respective cells.

42

i'ABIE XII

THE DIVERGED? IRODU'JIION JfACfORS H)EITT1?IED BY 1970

Products*

U D^U

Content**

M

SSU DMU

B

SBU

DPC

R

DFS

T MT

DSC DHC

USR DM

:oss SMS

est DM

SBC

SBR

SBS

SBT

SFI J_

SSI SMI SB I

*U Units C Classes R Relations S Systems T Transformations I Implications

**F Pigural S Symbolic M Semantic B Behavioral

The divergent production factors that have been iden-

tified and a statement of their function is listed

as follows:

Divergent Pigural Units. The ability to produce many-figures conforming to specific instructions.

Divergent Symbolic Units. The ability to produce many symbolic units conforming to specific instructions and which do not involve meanings.

43

Divergent Semantic Units. The ability to produce many ideas conforming to specific data.

Divergent Behavioral Units. The ability to produce many interpretations of facial expression and "body postures conforming to specific data.

Divergent Pigural Classes. The ability to group figural data in diverse ways.

Divergent Symbolic Classes. The ability to group symbolic data in diverse ways.

Divergent Semantic Classes. The ability to produce many categories of ideas conforming to specific data.

Divergent Behavioral Classes. The ability to form alternate classes from a given set of expressional iteas.

Divergent Symbolic Relations, The ability to relate letters or numbers in diverse ways.

Divergent Semantic Relations. The ability to produce many relationships, similar in meaning, to a given idea.

Divergent Behavioral Relations. The ability to organ-ise relations of sets of pictorial data, usually facial expressions, to depict stated conditions.

Divergent Pig-iral Systems. The ability to.recompose figural information in many systematic ways.

Divergent Symbolic Systems. The ability to recoapose symbolic information in many systematic ways.

Divergent Semantic Systems. The ability to organize words in various meaningful complex ideas.

Divergent Behavioral Systems. The ability to organ-ise imagined reactions of one character to another in a stated situation.

Divergent Pigural Transformations. The ability to process revised figural information.

Divergent Symbolic Transformations. The ability to vary production of changes or alterations in symbolic information, such as that composed of numbers or letters.

Divergent Semantic Transformations. The ability to respond in unusual, remote, or clever manners.

44

Divergent Behavioral Transformation. The ability to suggest different story completions from stated beginning data.

"Divergent Figural Implications. The ability to extend or elaborate on fig-oral information.

Divergent Symbolic Implications. The ability to make varied implications from given symbolic information.

Divergent Semantic Implications. The ability to pro-duce many antecedents, concurrents, or consequents of given information.

Divergent Behavioral Implications. Rie ability to list possible problems, actions, and consequences arising between two specified people or groups.

The juxtaposition of the vertical matrix of divergent

production and the horizontal matrix of transformation

abilities reveals thirty-nine mental abilities which,

according to Guilford, are interwoven in tlae creative

processes.

Problem Solving- and Creative Production

Because of the close interrelation between creativity

and problem solving, Guilford stated that these activities

are basically the same phenomenon, both involving transfer

recall (6, p. 312). A reason for this belief was that

tests which had been designed to generate a unique problem

solving factor not only failed to do so but revealed

variances accounted for by factors of verbal comprehen-

sion, conceptual foresight, originality, and semantic

elaboration. Even general arithmetic reasoning tests,

while possessing the factor of general reasoning, revealed

45

soroe variances with the factors ox* visualization and ver-

bal comprehension. Another reason for this belief lies

within the close parallels witnessed in the comparison of

Dewey's steps involved in problem solving with Wallas'

and Rossman'3 steps involved in creative production*

Dewey's steps in different episodes of problem

solving include 1) felt difficulty, 2) location and de-

finition of difficulty, 3) suggested possible solutions,

4) considered consequences, and 5) accepted solutions,

Dallas' steps in the episodes of creative production ares

1} preparation, 2) incubation, 3) illumination, and 4)

verification. Rossman's steps include 1) observed need

or difficulty, 2) formulated problem, 3) surveyed avail-

able information, 4) formulated solution, 5) critically

examined solution, 6) formulated new ideas, and 7) tested

and accepted new ideas. The similarities between these

three groups of steps of production reinforced Guilford's

conclusion that problem solving and creative production

are essentially the same kind of major operation.

Talcing into account these similarities and the

categories of factors in his structure of intellect model,

Guilford projected a model for general problem solving

which also serves as a model for most creative production.

The model, Figure 3, is intended to serve as a communica-

tion system with inputs from the environment (E) and from

the soma (S). Inputs from the soma are concerned with

46

"behavioral information regarding the individuals disposi-

tion, his motivational and emotional condition. The flow

of information, as indicated "by arrows, proceeds one way

or both ways depending upon the situation of the involvement.

0 EJPU'f IT

®

*„w tsmmur uaruCT,

|"p ILTER |

"XNPXTJP' Ilff E S I

n FILTER

EXIT I 1 1

I EXIT | II

I EX HI] I EXIT

, III S| IV J

III PUT | FILTER-] I COGNI-f | \ PRODUC- || | COGNI- L 1 MODOC- I AMI TMfi. t*4 t> roTir lis mrna pi 5101 Fi TIOH ^ TX033

EVALUA F ION

8 EVALUA. " EVAI.UA TOT |

L 4

EVALUA TIOH TIOM

i

MEMORY STORAGE

VISUAL PIG-URAL SYMBOLIC SEMANTIC

BEHAVIORAL IKPORMAT ION

EXIT

Pig. 3—Guilford's Model for Problem Solving and Crea-tive Production.

The horizontal set of "blocks from left to right in-

dicates the general time sequence.

47

Memory storage is represented "by the long rectangle

that underlies the entire model. The memory "block includes

the four kinds of content identified in the structure of

intellect model. The flow of arrows from the memory "block

to the other operations indicates the effect of memory on

all the events. The arrows flowing into the memory "block

indicate the search in memory storage for pertinent infor-

mation as well as the committing of new or modified in-

formation into storage in the cases of cognition and pro-

duction# Some retrieval of information from memory storage

to cognition and produc tion activities flows through evalu-

ation, which may have a filtering function; while some

retrieval of information bypasses the evaluation opera-

tion, as in the cases of suspended judgment, dreams, or

psychotic outbursts.

The evaluation factors are also generally dispersed

throughout the model, because evaluation, or testing of

material, can be done at any step on the model. Guilford

stated his uncertainty as to whether the kind of evalua-

tion occurring in the cognition and production activities

is the same kind as that occurring at the filtering state

(6, p. 314). He also stated that although the evaluation

factors were not shown to effect memory storage, perhaps

they should be shown to take care of the psychoanalytical

phenomenon of repression. The evaluation factors would

then encompass the concept of censor.

48

The first cycle of the operation of problem solving

according to the model involves: 1) input one either singly

or jointly from environmental or somatic stimuli, 2) fil-

tering of the stimuli through degrees of aroused and

directed attention, 3) retrieval from storage pertinent .

data concerning the stimuli, 4) evaluation of input and

early cognition, 5) cognition wherein the problem is first

sensed and structured, and 6) production whereby answers

are generated. The cycle may end at any point in the

flow and exit if interest is lost or interruption of the

process occurs. This exit may be the ignoring or re-

jection of the initial problem.

Once the cycle is completed, new inputs may occur,

as indicated by input two and input three, and the cycle

recurs. Although the sequence is not indicated on the

model, the connection of filter, evaluation, and memory

storage is present as in the sequence of cycle one.

The second exit on the model may suggest that the

problem is unimportant or that it is impossible to solve*

It may also suggest that the attempt to solve the problem

has been postponed. The third exit may mean that an

acceptable solution to the problem has been arrived at.

A feature of the model is that it allows for over-

lapping of events and feedbaclt: tsotween cognition, evalua-

tion, and production. The production stations indicate

either convergent or divergent production.

49

A fuller understanding of the application of the model

to these events involves further consideration of what is

believed by Guilford to occur at the different points on

the flow of the model.

The various input blocks involve stimulus events

from either environmental (S) sources or from somatic (S)

sources. The somatic (S) input was designed to recognize

the origin of information that is considered behavioral,

in that it involves need states and deficiency and dis-

crepancy corrections. These states of drive reduction

and fulfillment of need either through feelings of sat-

isfaction, pleasure, or displeasure are treated as moti-

vational stimuli that may generate from either inside or

outside the central nervous system.

Motivation.—Motivation may stem from one or more •

of the sources of intellectual drives, secondary sources

of satisfaction, and interest in thinking.

Intellectual drives have been shown to include more

facets than can be accounted for by the utilitarian drives

of fear, pain, hunger, thirst, and sex. The drives of

curiosity and of normal function are evident as shown by

the human interest in having new experiences, in generating

new ideas, of causing new movements or changes within the

old order, of mastering the environment through developing

knowledge and skill. Conceptual conflict, discrepancies

in beliefs,

of Rossman

wards such

50

in attitudes j and in thoughts are "believed to

instigate curiosity. Guilford refers to Golan concerning

motivation for creative performance as being the form of a

desire to make the most of one's own cognitive, perceptual,

and expressive potentials (6, p. 317). He also refers to

Hunt's belief that cognition has its own intrinsic aotiva-

tion and that drive is increased by discrepancies between j

input and stored information. He also cites the conclusions

tod Roe: that inventing carries intrinsic re-

as exhilarations, feelings of mastery, and

superiorityI.

Concerning secondary sources of satisfaction, Guilford

makes summary statements of findings that creative people

revealed such desires as doing something different just to be diffe

having pref

ing the des

Intere

tendency to

A number of

rent, having strong preference for novelty,

erence for complexity over simplicity, and hav-

ire to be independent (6, p. 318).

st in thinking is the event representing the

be attracted to certain kinds of activities,

dimensions of interest in different kinds of

Some of the

tolerance f

ality. Inf

solving pro

thinking have been demonstrated in Guilford's studies.

se dimensions are: the need for adventure,

or ambiguity, expressional fluency, and origin-

ormation is a necessary, but insufficient, con-

dition of production within the framework of the problem

cess. The opinions about the role of stored

CI y «»»

information are varied. One view, as expressed "by Guilford,

is that there is nothing new in created products except tie

arrangement of the elements. There is preference for "be-

lieving that most recall utilized in such arrangements is

replicative; however, the informational view is that there

is considerable transfer recall and transformation activity

in the emerging of new products of information. One of the

most important of these products of information to the

creative producer is the production of system (6, p. 319)•

Incubation.—-Incubation is a period during the problem

solving process during which there is no apparent activity

on the part of the individual toward the solution of his

problem, but during which and at the end of which there is

evidence of material progress toward a solution. The time

element involved is unpredictable. Incubation has not

been satisfactorily explained in terms of being an opera-

tional event. Guilford lists three hypotheses that have

been suggested by authorities that offer possible explana-

tions. The most meager one states that during incubation

unconscious problem solving is going on. Another one is

referred to as a fatigue hypothesis, which suggests that

the problem solver becomes tired, suffering a decrement in

performance, and the period of incubation gives him a rest

after which his performance level is higher. A third sug-

gestion is that before the problem solving effort has been

52

dropped, certain wrong directions have gained such recency

value that they inhibit the trying of other directions.

During the lapsed time of incubation, such information

loses its recency value and more fruitful recalls can he

affected (6, p. 320).

Guilford hypothesized that during incubation some

transformations of information that takes time to bring

about are taking place. He based this belief on the con-

clusion that products of information in memory storage

are not immune from interaction with new input. They be-

come .modified or transformed* There is the possibility

that interactions among stored products also occur under

the influence of somatic input from motivational sources.

Because so many inspirations come into conscious view as

already solved products, Guilford suggested that trans-

formations had occurred before the event became conscious.

He believes that the best prospects for learning more

about the role of incubation are in the direction of dis-

covering the principles governing the occurrence of

transformations (6, p. 320).

Insight.—The phenomenon referred to as insight, or

intuition, has been explained only in terms of anecdotal

information. It appears to be connected to, or is a part

of, that operation which is called inspiration or illumina-

tion. Guilford presents several emotional conditions, or

53

states, which affect the role of insight in creative pro-

duction. He refers to Roger's "eureka feeling," to feelings

of anxiety, to the urge to communicate, and to emotional

excitement. He hypothesized that the degree of emotional

response occurring with illumination depends upon the

strength of the motivation of the individual, the amount

of frustration he may have endured for lack of progress,

the size of the intuitive leap, and the importance of the

outcome (6, p. 321).

Concerning the nature of insight, Guilford stated

that intuitive ideas come with varying degrees of clarity

and completeness and with no apparent effort. Sometimes

the idea is only the beginning of the eventual structure,

Sometimes the idea is only a fleeting glimpse. It appears

customary at the present time to overvalue its role in

creative production. The mental state during intuition is

one of abandonment of controlled thinking, of a strong

urge to create something, and of the desire to prepare for

and work toward the event of creation prior to incubation.

Because the creative product is a result of selective re-

call, Guilford suggests that relaxation is a favorable

condition for such retrieval (6, p. 322).

Studies of environmental conditions conducive to

creative production indicate that complete quiet during

the period of illumination is desirable for some

individuals but of no consequence to others. Greater

54

agreement is given to the need for freedom from inter-

ruptions, distractions, or the threat of them. Idiosyn-

cracies such as time of work, type of food, or use of

fetishes seem to play a role only in individual cases

and have not been shown to characterize the general cross

section, of creative performers (6, p. 322).

The role of previous experience in the intuitive

phenomena poses the question of the type of recall utilized,

(There appears to he usage made of both replicai

transfer types. New or additional information

direction to insight in problem solving but thi

tion .involves strategies which may lead toward

formation through transformations involving pei

and conceptual change.

There has been little evidence produced that reveals

a relationship between degree of motivation ani probabil-

ity of insight; however, Guilford hypothesized that moti-

vation can be either too strong or too weak for best in

tive and

may give

is opera-

structure

rceptual

tuitive results. He also raised the question

specific nature of the motivation may affect t

of solutions, producing possible trans format io:

the state of incubation.(6, p. 324).

of how the

ae shaping

qs during

Flexibility.—The role of flexibility in creative

production, paralleling that in the general thought pro-

cess, falls into three categories of kinds: readiness to

55

shift from class to class, transformations in divergent

production, and redefinitions or transformations in con-

vergent production.

The spontaneous flexibility factor identified in

the early structure-of-intellect model was later given

the name of divergent production of semantic classes.

This factor involves the shifting from class to class

when searching for information. It has more recently

been found by Guilford to also pertain to figural and

symbolic information. Beginning with broad classes of

information is a procedure which has been hypothesized to

be an effective approach to the utilization of flexibility

abilities in problem solving because, when scanning oper-

ations are narrowed within a limited class, the possi-

bility of excluding the information being sought

increases. Accordingly, the thinker's search model becomes

very limited. The nature of the breadth scanning works

toward more inclusive classes leading from one to the

other. Overfamiliarity with a product can be detri-

mental to this breadth of class approach because, as

reported by Guilford, familiarity with an object in-

creases the difficulty of abstracting from it (6, p. 325).

The factor recognized as adaptive flexibility in the

initial structure of intellect model gave rise to the

concept of divergent flexibility of transformations.

It was recognized by Guilford that the factor first

56

identified as originality is an adaptive flexibility in

dealing with, semantic information and that "both these

factors pertain to transformation abilities •

Three redefinition factors have been demonstrated in

Guilford's studies. They lie in the convergent production

cells of the transformation abilities matrix, Table XI,

and include convergent figural transformation, convergent

symbolic transformation, and convergent semantic trans-

formation. Several hypotheses concerning the relation-

ship between redefinition abilities and functional fixed-

ness have been cited by Guilford• Functional fixedness

pertains to rigidity in the use of objects.or in the

definition of information (6, p. 347).

Elaboration.—Within the creative problem-solving

model, the implication operations pertain to forms of

deductions leading to additional information implied by

the statement of the problem and also to the forms of the

next production tactics to be utilized. These deductions

involve insights that are different from the cognitive

ones involving classes, relations, and transformations

(6, p. 328).

Evaluation.---The evaluation operations are the checks

and balances throughout the problem-solving model. Guilford

does not agree that evaluation occurs near the end of the

57

by Wallas. Instead, he believes it to be utilized at many

points along the flow of the problem-solving operation.

It contributes to the selection of the best information to

be used and the rejection of that which is felt to be un-

desirable. Evaluation provides the guidelines routing the

way toward the created product, which is of itself an ob-

ject of evaluation (6, p. 330).

Torrance: The Minnesota and Georgia Studies

In order to identify and measure the abilities in-

volved in the creative process, Torrance believed that it

was necessary to understand the nature of the creative

process. Consequently, he relied on the attempts made by

previous researchers in their quest for identifying

characteristics and descriptions of the processes involved <

He found that there was considerable agreement among those

he studied• This agreement revolved around Walias* four

steps in the event of creative production: preparation,

incubation, illumination, and revision. He generalized

from this that the process follows a flow of

1. Sensing a need or deficiency, random explora-tion, and classification of the problem.

2. Period of preparation involving researching, discussing, exploring, hypothesizing, formulating possible solutions, and analyzing for advantages and disadvantages.

3. Illumination, or insight producing a new idea.

58

- 4. Experimenting to discover through evaluation the most promising solution for the perfection of the idea.

The identification and measurement of the abilities

involved in this process became an objective of the re-

search efforts of Torrance and his colleagues at the Uni-

versity of Minnesota from 1957 until 1966 and at the Uni-

versity of Georgia from 1966 to the present time. These

studies were conducted on four levels of educational

development: preschool, elementary school, secondary

school, and higher education. This approach was taken

because of the belief that no single test or area of

observation is valid or adequate at all age levels.

At the early childhood level, according to Torrance,

researchers had previously attempted to study creativity

through the medium of art. Conclusions drawn from these

studies vary according to the procedures of the obser-

vations. An example illustrating the weakness of some of

these approaches was Grippen's conclusion that, except

occasionally, children below five years of age do not pro-

duce creatively. This conclusion was based on the ob-

served children* s inability to manipulate material and

produce results of adult level, with no consideration of

his ability to handle the tasks in relation to individual

stages of development. The strength of these studies lay

in their contributions leading to a better understanding

and possible definition of such performances as imitation,

59

experimentation, transformations, fanciful explanations,

imaginary situations, fantastic stories, new uses, con-

structions, new games, extensions or elaborations, and

appreciation (17» p. 23),

Research concerning the identification of creative

abilities during the elementary school years emphasized

art activities and creative writing. The increased abil-

ity of this group to communicate ideas allowed for more

varied materials to be used and more varied tasks to be

performed. Attention was given to such factors as in-

vention, sense of humor, imaginative power, feelings,

perceptive power, fluency, originality, and flexibility.

Because of an apparent lack of desire to develop

creative thinking at the high school level, very little

research had been done prior to the time of the Minne-

sota studies (17, p. 29), concerning these years of de-

velopment. There was some evidence of interest in the

areas of creative writing, art, and science. The studies

of the National Merit Scholarship Corporation resulted in

the formulation of a five-item Creative Science Scale and

an eleven-item Creative Art Scale that proved to be of some

use in predicting later creative performance. These two

scales were concerned with created products and offered no

clues for the identification of the process.

Attempts to assess creative-thinking abilities in

high school pupils had been made through the use of

so

devices developed to be administered as group tests, with

verbal stimuli requiring verbal responses. Most of these

devices were designed to be used with adults or college

level students, which made their value of doubtful signifi-

cance to identification on the high school level.

There were revealed through the analysis of check

lists formulated by teachers, counselors, and administra-

tors, the nonintellectual behavioral indicators of crea-

tive performance: curiosity, originality, independence,

imagination, nonconformity, ability to form relation-

ships, fluency, experimentation, flexibility, persistence,

ability to build, preference for complexity, and day-

dreaming (18, p. 247)•

Although few colleges and universities included

creative thinking as a functional part of their program,

interest in developing measures of creative thinking at

this level, as reported by Torrance, is historical. A

summary of the task makers from 1917 to I960 and the

factors they attempted to identify are presented in

Table XXII (17, pp. 32-38). Guilford's studies are

excluded from this overview.

In 1958, when the Bureau of Educational Research of

the University of Minnesota began its studies of creative i

thinking, one of the objectives of the studies was to

attempt to develop a set of tasks which could be used from

61

kindergarten through graduate school. This objective was

approached through the adaptation of several Guilford-type

tasks and through task types developed from the analysis

of certain scientists, inventors, and writers who were

"believed to be creative. This second group of tasks re-

volved around the attempt to create models of the creative

process, each requiring particular types of thinking.

This approach was unlike Guilford's tasks, in that its ob-

jective' was to develop complex tasks that would result in

products that could be examined for various types of think -

ing; whereas Guilford's approach was based on predictor

measures that would indicate single factors.

The result of this initial study, which lasted three

years, was the development and use of over twenty-five

tasks employing a variety of stimuli and resulting in

many types of thinking believed to characterize creative

behavior. The evaluated responses yielded scores on many

factors which had been verified by Guilford. Some of

these factors were sensitivity to problems, ideational

fluency, flexibility, originality, and redefinition.

Torrance chose to include a factor to account for levels

of inventiveness; consequently, he included the term

"inventivlevel" to distinguish this operation. The tasks,

known as the Minnesota Tests of Creativity, were classi-

fied into three major categories: nonverbal tasks,

62

TABLE XIII

CREATIVE EffllKING FACTORS IDENTIFIED PROM 1917 TO I960

Year Task Maker Factors Sought Tests Developed

1917

1922

Chassell Originality

Boraas Imaginative thinking

Word building Picture writing Analogies Original analogies' Chain puzzle Triangle puzzle Royce's ring Completion test Economic prophecies Code test Invention for sheet music

lovel situations

Interpretation of inkblots

Word building test Sentence building test

Making of similies or metaphors

Completion of mutilated sen-tences Painted cube tee t Imaginary journey test

Production of rhymes

1927 Heargreaves ?luency originality

Word building and composition

Ebb inghaus te s t Invention of stories Indeterminate picture com-pletion

Unfinished pictures

63

SABLE XIII—Continued

Year Task Maker Factors Sought Tests Developed

Ink blots Indeterminate language com-pletion Unfinished stories

Writing words Probable situations Imaginary situations Composition

1939 Meier and McCloy

Fluency Interpretative titles for pictures Critical appraisal and interpretation of art products Composition, opinions, and inter pretation of paintings

1945 Welch Seeing new combinations (redefinition)

Block construction Sentence construc-tion Letter construction Short story construction

1957 Owen Fluency Flexibility Originality

Power source apparatus test

Design a machine test Three dimensional space relations test

Figure matrixes test

64

TKB IE XII I—Cont inued

Year Task Maker Factors Sought Test Developed

1958 Barron Originality Mosaic construction Anagram test Drawing completion Figure preference test Inkblot test

1960 Harris Fluency Flexibility Originality

List possible uses Guess "What it is"

verbal -tasks using nonverbal stimuli, and verbal tasks

using verbal stimuli.

nonverbal Tasks

The four nonverbal tasks used in the studies were:

Incomplete Figures, Picture Construction, Circles and

Squares, and Creative Design. The Incomplete Figure

Tasks were scored for elements of originality, closure

(penetration), complexity (elaboration) and productivity.

Originality was defined in this task as uncommonness of

response. Complexity pertained to the elaboration of the

initial idea by the addition of supporting ideas. Pene-

tration had to do with the closure of incomplete figures.

Productivity was reflected by the number of incomplete

figures attempted. The responses to the Picture Construc-

tion Tasks were scored for originality, elaboration,

65

sensitivity, communication, and activity. Elaboration in-

volved the number of ideas or details included in the

task. Sensitivity dealt with the ability to produce un-

usual associations. Communication referred to the con-

vincingness of idea, story, or situation. Activity related

to the dynamic or static attitudes toward movement depicted

in the responses. The Circles and Squares Tasks were

scored for fluency, flexibility, originality, and elabo-

ration. Fluency was indicated by the number of different

objects sketched. Flexibility was obtained by counting

the number of different categories of objects sketched.

Originality was obtained by eliminating all the common

objects. The scoring procedures for the Creative Design

Task had not been perfected at the time of the first pub-

lished reports of these studies (17, pp. 214-222).

Verbal Tasks Using Nonverbal Stimuli

The tasks devised for this aspect of the evaluations

were manifest in four tests: Ask and Guess Test, Product

Improvement Test, Toy Dog, and Unusual Uses (Toy Dog and

Monkey Test). They were scored for the factors of fluency

(curiosity, cause, and consequence), flexibility, origin-

ality, and inventiveness (17, pp. 222-238).

66

• Verbal ffasks Using Verbal. Stimuli

Ten tests were devised for tliis block of tasks. They

were: Unusual Uses (Tin Caii3 and Books), Impossibilities,

Consequences, Just Suppose, Situations, Common Problems,

Improvements, Mother Hubbard Problems, Cow Jumping Problems,

and Imaginative Stories. Responses were scored for the

factors of fluency, flexibility, originality, sensitivity

to problems, penetration, and interest (17> pp. 238-250).

Pertinent Results of the Tasks

Deliberate attempts were made to base these test

tasks, stimuli, instruction, and scoring procedures on the

most current research being conducted in the area of

creativity. The same test tasks were administered at all

educational levels in the attempt to determine whether

children and young people identified as being creative

performed in ways similar to the ways that recognized •

creative people of the past had behaved, based on studies

of their biographies. This cross-level administration of

test tasks also permitted the conclusion to be made that

adults who are recognized as being creative on the basis

of outside criteria also behave in creative ways when per-

forming the test tasks.

Results of these test tasks revealed that children

with high scores initiated a larger number of ideas, pro-

duced more original ideas, and gave more explanations

67

than those with lower scores. They exhibited more wild

fantastic ideas, produced more original products, produced

more humorous work, were more playful at work, were less

rigid and more relaxed. They also rated higher on strength

of self-image, ease of early recall of previous experi-

ences, humor, availability of Oedipal anxiety, and ego

development. They showed a tendency toward unreal pre-

cepts, fanciful and imaginative treatment of responses,

unconventional responses, greater sensitivity, and more

independence than those who scored lower.

Results of adult performance on the test tasks in-

dicated that those who achieve high scores on the tasks

develop more original ideas and make more creative appli-

cation of knowledge than do those who scored lower. They

also tend to ask more provocative, self-involving, and

divergent questions than their lower-scoring peers.

Factors of Creativity

Torrance believed that a thorough understanding of

creativity necessitated the study of the person, the pro-

cess, the product, and the environment or press. He

stated that each of these aspects must "be focused on in-

dividually but always in relation to each other. He de-

fined creativity as a process because, as he concluded,

identification could be made of the kirsd of person that

would most successfully engage in the process, the kind

68

of environment that would "be most conducive to the process ,

and the kinds of products teat would result from the pro-

cess (19, p. 8). The fabric of the resulting products are

manifestations of the process which Torrance believed re-

vealed the functioning of the factors verified in the

bodies of research which had been completed.

Ideational fluency.—The ability to produce many

ideas where free expression is encouraged and where quality

is not evaluated. Torrance offered four rules necessary

for its nurture (19, p. 298)•

' 1. Judgment is temporarily ruled out.

2. Unrestrained solutions are welcomed.

3. Emphasis is placed on quantity.

4. Objectives are directed toward improvements and new combinations.

He regarded ideational fluency as the ability to pro-

duce divergent semantic units, sometimes referred to as

"copious ideation" or "free wheeling," and reflecting the

number of ideas produced (14, p. 308). He indicated that

there is also a relation between ideational fluency and

the number of questions and guess responses an individual

will attempt (17, p. 45)•

Associational fluency.—The ability to produce words

or ideas from a restricted area of meaning. According to

Torrance associational fluency involves the abilities to

69

1. Recognize relationships.

2. Recognise similarities.

3. Recognize opposites.

4. Extend meanings.

5. Select definitions.

6. Detect irrelevancies.

7. Select precise meaning (19» P» 301-302).

Torrance also stated that associational fluency is

the ability to produce divergent semantic relations (14,

p. 308).

Word fluency.—The ability to produce divergent sym-

bolic units (14, p. 308).

Expressions! fluency.—The ability to produce divergent

symbolic systems (14, p. 307).

Spontaneous flexibility.—The production of a diver-

sity of ideas in a relatively unrestricted situation.

Torrance believed that this factor can be stimulated

through the application of the principles of addition,

subtraction, and substitution (19, p. 303)• He divided

this ability into figural spontaneous flexibility, which

is the ability to produce divergent figural classes, and

semantic spontaneous flexibility, which is the ability to

produce divergent semantic classes (14, p. 308).

70

Adaptive, flexlbility«—She ability to abandon con-

ventional problem-solving methods when they become un-

workable. Torrance believed this ability could be

stimulated through the principles of reversal and chang-

ing position (19, p. 303)» Pigural adaptive flexibility

pertains to the ability to produce figural transforma-

tions (14, p. 309).

Originality.—The ability to produce clever or un-

common responses to specific situations (19, p. 303* 17,

p. 214). Originality, according to Torrance, is the

ability to produce divergent semantic transformations.

It is the ability to think of unusual or new ideas, to

break out of the mold and to get off the beaten path.

His operational definition of originality is statistical

infrequency, remoteness, and cleverness (14, p. 309).

Sensitivity.-—The ability to remain open to the kind

of stimuli which furnish the raw materials for the idea

to be developed (19, p. 305). Torrance suggested that it

was also the ability tc sense missing parts (17, p. 45)*

Elaboration.—The ability to specify details that

contribute to the development of a general idea (19,

p. 310). Semantic elaboration is the ability to produce

divergent semantic implication (14, p. 310). According

to Torrance, the preference for complexity stems from the

71

desire to elaborate a "basic idea by the addition of sup-

portive ideas (17, p. 215),

Curiosity.—The exhibition ox inquisitiveness and the

asking of questions is reflected by the tendency to in-

vestigate any perceived novelty and to seek information

about anything (19» p» 312)• Torrance also believed

that it is developed in terms of the number and kinds of

questions asked (17, p. 222),

Inventivlevel.—This is a term borrowed by Torrance

from the United States Patent Office which refers to a

measure based on criteria used in evaluating patent ap-

plications and meaning level, or degree, of inventive-

ness (17, p. 46).

Penetration.•—The ability to resist pressures to

premature closure or to delay immediate gratification

(17, p. 216).

The Creative Process

Torrance believes that current research and develop-

ment is bringing increased recognition of the fact that

man prefers to learn in creative ways through creative

and problem solving activities. He also senses that many

people prefer to learn creatively and with more meaning

when they are free to use their creative thinking abilities.

Eecent research has fortified his concept of creative

i

72

learning as the process of becoming sensitive "to or aware

of problemsj deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing ele-

ments or disharmonies? bringing together in new relation-

ships available existing information; defining the

difficulty of identifying the missing elements; searching

for solutions, making guesses5 or formulating hypotheses;

testing and retesting, modifying and retesting the hy-

potheses; perfecting the hypotheses; and communicating

the results (15, p. 22; 16, p. 1)•

Torrance stated that the flow of this process is

similar to, perhaps the same as, the flow of any general

problem solving process, but that they pose degrees of

difference. In the creative flow, the product of thinking

must be novel and have value; the initial problem must

have been vague and undefined so that the statement of the

problem itself must have been discovered; it must re-

quire high motivation and persistence and be unconventional

in that it requires modification or rejection of previous

solutions; and the product must be true, generalisable,

and surprising in the light of previous knowledge (16, p. 3)•

Levels of Creative Performance

The increased understanding of the creative process,

the nature of the person, the mental abilities of the per-

son, and the facilitory conditions of the process, have

allowed for a new consideration of man's creative needs.

Torrance suggests that these needs include man's curiosiiy,

liis need to meet challenge and attempt difficult and danger-

ous tasks, his need to he honest and search for the truth,

and his need to he different or individual (16,pp. 15-21),

He further suggests that these needs prompt levels of

creative performance which in turn have provided bases fcr

a tentative and incomplete formulation of a hierarchy of

creative skills• This hierarchy was formulated on six

levels of performance (16,pp. 40~54)• An outline of the

hierarchy follows.

Level I

1. Production of simple new combinations through manipulation.

2. Visualization and production of many possible combinations or new relationships.

3. Identification of missing parts•

Level II

1. Production of more complex new combinations through manipulation and movement toward more deliberate experimentation.

2. Visualization and production of larger numbers of possibilities in combining symbols, objects, numerals, people, or places.

3« Increased verbal fluency by naming new combinations.

4. Forming of simple syntheses by giving titles or labels to visual, auditory, and motor events.

5• Improved skill in asking questions about missing elements.

74

Level III

1. Improved skill in asking questions about missing elements.

2. Identification of missing elements and checking of discrepancies.

3. Ordering the sequence of events.

4. Developing skills of empathy.

5• Recounting the sequence in the creative problem-solving process.

6. Accepting limitations creatively rather than cynically or passively.

Level I?

1. Developed higher level skills of producing new combinations.

2. Awareness and production of more complex combinations.

3» Increased tactile sensitivity.

4. Production of a variety of ideas about possible functions or uses.

5* Production of alternate possible consequences of new combinations.

6. Increased skill in empathy.

7. Increased willingness to attempt difficult tasks.

8. Ability to make easy, simple predictions from limited information.

9. Increased skill in use of imagination.

10. Extended skill in asking questions.

11. Production of alternative outcomes•

75

Level Y

1. Production and use of analogies.

2. Increased ability to produce alternative causes of behavior.

3. Developed ability to produce alternative causes and consequences,

4. Production of alternative solutions to problems.

5. Developed skills of empathy.

6. Developed ability to elaborate.

7. Developed ability to visualise.

8. Production of unusual and novel uses.

9. Developed ability to synthesize diverse elements.

10. Developed ability to forecast.

11. Developed ability to imagine feelings.

Level VI

1. Developed ability to infer causes and consequences of behavior.

2. Ability to infer meaning.

3. Ability to elaborate and fill in gaps in information.

4. Developed skills of empathy.

5. Developed skills of asking questions.

6. Developed ability to carry through the sequence of creative problem solving.

7. Developed skill in differentiating guess or hypotheses from conclusions.

8. Developed skills in synthesizing diverse elements.

9. Developed ability to visualize.

76

10. Developed ability to write original stories and poems.

11. Ability to produce alternate ideas.

12„ Ability to compound existing knowledge by re-lating oth.er ideas.

13* Developed understanding and appreciation of curiosity.

These levels of skills are reflective of the three

domains of consciousness Torrance believes to be function-

ing when creative performance is taking place. These do-

mains are the conscious, logical domain; the preconscious,

prelogical domain; and the subconscious, irrational domain

(15, p. 323).

In the conscious, or logical domain, acquisition

procedures normally include the usual methods of gaining

information and experience. Torrance suggests that an

understanding of the creative processes, allowing creative

thinking abilities to develop and function, understanding

the relationship of stress to creative functioning, and

observing the contrast of constructive behavior to adapta-

tion and adjustment would lead to greater creative poten-

tial. The associative elements at this level are involved

in seeing new combinations or reorganization of informa-

tion. The evaluation of information and the resulting

expressions deviate from the usual in that the results are

directed toward diversity rather than toward norms.

77

Torrance believes that evidence indicates the skills

called for in creative performance rely quite heavily on

the preconscious processes. The use of free associations,

provocative questions, and analogies are suggested to be

retrieval techniques that stimulate preconscious function-

ing. Evaluative techniques on this level are manifested

in body states such as "sense" and "feel."

Concerning the subconscious, irrational domain,

Torrance refers to the Senectics approach to the facili-

tation of creative functioning. This approach takes the

position that, in getting ideas, the emotional and irra-

tional components of the personality are more important

than the intellectual and rational components. Acquisi-

tion on this level demands recognition and removal of

learning blocks, sensory distortions, and feeling aberra-

tions . Evaluation must be the master over fear and

insecurity. Suppression of subconscious tendencies to

ridicule, embarrass, coerce, or control allow meaningful

expression to arise from this domain (15, p. 326).

Jackson: Studies of Gifted Children

Jackson approached the study of creativity by attempt-

ing to identify its relationship to general intelligence.

He believed that the answers discovered in this relation-

ship would suggest answers to questions pertaining to the

nature of the creative process and the possible

78

identification of creative potential. Ke believed that 1h 0

general concepts of intelligence and creativity could be

shown, through, observations, to be different types of

operations. There are distinguishing differences between

knowing and discovering, between the ability to remember

and.the ability-to invent, and between the ability to be

intelligent and to be creative.

His early research in this area was designed to

establish acceptable answers to a significant question

concerning this relationship; can children be identified

who are very high in intelligence but not concomitantly

high in creativity, and can those be identified who are

very high in creativity and not concomitantly high in

intelligence? He began his studies without an explicitly

stated theoretical framework and without formal hypotheses.

Instead, he believed the behavior of the individuals being

observed and the resulting points of interest would permit

a nonstructured flow of events that would lead from problem

to problem as the studies progressed. This empirical ap-

proach was desirable, because the objective was not to

establish a set of unalterable data, but to gather ob-

servable data that would contribute to heuristic conclusions.

Jackson's studies began in 1957 with reference to

German's early work with gifted children and with the

concern that developed over the observation that there

had been a slackening of research progress in that area

79

of study. He referred to a 1354 symposium whose task had

been to bring up to date the existing knowledge about the

gifted student and the conclusion that the new develop-

ments that could "be cited with a degree of certainty did

not differ significantly from those drawn by Terman in

1925 (9, p. 2).

The reasons for this scant progress, as concluded by

Jackson, were three-fold and revolved around the concept

that high I.Q. and giftedness were synonomous terms.

First was the general acceptance of common intelligence

tests as being adequate to sample all the known cognitive

abilities. Second was the failure to recognize the fact

that, although the correlation between I.Q. and learning

is positive, it rarely accounts for more than one-fourth

of the variance in the factors of school achievement and

academic performance. Third was the I.Q. test's apparent

immunity to the advances being made in the understanding

of thinking and behavior. Jackson suggested that lack of

steady progress in the understanding of gifted children

was perhaps the result of too much reliance on the concept

of intelligence as reflected in the intelligence tests

(9? p. 5).

Jackson stated that if the focus of inquiry were

shifted from the classroom setting, with its concern for

academic abilities and achievement, cognitive qualities

defining giftedness for other situations outside

80

intellectual excellence could -perhaps- "be identified. He

suggested that the awareness of such qualities are desirable

for understanding giftedness in people.- This belief led to

a preliminary empirical study of children utilizing the

following general strategy (9, p. 7).

Collection of all the positive statements avail-able about the students being observed.

2. Grouping of the statements into a manageable number of categories including: intelligence, school achievement, social skills, athletic ability, personal appearance, physical health, energy level, sense of humor, creativity, morality, goal directed-ness, breadth of interest, and psychological adjustment.

3« Examination of the nature of and interrelation among these qualities.

After the preliminary investigations were completed,

the categories to be included in the studies that were

to follow were modified and reduced to four groups

representing: creativity, intelligence, morality, and

psychological adjustment.

The studies were conducted through the administration

of standard I.Q. tests and five creativity measures•

These measures were adapted from existing tests or con-

structed especially for the study. They included

1. Word association, a task which was scored upon the absolute number of definitions and the number of different categories into v/niclx tliose definitions could be placed.

2, Uses for things, a task which was scored upon the number and the originality of the uses mentioned.

81

3. Hidden shapes, a task scored upon the ability to find an identified geometric form that was hidden in complex geometric patterns -

4.0 Fables, a task scored upon the ability to compose appropriate and unique moralistic, humorous, and sad endings *

5. Make-up problems, a task scored upon the number, appropriateness, and complexity of mathematical problems.

Two experimental groups were formed on the basis of

the I.Q. scores and the summated score of the creativity

measures. Inspection of the results revealed that

1. Both groups were equally superior to the achieve-ment scores of the school population as a whole.

2* There was no difference among either of the groups in their need for achievement.

3. The high I.Q. group wanted the personal qualities which he believed made for adult success and the qualities that he believed were similar to those the teacher preferred.

4. The high creative group wanted the qualities having no relationship to those he believed to be necessary for adult success and in some ways reverse to those he believed the teacher favored.

5. The high creatives made significantly greater use of stimulus free themes, unexpected endings, humor, incongruities, and playfulness (9, pp. 198-208; 10; 11, pp. 161-172).

Other conclusions drawn from the results of the studies

were: creative adolescents possessed the ability to produce

new forms, to risk conjoining elements that are customarily

thought of as independent and dissimilar, to seek new di-

rections of performance, to diverge from the customary,

and to enjoy the risks and uncertainty of the unknown.

• • """ 8 2

The high JuQ* adolescents possessed the ability and need

to focus on the usual, to he channeled ana controlled in

the direction of the right answer, to shy from risk and

uncertainty of the unknown, and to seek the safety and

security of the known. These differences do not appear

to be restricted to the cognitive functioning of these two

groups. The high I.Q. students converged on stereotyped

meaning, perceived personal success by conventional stand-

ards, moved toward the model provided by the teacher, and

sought out careers that conformed to what was expected of

them. The high creatives diverged from stereotyped mean-

ing, produced original fantasies, perceived personal

success by unconventional standards, and sought careers

that did not conform to what was expected of them (11,

pp. 161-172)•

The Domain of Creative Production

Jackson stated that efforts to distinguish between

creativity and intelligence have typically concentrated

on revealing evidence showing that tasks requiring unusual

responses utilize somewhat different abilities than tasks

requiring general intellectual performance. The resulting

evaluations take on a variety of forms which he believes

can be classified into two overlapping categories. A per- '

son's response can be judged according to its degree of

correctness or Tightness in relation to some set of fixed

83

criteria. These criteria tend to be categorical, leading

toward a restricted set of solutions or strategies. Other-

wise there are judgments having to do with the goodness

of a person's response. The criteria of judgment in these

instances are predominantly subjective and psychological.

The responses can be considered continuous and varying in

their degree of acceptability. Although these two judg-

mental approaches overlap, Jackson states that they are

distinguishable and present important implications for the

conceptual separation of intelligence and creative produc-

tion. In an effort to conceptualize the creative process,

he projected a possible empirical interaction between the

person, the product, and the response generated. Thus,

interaction generally encompasses the following relation-

ships: judgmental criteria to judgmental norms; judg-

mental criteria and norms to aesthetic responses; judg-

mental criteria, norms, and aesthetic responses to

personal qualities and predisposing cognitive styles; and

personal qualities to cognitive styles.

Judgmental Criteria to Judgmental Norms

Concerning judgment of creative products, Jackson

observed that the immediate expectation of the critic

appears to pertain to the novelty of the object, le

believes that the demand for novelty is so entrenched

in the normal person's concept of creativity that the

84

terms have become synonomous to them. In many cases it

seems- to be the only criterion of judgment. The appli-

cation of this criterion requires a two-step operation?

the comparison of the product with other products of the

same class and the counting of those comparisons that yield

similar or identical products. This operation necessitates

that some standard be established that will stipulate how

few and to what degree of similarity the limits are to

include. The infrequency or unusualness of the product

then become relative to a set of norms.

Although novelty, or unusualness, appears to be the

first criterion for evaluating a creative product, other

criteria must be considered. In order to eliminate pro-

ducts that are just different, absurd, bizarre, or odd,

the second criterion, appropriateness, must be applied.

Appropriateness indicates the degree to which a product

fits its context. It involves both internal and external

conditions. External appropriateness involves the degree

to which a product succeeds in meeting the demands of the

situation and the desires of the producer. Internal ap-

propriateness pertains to the fusion of the elements that

produce the form of the statement. Appropriateness, rather

than being discrete, is a continuous condition existing in

degrees rather than completely or not at all. Without

novelty, appropriateness produces triteness, fad, or cliche.

85

The judgmental standard for evaluating this criterion is

the context of the response. This context should include

the producers intentions as well as the demands of the

situation, and it must he interpreted "both psychologically

and logically.

Unusualness and appropriateness are necessary cri-

teria for selecting classes of creative products. Within

each class there appears to he a need for making distinc-

tions of quality or the establishment of levels of ex-

cellence. The degree to which a creative product will

force a new viewpoint, or present a new approach to

reality in order to overcome conventional constraints,

involves a third criterion for evaluating the creative

product. It is referred to as transformations, and it is

judged relative to the strength and nature of the con-

straints that were transcended. Transformation differs

from unusualness in that it involves the creation of a

new form. Unusualness involves changes or improvements

upon pre-existing form.

A fourth criterion of judgment that is apart from,

yet inclusive of, unusualness, appropriateness, and trans-

formation is referred to as condensation. Concerning

interest in creative products, novelty is short lived;

appropriateness and transformations may partially account

for the lasting quality. However, these criteria do not

-- ' . Q o

seem to "be enough to explain endurance. Condensation may

"be characterized as being the evasive state of the content

of the product. It involves an intensity and concentra-

tion of meaning which demands contemplation. It is the

state that lies between the polarities of simplicity and

complexity. It involves the multiplicity of interpreta-

tion and the extensiveness of the expansion generated

within the stimulus. The judgmental standard for the

evaluation of condensation is the summary power possessed

by the product (13, pp. 1-3).

Judgmental Horms and Criteria to Aesthetic Response

Jackson advanced the idea that there are certain

aesthetic responses that take place within the observer

that could be related conceptually to the judgment criteria,

which he refers to as response properties.

He believes that the major response to unusualness

is that of surprise. Surprise may occur a varying number

of times within an episode of exposure to the stimulus

but the first response is always the strongest one and

subsequent exposures decline the impact.

The aesthetic response accompanying appropriateness

is that of satisfaction. Satisfaction appears to have

two major sources. First it lies in the feeling of Tight-

ness in the consideration of the attempts of the creator,

the material used, and the stress. This concerns the

. 8 1

qualitative aspect of appropriateness, or how well or right

the criteria are set. Second it liea in the feeling that

the product is complete or sufficient* This concerns the

degree of the solutions to the problem or whether the

problem has been advanced enough.

Transformations normally generate in the viewer a

feeling of stimulation. It requires that he revise his

previous concepts to include the new phenomenon. In

addition, to generating a new product, transformations

resonate throughout the changed environment. They invite

intellectual extension and serve as stimuli to the con-

sideration of new relationships.

Condensed products are those that instill a desire

for slow, careful, and repeated pondering. They induce

the desire to savor. Savoring may be approached from

the standpoint of being a nostalgic search for previous

experiences, or it may be approached from the standpoint

of being a search for new experiences. Nostalgic approaches

are normally quite rapid and fleeting in time, whereas the

search for newness may bring about an appreciation for the

nuances and expansions of new events that become more

lasting in the time sequence (13, pp. 8-14).

Judgmental Criteria. Norms. and Aesthetic Responses to Personal Qualities and Predisposing Cognitive Styles

Certain personal qualities and predisposing cognitive

styles appear to be integrated in the creative phenomena.

S 8

They are believed by Jackson to match the response proper-

ties and. judgmental standards of the conceptual model.

The person who consistently produces unusual responses

is normally thought of as being original. Therefore, the

judgmental standard of unusualness would also affect the

judgment of originality. Judgmental norms in each instance

are relative, and, as they change, so does the concept of

unusualness and originality. There are several personality

qualities that are tendencies to originality; however,

their presence does not guarantee unusual, or original,

performance. Ideational fluency, impulse expression,

tolerances of unreality, and tolerances of inconsistencies

are included in these predisposing characteristics.

A person who is highly sensitive to his environment

and to the material with which he is working is the best

candidate for producing an appropriate response. Sensi-

tive responses may occur either analytically or intui-

tively. Analytical sensitivity implies the ability to

respond to existing or cognated relations between the ele-

ments involved. Intuitive sensitivity involves responses

to unidentified cues. Either type of sensitivity or a

conjunction of both types serve as a predisposing cogni-

tive style for sensitivity.

Cognitive and noncognitive qualities appear to con-

tribute to the production of transformations. Cognitive

89

qualities pertain to the stability asd fluidity of intel-

lectual categories and conceptual systems. Noncognitive

qualities pertain to the willingness to emphasize ideas

and attitudes that deviate from tradition, flexibility

appears to be the best terc which will encompass these

TABLE XIV

INTERACTIONS OCCURRING IN THE CREATIVITY DOMAIN ACCORDING TO JACKSON

Predisposing Cognitive Style

Personal Qualities

Response Properties

J udgmen-tal Standards

Aesthetic Response

Tolerances of incongruity and incon-sistency

Original Unusualness Norms Surprise

Analytic and Intuitive

Sensitive Appropri-ateness

Context Satisfac-tion

Openminded-ness

Flexible Transfor-mation

Con-straints

Stimula-tion

Reflective and Spontaneous

Poetic Condensa-tion

Summary power

Savor-ing

antithetical states of qualities of transformation pro-

duction. Flexibility demands that the producer maintain

a state of openmindedness.

The production of condensations involves the ability

to fuse contradictory personal qualities. There must exist

a union of personal and universal concerns: of thought and

90

feeling, of reflection and spontaneity, and of acceptance

and rejection in the developing working style. MPoetic"

is the adjective selected "by Jackson to best describe

these paradoxical conditions. The term poetic is used in

its more universal sense of expressing facts, emotions,

or ideas in a concentrated, imaginative and powerful

style (13, pp. 14-19)•

Table XY is the completed conceptual model of the

judgmental approach to the identification of creativeness

in persons, products, and responses (13, p. 18).

Summary

Guilford's proposed theory of creativity as a theory

of personality permitted analysis of patterns of consis-

tency of human performance to be applied to the realm of

creative performance. He believed creative performance

involved a unique pattern of traits which establish con-

sistency, as well as a pattern of traits which establish

uniqueness. He also believed the concept of continuity,

which also allows for investigational practices among

people, seeking to establish the traits that permit some

of them to behave in a more creative manner than others.

He proposed to identify these traits through factor an-

alysis ruethods of investigation. He hypothesized that

within the factorial framework there are different types

of creative abilities as well as general thinking abilities

91

in operation during creative performance. He 'believed that

once factors have been identified describing the creative

domain, there will he established "bases for the means of

selecting individuals with creative potential. As the

result of his early investigations, Guilford verified

nineteen known intellectual thinking factors and estab-

lished the presence of nineteen previously unknown ones 5

these factors were placed into groups which Guilford first v

called thinking factors and memory factors. The thinking-

factor group was then reorganized to form the groups

identified as: cognition, production, and evaluation

factors. The production-factor group was divided into two

subgroups which he called convergent thinking and divergent

thinking. The total of these factors was given the heading

of operations.

Two principles differentiate the intellectual factors

as presented by Guilford. The first principle is that

thinking factors tend to pair off according to the material

or content being used. This forms three categories which

he named figural, structural, and conceptual. The second

principle is that the kind of thing discovered will fall

into an identifiable category. This category was first

called fundaments.

Continuous refinement of testing procedures and modi-

fication necessitated by the conclusions drawn from them

resulted in the expansion of the content parameter and the

92

renaming of two of the initial categories. The structural

heading was changed to symbolic, the conceptual was changed

to semantic, and a new heading called behavioral was added.

Modification of the products category resulted in six sub-

categories Guilford believed to be consistent with each of

the five operations* These subcategories were identified

ass units, classes, relations, systems, transformations,

and implications.

By graphically illustrating each of the five opera-

tions in grid form, utilising the product and content

headings, and by superimposing the grids, Guilford pro-

duced a cube containing 120 cells. He referred to this

cube as the structure*-of"intellect model and believed that

each cell within the model could be verified by the con-

tinued use of testing programs and factor analysis

procedures.

Recent studies by Guilford have produced evidence

which indicates that the factors most relevant to creatrve

behavior lie within the categories of divergent production

and transformation abilities. There are,- however, indi-

cations that other abilities make important contributions

to this performance area. By 1970, sixteen transformation

abilities and twenty-three divergent production abilities

had been verified. Ninety-three factors, filling ninety

cells of the cube, had been verified within the structure

of intellect model.

S3

Guilford' s 'belief that creative processes and problem-

solving processes were similar events, both involving

transfer recall, led to his projection of a model which he

believed characterized 'both processes. This model follows

the general flow of input of information, filtering of in-

formation, retrieval of stored information, evaluation of

the input and early cognition, cognition wherein the problem

is first sensed and structured, and production whereby

answers are generated. He believes that motivation within

this operation may stem from any of the sources of intel-

lectual drives, secondary sources of satisfaction, and

interest in thinking.

Information is necessary for production within the

framework of the model, but alone it is insufficient.

The product, a new arrangement of elements, involves

transfer recall and transformation activity as well as

replicative recall. He concluded that one of the most

important products of information in creative production

is that of system.

Guilford stated that incubation is a part of the flow

of the creative process, yet no satisfactory explanation

of it as an operational event has been presented. Three

hypotheses which have been presented by other investi-

gators project the idea of it being unsconsclous problem

solving, fatigue hypothesis, and the loss of the recency

value of frustrating events that had blocked the solution

94

development. Guilford hypothesised that incubation in-

volved the transformation of information, which takes time

to come about.

Insight has "been explained only in terms of anecdotal

information, and Guilford believes that sometimes there is

a tendency to over-value its role in creative production.

He suggests, however, that the mental state during intui-

tive processes is one of uncontrolled thinking, strong

urge to create, and the desire to prepare for and work

toward the event about to take place. He believes that

the product is the result of selective recall and that

relaxation is a favorable condition for its retrieval.

Creative production, according to Guilford, utilizes

flexibility factors in the same manner as do general

thought processes. Three kinds are presented by him:

readiness to shift from class to class, transformations

in divergent production, and convergent production of

transformation abilities and functional fixedness.

Within the creative production model, the implica-

tions operation involves insight, which leads to deductions

implied by the problem, resulting in additional informa-

tion and possible projection of the next tactic to be used

in the flow of events.

Evaluative functions within the model are looked upon

by Guilford as being the system of checks and balances that

95

controls the routes, the exits, and ths production

throughout the creative production model.

In his attempts to devise tasks that would reveal

characteristics of creative people, Torrance undertook

extensive research projects at the University of Wisconsin

and at the University of Georgia. He believed that it was

necessary to understand the process of creative perform-

ance in order to identify factors and to devise measures

of the abilities involved. The parameters of his studies

revolved around his heuristic definition of creativity as

a process. This early definition: sensing a need or de-

ficiency, random exploration, and classification of the

problem; period of preparation involving research, dis-

cussion, exploring, hypothesizing, formulating possible

solutions, and analyzing advantages and disadvantages;

illumination, or insight producing a new idea; and experi-

menting to discover through evaluation the most promising

solution for the perfection of the idea has undergone only

minor variation since the studies began in 1957. With

slight modification, his definition, as stated in 1970,

considers creativity as a process of becoming sensitive

to or aware of problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge,

missing elements, and disharmonies; bringing together

available information; defining the difficulty or identi-

fying the missing element; searching for solutions, making

guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies;

testing and retesting these hypotheses and modifying

and retesting thea; perfecting them? and finally, communi-

cating the results.

She studies were conducted on four levels of educa-

tional developments preschool, elementary school,

secondary school, and higher education. This approach

was taken "because Torrance believed that no single test

or observation method is adequate for use at all levels

of development.

The factors being considered in the studies were the

known ones that had formed the bases for prior research.

They were: originality, imaginative thinking, fluency,

and seeing new combinations. As the studies progressed,

over twenty-five tasks were developed which were directed

into three distinct areas of performance: the nonverbal

tasks, the verbal tasks using nonverbal stimuli, and the

verbal tasks using verbal stimuli. The original tasks

were entitled The Minnesota Test for Creative Thinking.

They were later modified at the University of Georgia and

are now entitled The Torrance Test for Creative Thinking.

On the basis of the results of these test tasks, the

factors of creativity being sought were modified by name

and extended in number. The group of identified factors

now includes: ideational fluency, associational fluency,

word fluency, expressional fluency, spontaneous

37

r lexibility, adaptive flexibility, originality, sensitivity5

elaboration, curiosity, inventivlevel, and penetration.

Hesults of the studies and the opinions of other

authorities have led Torrance to believe that creative

performance differs from general problem solving because

creative performance must exhibit novelty and possess

value, the problem that was solved must have been a dis-

covered problem, solutions must have demanded high moti-

vation and persistency and must be unconventional, and the

product must be true, generalizable, and surprising.

Torrance suggested that research has allowed for a

reconsideration of man's creative needs: to be curious, to

meet challenge and to attempt difficult and dangerous tasks,

to be honest and to search for the truth, and to be

different or individual.

These needs provided bases for a hierarchy of develop-

ing creative skills which Torrance has tentatively placed

on six levels of attainment. These levels of performance

appear to espouse the domains of man's consciousness: the

conscious, the preconscious, and the subconscious.

Jackson's concern with the identification of gifted

students and the lack of research evidence that distinguish-

ed them led to his studies of over 400 high school ado-

lescents. The objectives of the studies were to deter-

mine if individuals can be identified who are high in

98

intelligence but not concomitantly high in creativity and

to determine if individuals can be identified who are high

in creativity and not concomitantly high in intelligence.

He believed too much reliance had been placed on the ex-

isting intelligence tests to permit much progress in the

understanding of giftedness. Inquiry into this realm

could be approached through an empirical study utilizing

certain measures to be developed around four categories

of statements that were believed to describe gifted in-

dividuals. These categories encompassed the four behavior

traits of creativeness, intelligence, morality, and psycho-

logical adjustment.

The measures developed were weighted to reveal versa-

tility in word association, production ability in quantity

and originality, identification of subjects in complex sit-

uations, composition ability in appropriate and diverse

endings to stories, and production ability in quantity,

appropriateness, and complexity of mathematical problems.

Students who attained the highest summated scores on

these tasks were compared with students who attained the

highest scores on I.Q. tests. The evidence revealed that

both groups were superior to the scores of the total popu-

lation, there was no difference among the groups in

their need for achievement, ths high I.Q. student wanted

personal qualities that were conforming, the high creative

student wanted personal qualities that were divergent,

• 93

and the high creative student performed in a more non-

conforming manner.

Jackson "believed that the existing studies concern-

ing efforts to distinguish between creativeness and I.Q.

utilised evaluative criteria that could be categorized

into two overlapping groups. These groups were defined

as pertaining to judgments of right or correctness deter-

mined by a set of fixed criteria and to judgments of good-

ness determined by a set of subjective and psychological

criteria. When evaluating creative responses and pro-

ducts, the subjective set of criteria outweighs the fixed

set. Jackson suggested that this set of criteria involved

interaction among the person, the product, and the evoked

response.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Guilford, J. P., "Creativity," The American Psychol-ogist, 5 (September, 1950), 444-454.

2. , "Factor Analysis in a Test-developing Program,"" Psychological Review, 55 (March, 1948), 79-94.

3. , , "Identification of Transformation Abilities in the Structure-of-Intellect Model," Reports from the Psychological Laboratory, University of Southern California, 41, December, 1968.

4. » Intelligence, Creativity, and Their Educational Implications, "San" Diego, Robert R. Knapp, Publisher, 19687

5. , "Measuring Creative Social Intelli-gence, " Reports from the Psychological Laboratory, University of Southern California, 42, January, 1969*

6. , The Nature of Human Intelligence, Hew York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969*

7. , and J.I. Lacey, editors, "Printed Classification Tests," Army Air Forces Aviation Psychology Research Program Reports, "Washington, V, 1947.

8* , "The Sturcture of the Intellect," Psychological Bulletin, 53 (July, 1956), 267-293.

9. Jackson, P.W. and J.\7. Getzels, Creativity and Intel-ligence : Explorations with Gifted Students, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962,

10. , "Family Environment and Cognitive Style: A Study of the Sources of Highly Intelligent and of Highly Creative Adoles-cents," Explorations in Creativity, edited by Ross Mooney and Taher Rasik, New York, Harper and Row, Publishers, 1967«

101

11. Jacks on? P-»W. and J.W. Getzels. ,uFae Highly Intel-ligent and the Highly Creative Adolescents A Sum-mary of Some Research findings," Scientific Creativityi Its Recognition and Development, edited by gTw. Taylor and I'. Barron, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963•

12. _ , "Occupational Choice and""Cognitive Functioning: Career Aspirations of Highly Intelligent and Highly Creative Adolescents," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61 (July, 1960), 119-123.

13. Jackson, P.W* and Samuel Messick, "The Person, the Product, and the Response: Conceptual Problems in the Assessment of Creativity," Journal of Personal-ity* 33 (May, 1965)t 1-19«

14. Torrance, E.P.» Constructive Behavior: Stress, Per-sonality. and Mental Health, Belmont, California, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965*

15. Torrance, E.P. and R.E. Meyers, Creative Learning and Teaching> Haw York, Dodd? Mead and Company* 1970.

16. Torrance, E.P., Encouraging Creativity in the Class-room. Dubuque, Iowa, William C. Brown Company, 1970.

17. , Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey", Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962*

18. , "Nontest Ways of Identifying the Creatively Giften," Creativity: Its Educational Implications, edited"by J.C. Gowan and others, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

19 . , Rewarding Creative Behavior: Sxperi-tnentsTn Classro'om Creativity, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965*

CHAPTER III

SELECTED STUDIES OP THREE AUTHORITIES

IN ART EDUCATION *

Burkhart: Strategies of Learning in Art

Burkhart*s studies of the strategies of learning in

art education reflect the earlier studies of Lowenfeld

and his colleagues. These studies have isolated eight

criteria for creative performance through the use of

Guilford-type paper and pencil tests. The criteria iden-

tified in these studies included sensitivity to problems,

fluency, flexibility, originality, redefinition, analysis,

synthesis, and coherence of organization (11, pp. 10-17).

College students whose studio performance exhibited these

criteria influenced Burkhartfs belief that creative per-

formance is the fusion of man to his world. Creativity,

in addition to being a pattern or relationships which

involves problems, processes, and products made by people

considered to be intellectually and perceptually open and

self determined, involves man's extension of himself

through his interrelationships and responses to his prob-

lems, self, and life. Thus, creativity, for Burkhart, be-

comes interactive learning, which is a matter of responding

to the inputs and outgoes of life'3 experiences.

102

.03

The Interactive Theory of Creative Performance

Creative performance as interactive learning "becomes

a continuous process of evaluation involving rejection and

acceptance, construction and destruction, revision and

addition, and failure and success. It therefore is a

way of extending and enlivening the self through the

treatment of each encounter as having possibility and

importance when sensitively considered and related to

(3, pp. 197-198).

According to Burkhart, the purpose of creative action,

as a process of education is to give new insight into life

through responses generated by interactive experiences

with the self and the environment, thereby becoming a

process of self-discovery. The fostering of this purpose

necessitated the consideration of and the attempt to iden-

tify the attributes of creative behavior and personality

s tructure•

In studies of art students and student teachers,

four personality dimensions were revealed which Burkhart

believed were manifest in the strategies of the subjects

believed to be high in creative abilities. The four di-

mensions were: 1) spontaneous-abstract orientation, 2)

divergent power, 3) ideational and perceptual openness,

and 4) social self-determination (2).

104

Spontaneous abstract orientation.-"-Spontaneous

abstract orientation was the dimension that Burkhart be-

lieved accounted for the preference for items which con-

trasted significantly with items believed to be concrete.

She test devised for this aspect of his studies was a

paired-word test wherein the students check word prefer-

ences. Those checking words from the category of abstract-

ness were considered to be creative, and those checking

words from the category of concreteness were considered

to be factually oriented• 2he word pairs utilized in this

test were: abstract/concrete, theory/certainty, original/

capable, concept/statement, insight/coherent, theory/

experience, spire/foundation, process/technique,

figurative/literal, and divergent/solution. The first word

of each pair was believed to reflect abstract or creative

tendencies, and the second word was believed to reflect

concreteness or factually oriented tendencies. Other

parts of this test provided for choices of words suggest-

ing a degree of self-involvement in the choices made.

These paired word3 were of the following relationships:

self-absorbed/fashionable, intuitive/practical, and

subjective/realistic. Conclusions from these choices re-

vealed tendencies toward creativeness or concreteness

dependent upon the words chosen. A second group of items

in this test battery attempted to reveal the existence of

spontaneous and impulsive orientation. The word groupings

105

utilized were designed, to contrast this characteristic

with the operation of deliberateness and control. The

word choices were paired as follows: spontaneous/

systematic, impulse/decision, quick/careful, spontaneous/

adaptive, unplanned/scheduled, leisurely/punctual, casual/

systematic, easy-going/orderly* erratic/deliberate, and

changeable/cautious. Burkhart concluded from the results

of this test that spontaneity in the personality structure

among the art students studied requires a kind of personal

freedom which is perhaps less frequently required in other

areas of activity and that, although it is an important

factor in the prediction of creativity, it is not sufficient

for the prediction of a degree of creativity (4, pp. 204-

208).

Divergent power*—Burkhart observed that the factor

which is essential for high achievement in creative per-

formance is divergency. He found that divergent power

could be identified through an object-question test which

had been devised for his studies. The strategy of the

test was to provide an item, such as an apple, with in-

structions to ask questions concerning the item that would

arouse other questions or provide a variety of answers

rather than a concrete yes, no, or single answer. The

tendency of the factually oriented students was to ask

factually oriented questions, even though they realized

. 105

that the questions were of the improper type. All of the

resulting questions given on the test were categorised as

divergent questions or factual questions. Burkhart gener-

alised that the person who is capable of asking open-

ended questions is capable of thinking in open-ended terms;

consequently, those students who responded with the largest

number of nonfactual questions were considered to be more

creative than those who answered with a lesser number of

such questions (4, pp. 209-210).

Ideational and perceptual openness.—Ideational and

perceptual openness was reflected in the intellectual

inquisitiveness and preference for ideas for the sake

of ideas exhibited by the spontaneous individuals. Also

manifest by these individuals were unorthodox responses

to questions of environmental and somatic conditions.

Such questions involved conditions of discovery, imagina-

tion, fascination, feelings of excitement, appeal of the

unfinished and imperfect, and a poetic view of experience.

Self-determination.—According to Burkhart, self-

determination must be encompassed in the creative act. It

must represent a movement away from the known or tradi-

tional values. This condition necessitates a questioning

attitude toward authority (4, pp. 210-212).

The analysis of these four attributes of personality

creativity revealed that each factor is a measure of degree

107

of creative ability. Each, factor opposed concreteneso,

convergence, intellectual and perceptual closure, and

otherwise determined orientation. Thus the differences

between the creative and noncreative personality is the

difference between divergent/relative values and factual/

absolute values (4, p. 216)•

Spontaneous and Deliberate Performers

A highly consistent and significant relationship

between creativity in personality structure and creativity

in art was established in Burkhart's studies. He found

learning in the arts to be learning to think in interactive

terms and creative performance in the arts to be the out-

come of coping with crucial, interactive personal problems.

The levels and types of creative performance are dependent

upon and directly related to types of social contacts that

have molded the personalities of the performers. Such

levels were identified in Burkhart1s early studies, which

permitted classification of the individual subjects.

The classification of these levels of performers

was made under two broad categories of working strategies.

Each of these categories was stratified to reflect the

varying degrees of creative ability believed to be revealed

in tests designed for this purpose. The categories were

entitled "Deliberate" and "Spontaneous."

108

The criteria utilised by Burkhart to distinguish

spontaneous and deliberate performers is shown in Table XY.

TABLE XY

CHARACTERISTICS OF SPONTANEOUS AND DELIBERATE PERFORMERS AS IDENTIFIED BY BURKHART

Spontaneous Group Deliberate Group

Process orientation Intuitive development Mistakes often taken as a challenge

Dynamic visualizations Unrealistic symbolic orien-tation Often the student is not cognizant of passing time

Expressive objectives Increasing interest in working process Variety in concepts of detail Enjoyment of new media in spite of difficulty

Working all over picture surface

Alteration of concepts dur-ing working process

Broad range of positive to negative feelings, accom-panied by rapid changes in mood

Product orientation Preconceived forms Mistakes often considered wrong and a threat Static visualizations Realistic symbolic orien-tation Time element often consider-ed Technical objectives Declining interest in working process Monotony in concepts of detail Disgust with difficulties presented by new media

Work on one section of sur-face at a time Persistent adherence to one theme

Harrow range of responses; static or gradual changes in mood

The deliberate performers were designated by Burkhart

as ones who possessed the lowest level of creative abiliiy ,

They maintain a representation point of view both as per-

former and consumer. They work in step-by-step procedures

directed toward preconceived goals. The outcome may vary

109

in degree of quality, but they remain impersonal symbols

which predominantly reveal a degree of mechanical skill.

This type of performance stems from personality structures

which reveal a predominant degree of mechanical skill.

This type of performance stems from personality structures

which have "been oriented toward concreteness, literalness,

emotional noncommittment, ideational closure, and security.

Their relationships with other members of society are

essentially adaptive, noninteractive, and otherwise

directed.

The higher levels of creative performance are in

many ways opposite to deliberate performance. Burkhart

categorized these performers as spontaneous. They are

characterized by spontaneity in thought and feeling.

They have been shown to possess the factors flexibility,

complexity, impulsiveness, inquisitiveness, abstractness,

perception, intellectual and emotional openness, and self-

determination. Their relationships with other members of

society are generally interactive, divergent, and self-

directed. There are levels of accomplishment within this

group differentiated by the individual's interactive

capacity for art performance. These levels are established

through degrees of quality rather than the kinds of per-

formance. The levels were identified by -Burkhart as

spontaneous high plus, spontaneous high minus, spontaneous

low plus, and spontaneous low minus. The spontaneous high

110

plus performers were considered to be the most creative

performers participating in the studies. They were found

to be highly active, lexible, and versatile. They worked

intuitively, considering many aspects of the work simul-

taneously. As the process evolved, they readily changed

their attitudes. The personal, expressive purposes evi-

dent in their work changed as they revised or altered

their approach. Mistakes were looked upon as a challenge

to be integrated into the overall idea. The complexity

of their work gave evidence of differentiated meaning in

their subject matter. They were more selective and dis-

criminating as new material was introduced or modified.

The visual idea progressed as a whole rather than as a

succession of finished parts* They responded to the ab-

stract elements of their ideas and media in a highly

self-confident manner.

There were seven areas of performance witnessed in

the studies that permitted rankings of the performers to

occur. These areas included 1) spontaneity in handling

art work., organisation, and design factors; 2) flexibility,

involvement, and complexity of outlook in the attitude

during the working process; 3) open and positive aesthetic

orientation toward new forms of art experience; 4) person-

ality structures indicating spontaneous productivity,

abstractness, creativeness, impulsiveness, divergent power,

intellectual and perceptual openness, complexity,

Ill

originality,, aestheticism, theoretical orientation, and

social self-determination including social maturity and

nonauthoritarianism; 5) interest in art teacher guidance;

6) spatial attitudes evident in two- and three-dimensional

problems? and 7) consistency of general intelligence (1,

pp. 64-115).

• Spontaneous, Divergent, and Academic Performers

Burkhart "became aware of a third strategy of creative

performance which employs elements of the deliberate type.

This recognition brought about a change in his earlier

categories, increasing their number to three and the re-

naming of the deliberate one* Shis third strategy employed

elements of the deliberate type, the outcomes of which he

considers to be creative. He entitled this strategy

"divergent." His previous "deliberate" strategy was re-

named "academic." The difference between divergent and

spontaneous strategies lies in the objective of the

strategy. Burkhart believed the objective of spontaneous

strategy to be solution through problem-solving procedures

and the objective of divergent strategies to be solution

through discovery. Spontaneous solutions are arrived at

primarily through action over thinking. Divergent solutions

are arrived at through thinking over acting. Both strate-

gies are in contrast to academic strategies which employ

a closed operational procedure, predeveloped to produce a

determined outcome.

112

TABLE XVI

A COMPARISON Of TERES STRATEGIES OF PERFORMANCE ACCORD K G TO BtiRKEART

Strategy Procedure Goal

Academic Constant Constant

Spontaneous Variable 1 "™ "

Constant

Divergent Constant Variable

Strategy has been described by Burkhart as a system

of behavior which includes working procedures and goals

(5, p. 292). Procedures and goals are interdependent;

therefore, as strategies differ, procedures and goals

differ. Strategies are either dynamic or static. Static

strategies hold both procedure and goal in a constant or

closed manner, not allowing for innovation. Dynamic

strategies hold either procedure or goal in an open or

closed manner, but not both, because there must be a con-

stant within the system to allovr control to exist. The

spontaneous strategy employs the problem as the constant,

and the procedure is the variable which leads to an

acceptable solution. Innovation thu3 becomes procedural

or process oriented. Divergent strategies vary goals and

hold procedures constant. The process is held constant in

113

order to allow for an intellectual search which may lead to

a new discovery. It is goal oriented. Table XVI shows the

comparison of these three strategies.

In his observations of students producing art work,

certain determinants emerged that permitted the detection

of these three strategies (2), The academically oriented

students committed themselves very early in the problem

to an established procedure of operation. In still life

drawing, these students identified with their realistic

interpretation of the subject. Their procedures followed

a customary fixed, contour line approach with no variation.

They sought precise statements of objects with no regard

for medium. Textural and value techniques were utilized

in a mechanical manner to establish closed masses. There

was no alteration of viewpoint from the preconceived imagp

during these stages of development. The main concern ap-

peared to be to demonstrate technical facility in descrip-

tive drawing. Their judgments were based on a known

standard.

The spontaneous students began with a vaguely defined

whole, permitting change to occur as work progressed. They

worked primarily kinesthetically, utilizing free acute or

obtuse angular movements. They worked toward direct state-

ments omitting unnecessary detail and procedures. They le -

lied heavily on suggested impressions for expressive

114

purposes. There was little reliance on determined contour

drawing and presketching.

The divergent student was concerned with precise,

clear statements at all stages of development; however,

these statements were direct and contributed to the evolving

goal. Utilization of mistakes was common among this group

in the evolution of their images. Reliance was placed on

strong contrasts and clarity of statement. Although state-

ments were clearly conceived on a step-by-step "basis, the

creator could not anticipate the succeeding steps. The

work became progressively more complex until an appropriate

statement was made and the process ended (5» pp. 293-298).

Feldman: The Plow of Creative Performance in Art

Feldman supports the theory that creativity is a

combination of psychologically testable mental traits as

well as a mental process involving a series of stages. He

believes that the products of creativity are necessary

evidence that creativity has occurred and that this con-

cluding manifestation is often neglected by many authori-

ties involved in research in the area of creativity.

He suggests that the testable mental traits involved

in creative performance are: sensitivity to problems,

tolerance of ambiguity, originality, fluency, flexibility,

and spontaneity. The successive stages involved in the

mental process are: preparation, illumination, incubation,

115

and discovery. Society's interest in the nurture of crea-

tivity and its attempts to meet the need of self expression

justify the broad areas of involvement in the arts with

their corresponding end products (6).

According to Feldman, there appears to be different

emphasis placed on the study of creativity as it is being

conducted by psychologists and educators than when it is

being conducted by people in the various art fields. The

psychologists and educators place great emphasis on the

study of the mental processes, and the artists place the

greater emphasis on the outcomes of the processes. The

difference in attitude between the two areas of study

lies in the placement of value on process, with little re-

gard for the quality of outcome, as opposed to the place-

ment of value on a product that would suggest the degree

of creativity that has taken place (7, pp. 30-31).

Feldman believes that both the process of making art

and the process of understanding the art made call for

the exercise of mental powers that must be allied in the

creative phenomena. He believes that these creative powers

can be significantly developed through the personal moti-

vations created by the anticipation of artistic or aesthe-

tic objectives. These objectives give rise to problems

whose creative solutions are arrived at through opera-

tional processes that some authorities believe to be

116

art parallel the general thought process to the extent

that each involves "becoming aware of a problem, suggesting

a hypothesis for its solution, and anticipating the re-

sults of trying the hypothesis. They differ from the

general thought processes in that the artist tests hypoth-

eses in the form of performance, which requires public

visible behavior. Thinking does not require this type

of behavior, although it may lead to it. This observation

suggests that there is some connection between problem

solving and creativity that goes beyond the general thought

process (6; 7, p. 32; 8).

In attempting to identify this connection, Feldman

noted that it possibly begins in the origin of the problem

in the form of disturbance, doubt, disequilibrium, or

conflict within the individual. This is a felt disruption

of an accustomed order. The connection then moves into

the processes of problem solution which, for the artist,

necessitates physical execution and sensory response. The

solution is then verified both by personal satisfaction

arid sense of accomplishment and by the social confirma-

tion and acceptance of his product. According to Feldman,

the distinguishing difference between the artist and the

psychologist in this respect is that artistic problem-

solving involves an accomplished solution through real

risk-taking, whereas psychological problem-solving

117

involves an intuitive solution through hypothetical risk-

taking (7» p. 36)•

Feldman suggests that if art, or creativity, is de-

fined as self-expression, consideration should be given to

those aspects of man's make-up that demand expression. The

first of these aspects is man's search for freedom from

the constraints of society. The second is man's search

for communion and communication with other men. Thus,

self-expression becomes two-directiona; the self acts and

the self communicates. The resulting states of transfor-

mations offer greater fluency in self-actualization (7,

pp. 36-45).

This two-directional enterprise is manifest in

Feldman's anatomy of art teaching practice which is based

on the sequential development of the creative process

which he believes exists in the production of art objects.

Figure 4 illustrates the process involving the stages of

identification, expansion and elaboration, execution,

presentation, and evaluation (7, pp. 196-204).

Identification

Concerning identification in the creative process,

Feldman stated that the foremost consideration in art is

the role it plays as man's statement of his encounter with

the world in which he lives. Secondly, these encounters

lead to art practices which must be derived from further

118

Identification

Encounter

Practice

Attitude

Evaluation Discrimination Beauty

Satisfaction Beauty

Interpretation Order Approbation

Sensitivity Pathos Enthusiasm

Perceptual Heroism response

Grandeur

Expansion and Elaboration Transition

Extension and suppression

Interpretation

Reinforcement

Appropriateness Organization

Execution Integration of idea, image, and emotion

Transcending personal discovery and social exchange

% if

Presentati on. Ore ator/audi-ence dis-course

Pig. 4—The flow of the creative process according to 3? eldman.

personal encounters with reality. Thirdly, man's attitude

toward these encounters serves as the basis for the result-

ing products of performance. Once identification of a

problem has occurred through these encounters, and their

119

resulting tentative practices and attitudes, transition

into physical performance must follow.

Expansion and Elaboration

Transitions involve expansion and elaboration of

identified themes. They involve search for appropriateness

which will result in something that will be made public.

There is an extension of this search so that the impulse

toward an immediate product, which normally results in

triteness, is postponed. This is a period during the

process wherein there must be great effort directed

toward gathering facts, collecting images, and generating

ideas. It involves aoilities to interpret, reinforce, and

organize.

Execution

Execution in physical terms follows the period of

expansion and elaboration, xt involves the search for the

most appropriate way for the integration of idea, image,

and emotion into an articulate statement. It embraces the

decision to commit a personal statement to public jury,

vmich is brought about by the desire to transcend personal

discovery and the desire for social exchange. Execution

therefore becomes a two-fold encounter involving the

attempts to form statements and the attempts to communicate

the statements thus formed.

120

Presentation

Communication with the public involves the manner "by

which the individual's creative statements are united with

social purposes,, Although such presentations may take

many forms, their underlying theoretical purpose appears

to he the generation of reinforcement by social witness

or public interactions, which are necessary for the trans-

cendent role of execution to come into play. It is the

stage of critical interaction offering the opportunity

for fluent discourse between the creator and his audience#

Accordingly, presentation becomes cyclic with the execu-

tion stage and reinforces the total creative encounter.

Evaluation

The collaboration between creative expression and

communication goes beyond the stage of presentation. Once

an idea has been formed, presented, and the necessary

interactions have occurred, the conditions relative to

subsequent human involvement must be weighed with some

degree of value. This involves the abilities to discrimin-

ate and interpret, to make quality decisions, and to

respond sensitively and perceptually. Such comprehension

arises from the coherent organization of sensory materials

encompassing the elements of satisfaction, approbation,

and enthusiasm. The resulting discovery of beauty, order,

pathos, heroism, or xrrRnrimjT* -is. •» -nrr m~"i ̂ "

121

pre-eminently social event reflecting the ability of

creator and recipient to share a common response. The

magnitude of the resulting import is found in the atti-

tudes of the social environment.

Hubbard: Creative Production

Creative production, according to Hubbard, is con-

tingent upon the interactions of at least seven task

areas that permeate the production cycle and affect the

degree to which the activity may be judged creative.

These task areas include perceptual development, vocabu-

lary development, artist and product characteristic

awareness, criticism and judgment value development, tools

and materials mastery, and production ability develop-

ment (10, pp. XX-XXII; 9, pp. 246-255).

Hubbard believes that the mental operations of man

entail learning, remembering, and thinking. Thinking en-

compasses the processes of production and evaluation.

Creative production appears to be closely associated with

the desire for novelty, exploration, and complexity.

These same three qualities govern man's perceptual abili-

ties; therefore, a connection exists between creative

production and perception. In the fields of art, these

operations encompass the visual phenomena; thus art becomes

a union between visual perception and visual production.

Visually creative individuals appear to possess certain

122

recognizable traits which do not seem to "be present in all

individuals. They possess a store of information, which

may he verbal or nonverbal, that relates to particular

experiences which are about to occur. Along with this

store of information there is the ability to recognize a

problem and to initiate a particular pattern of produc-

tion. Production implies both process and product; it is

the generation of new information through convergent and

divergent operations {9* pp. 78-80).

Hubbard contends that both divergent and convergent

production are essential for creative performance to occur.

Convergent production is necessary when concern is directed

more toward refinement than toward change. Divergent

production is essential for the development of new ideas,

unorthodox procedures, and discovery outcomes.

Intellectual Traits

Hubbard concurs with Guilford that there are certain

intellectual traits which accompany creative production.

These traits stem from the refinement of studies concern-

ing divergent production abilities. They are fluency,

flexibility, elaboration, and originality. Fluency is the

trait which pertains to the ability to produce ideas for

problem solution, flexibility involves the ability to

approach the possible solutions of problems from various

points of view. This may involve the need to shift

123

behavior and generate relevant ideas from many unrelated

sources. Elaboration is revealed in the diverse state-

ments, the appropriateness of details, the desired changes,

or the variety of statements that can be utilized in seek-

ing solutions. Originality refers to the measure of

quality, rarity of occurrence, and degree of redefinition

of the outcome of production.

Nonintellectual Traits

Hubbard believes that there are several nonintellectu-

al traits which characterize the creative individual. The

creative individual possesses a high degree of inquisitive-

ness. He possesses above normal committment to explore,

experiment, and seek new things. Such involved curiosity

may be engendered by the creative process itself, thereby

being intrinsic, or it may be stimulated by the value of

the external reward of achievement, hence becoming

extrinsic, i

The creative personality exhibits a high degree of

manipulative ability which is exercised in both philosoph-

ical and practical strategies. The person who manipulates

tangible things may do so with the same creative zeal as

the person who manipulates abstract ideas. The respect

for these manipulative skills and the recognition of their

importance in creative performance as nonintellectual

124

traits broaden the base for the identification of the

creative personality.

The desire to expand into new realms and to search

out new avenues of inquiry may lead to new, unexpected

discoveries. Creative personalities appear to possess

this quality of serendipity. Serendipity is a special

kind of curiosity which may lead an individual to discov-

eries that cannot be revealed through any other strategy..

Creative people possess a high degree of fantasy in

some sphere of their creative production. It is akin to

the world of imagination. It is involved in the conjura-

tion of ideas, elaboration of the ideas, and the reorgani-

zation of them, usually just for the pleasure from the

experience of doing so. The creator has no need to con-

sider moral and physical limitations in regard to his

fantasies#

Creative performance implies that at times the indi-

vidual will be alone in his views. He will have to trust

his own convictions} consequently, independence is a

necessity for him. The quality of this independence may

emerge in the tendency to take risks, to test limits of

materials and problems, and to even fail at times. This

quality must be accompanied by its counterpart, wise

judgment.

Sensitivity for visual beauty is an important attri-

bute of the creative personality. Aesthetic sensitivity

125

reflects the degree to which, the creative person can

respond in appreciative terms and the degree of competency

with which he can express himself aesthetically.

Perception-delineation, Theory

Hubbard supports the perception-delineation theory

of creative production as it was presented by McFee•

This theory suggests that there are four stages or "points"

an individual must pass through when he is engaged in

creative art activities. This engagement is a complex

process which utilizes the individual's past experiences

and his present interpretations of visual information. It

requires the coordination of intellect, emotions, per-

ceptions, and motor skills that must he handled in the

most efficient manner to utilize the individual's ability

to respond, express, design, or otherwise create (9,

pp. 44-46).

Figure 5 is a summary of McPee's perception-delinea-

tion theory. Each stage of the theory is interrelated with

the succeeding stages, suggesting a cyclic refinement

which results in products which may be considered creative

(12, pp. 303-311).

Readiness.—Point I involves the state of readiness

of the individual. It reflects the degrees of preparation

of the individual to respond to visual stimuli. It is a

126

x Stimulus

Point I. Readiness —-~~

Physical development Intelligence Perceptual development Response sets Culture

Point II. Psycho-logical Environment

Threat or nonthreat Success or failure Reward or punishment

Point III Information Handling

Ability to handle detail Intelligence Ability to handle symmetrical patterns Categories for organizing perceptions

t Point I¥

Delineation

Creativity Designing abilities Manipulative skills

Pig. 5—A summary of McPee's perception-delineation theory of creative performance•

This selection is based on his past cultural and environ-

mental experiences, previous learning, and personality

factors. It includes his present stage of physical, in-

tellectual, and perceptual development along with his

environmental response sets and cultural training.

12?

environment»—Point II is the psychologic-

al environment wherein the person is perceiving. In this

stage the forces of threat or nonthreat, success or failure,

and reward or punishment will either arrest or reinforce

the continuation of the cycle.

Information handling•--Point III is the stage of in-

formation handling wherein there is involvement of the

abilities to utilize categories of learned visual infor-

mation. These categories entail the ability to handle

detail, to formulate symmetrical patterns, to organize

perceptions, and to utilize general intelligence.

Delineaticn.--Point IV" is the delineation stage.

The character of the delineation is varied5 however, there

are two predominant attitudes toward it. These attitudes

reflect the desire of the individual to express himself in

terms of his objective or of his subjective domains.

Summary

Burkhart believes creativity is a process of inter-

active learning brought about by man's response to the

inputs and outgoes of his life's experiences. It is a way

of extending and enlivening the self through the treatment

of each of these encounters as having substance and im-

portance. He believes that the purpose for creative

action lies in its value as a process for self-discovery.

32 8

In pursuing studies that attempted to identify the attri-

butes of creative behavior, he identified four personality

dimensions which were manifest in the strategies of per-

formance of creative art students and creative student

teachers, The dimensions identified were 1) spontaneous-

abstract orientation, 2) divergent power, 3) ideational

and perceptual openness, and 4) social self-determination.

The analysis of these four attributes revealed that each

is a factor which can be used as a measure of creative

ability.

Burkhart's studies of personality structure and

creativity in art led to the conclusion that there were

two distinct categories of strategies of performance in

art and that each category could be further stratified

depending upon the quality of performance within each one.

These two categories were labeled "deliberate performers"

and "spontaneous performers."

The deliberate performers were characterized as

concrete, literal, emotionally noncommittal, ideationally

closed, and secure. They were socially adaptive, non-

interactive, and other-directed. The spontaneous per-

formers were considered to be the creative ones. They

were characterized as flexible, complex, impulsive,

inquisitive, abstract, perceptive, intellectual, emotion-

ally open, and self-determined. They were socially

interactive, divergent, and self-directed. Within these

129

groups, rankings were made thai: differentiated the higher

creatives from the lower creatines * The criteria used

for these rankings encompassed seven areas of performance

which were believed to further characterize the creative

performer. The seven areas were 1) spontaneity, 2) flexi-

bility and complexity, 3) aesthetic openness, 4) personal-

ity structures, 5) interest in guidance, 6) spatial atti-

tudes, and 7) consistency of general intelligence.

Further studies of student strategies of creative

performance led Burkhart to the realignment of his cate-

gories into three groups. This ivas brought about because

of his observation of a group of performers whose strategy

of performance cut across the procedure of the deliberate

performer but whose outcomes were of the spontaneous type.

The reclassification of the strategies resulted in three

groups of performers identified as "academic," "spontane-

ous ," and "divergent." The academic strategy utilizes a

constant procedure of operations directed toward a con-

stant goal. The spontaneous strategy utilizes an opera-

tional procedure with a high degree of variability directed

toward a constant goal. The divergent strategy utilizes

a constant procedural operation directed toward variable

goals.

Peldman believes that creativity is a combination of

mental traits functioning in a mental process. He further

,v —• 130

believes that the products of creativity are manifesta-

tions which reveal the occurrence of creative performance

and that their importance has heen minimized hy many

authorities in studying the creative phenomena. He suggests

that this is the main reason for the differing points of

view among many of the disciplines studying this area of

performance.

Pelaman stated that the process of making an art

product and the process of interpreting the product call

for creative mental powers which can he developed through

individual motivations stemming from developed aesthetic

objectives. These developed powers parallel the general

thought processes. The difference between them is in the

testing of the formulated hypothesis. In the general

thought processes, such testing may remain intuitive and

need not be subjected to public visual confirmation.

Creative performance in art necessitates that the testing

of the hypothesis result in an accomplished solution

which is to be subjected to public visual confirmation.

According to Peldman, this difference indicates that there

is some connection between creativity in art and problem

solving that goes beyond the general thought process.

This connection may lie in the verification of the created

product which reflects both the creator's personal satis-

faction and his public's confirmation of it. This dual

involvement of self action and self communication is

131

evident in Peldman's sequential development in the creative

process in art which includes the stages of identification,

expansion and elaboration, execution, presentation, and

evaluation.

Hubbard believes that creativity in art is a union

between visual perception and visual production. Artists

possess traits that do not appear in the strategies of

other individuals, or that appear to a lesser degree.

They possess a store of infor/nation which can be related

to the anticipated experience, the ability to recognize

the problem that will lead to the experience, and the

ability to initiate a pattern of production that will

give unique solutions to the problem. The production

of solutions involves processes and products, both of

which generate new information through convergent and

divergent operations. Convergent operations are essential

for refinement, and divergent operations are essential for

uniqueness and discovery.

According to Hubbard, there are certain intellectual

and nonintellectual traits which accompany creative per-

formance. The intellectual traits are fluency, flexi-

bility, elaboration, and originality. The nonintellectual

traits are: curiosity, manipulative skills, discovery or

serendipity, fantasy, independence, and aesthetic

sensitivity.

132

Hubbard believes in the soundness of the perception-

delineation theory of creative performance presented by

McFee. This is a four-stage, cyclic process which encom-

passes the readiness of an individual to respond to a

stimulus, the effects of the psychological environment on

the individual, the ability of the individual to handle

information, and the ability of the individual to form

delineations utilizing both convergent and divergent

operations in the most efficient manner.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Burkhart, Robert C., et al, "The Effect of a 'Depth' Versus a 'Breadth' Mothod cf Art Instruction at the Ninth Grade levels," National Art Education Associa-tion Studies in Art Education, 4 (Pall, 1§62), 75-87.

2. Burkhart, Robert C«, "The Interrelationship of Separ-ate Criteria for Creativity in Art and Student Teachings," National Art Education Association Studies, in Art Education. 2 (Pall, 1961),18-38.

3. , "The Relationship of Intelligence to Art Ability," Journal of Aesthetics and Art

• Criticism, 17 (December, 1958), 230-241.

4. , Spontaneous and Deliberate Ways of Learning, Scranton, Pennsylvania, International Textbook Company, 1962.

5. , and Kenneth Biettel, "Strategies of Spontaneous", Divergent, and Academic Art Students ," Readings in Art Education, edited by E.W. Eisner and D.W. Ecker, Waltham, Massachusetts, Blaisdell Publishing Company, 1966.

6. Peldman, Edmund Burke, Art as Image and Idea, Engle-wood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967.

7. . : , Becoming Human through Art, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1970.

8. , "The Educational Value of Aesthetic Experience," Harvard Educational Revue, XXI (Pall, 1951), 225-23^7

9. Hubbard, Guy, Art in the High School, Belmont, Cali-fornia, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1970.

10. Hubbard, Guy and Mary J. Rouse, Art: Meaning, Method, and Media, Westchester, Illinois, Benefic Press, 1970.

133

134

11. Lowenfeld, Viktor, "Creativity: Education's Stepchild," A Source Book for Creative Thinking, edited by Sidney J. Parnes and Harold P. Harding, Hew York, Charles Seribner's Sons, 1962.

12. McFee, June King, Preparation for Art, Belmont, California, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1967.

CHAPTER IV

SELECTED STUDIES OF TERES AUTHORITIES IN SCIENCE

Haefele: Innovation and Creation

Haefele believes that everyone possesses the ability

to perform creatively. He has stated that creation is,

in a large measure, problem solving and that, in all

fields, it develops through a similar process (1, p. 11).

He views this process as involving the steps of

1) preparation, 2) incubation, 3) insight, and 4) verifi-

cation. Hid viewpoints were arrived at through the con-

sideration of the conclusions drawn by five earlier

researchers in the area of creative performance. The

summaries of these researchers, Helmholtz, Wallas, Young,

Rossman, and Osborn, reveal conclusions which differ in

terminology and the number of stages involved in the pro-

cess, but which agree in the overall syndrome of the

creative process.

Helmholtz was the earliest of the group to present

the idea that the creative process involved the steps 1)

preparation, 2) incubation, and 3) illumination. Wallas

expanded the syndrome into a fourth step, verification.

Young's terminology differed and the number of stages were

expanded to five: 1) assembly of material, 2) assimilation

135

136

of material in the mind, 3) incubation, 4) "birth of the

idea, and 5) development to practical usefulness. There

were seven steps in Rossman's summary of creative events:

1) observation of the need or difficulty, 2) analysis of

the need, 3) survey of the available information, 4) formu-

lation of objective solutions, 5) critical analysis of the

proposed solutions for advantages and disadvantages, 6)

birth of a new idea, and 7) experimentation to test out

the most promising solution to the problem (1, pp. 12-13).

For Haefele the preparation stage of creative per-

formance is the stage of organization of material brought

about through man's desire to solve problems. The incu-

bation stage is the wait after preparation, normally

caused by the frustration of the problem situation. The

insight stage is the beginning of the clarification of

idea, which involves the thrill of solution and the

anxiety of choice, or separation. The verification stage

is the development and proving of the idea, involving

satisfaction and acceptance.

Each of these stages is heightened through strong

emotional involvement of the performer. This involvement

creates the feedback from each succeeding stage and fur-

nishes the motives for the process. There are several

aspects of these motives: the practical desire for food,

family, and famej the satisfaction derived from creating,

from the resulting achievement, and in its service to

137

mankindj the anticipation generated by the joy of insight;

the desire for freedomj the desire for challenge; and the

sublimation of the experience.

Preparation

The preparation stage involves the selection and acti-

vation of mental meterial necessary for scanning within an

established loose framework or model. It permits the crea-

tor to see the problem, to analyze directions of perform-

ance, to assemble material, and to rework the problem.

Reworking the problem activates stored mental material,

permits reformulation of the specifics of the problem, and

allows for expanded symbolization of some type for clari-

fication purposes. This stage involves certain procedures

referred to by Haefele as polypreparation procedures. The

aspects of polypreparation are: restructuring, .symboliza-

tion, analogy, heuristics, and check lists.

Restructuring.--Restrueturing is the search for clues

to the problem's solution and for new areas to explore.

The degree of success at this point is dependent upon the

abailability of stored material and the mind's ability to

combine and recombine known knowledge outside of conscious-

ness until a new awareness is revealed to the conscious.

The new directions thus realized permit material to be de-

veloped into a new framework which may offer the necessary

clues for solution.

133

Symbolization.—Symbolization in the preparatory stags

is a means by which the human mind deals with information

in a nonverbal manner. The ability to generate and expand

ideas through the utilization of symbol becomes manifest

in either of three directions: 1) as representation, 2)

as the creation, and 3) as response to promotive

conditions.

As representation, symbo'lization reduces verbal state-

ment. This statement may be either two- or three-dimen-

sional and may utilize senses other than sight. As the

object of creation, symboll becomes the end rather than a

means. As such, it is widely utilized in the visual arts

and in music. One sense may serve as the stimulus for

the evolution of other sensory symbols. Symbols utilized

as promotive conditions provide the cells for formulation

of frameworks and models. Symbol creation and transfor-

mation occur throughout the creative process; however,

their strongest impact may lie in the preparatory stage.

Symbols exemplify emotion and creative flow and aid their

progress by supplying psychic energy necessary for the pro-

cess to continue. Haefele believes that as thinking con-

tinues, the problem is cast into new symbolizations which

in turn lead to new relationships (1, pp. 47-58).

Analogy.--Analogy is a form of symbolization. It is

a means of arriving at new relationships through the

139

consideration of similarities in existing ones. Haefele

refers to Spearman's definition of analogy, which indicates

that a relationship must ha recognized between two ideas.

This relationship must he applied to a third idea in order

to generate a fourth one, which is called the correlate.

He also stated that analogy is a kind of distorted mirror

image, and that to reason hy analogy should not be avoided

because of the risks of these distortions. Conversely,

since creative performance involves a high degree of risk-

taking, the use of analogy can be a very useful strategy

of performance (1, p. 59)•

Heuristics.--According to Haefele, heuristics are

applicable theorems which aid in the detection and handling

of useful preparative material. It involves seeing a prob-

lem in a slightly different form, associating a useful

theorem, associating a different problem with a similar

unknown utilizing the results and methods of solution, re-

stating the initial problem, partial solution, and associ-

ating a related problem which may be more general, more

specific, or analogous. This involves a scanning of field,

detecting avenues of search and exploitation of the result-

ant material. Such conscious manipulation and reasoning is

only a part of the preparation stage. Discovery may be

more susceptible to insight than logic; solutions as new

combinations are more likely to result from imagination

140

than from logic, because the new results axe less logical

than the established ones (1, p. 61).

Check lists«—Haefele believes that applied check

lists aid in carrying forth the solution of the problem.

Their primary value lies in forcing the mind to consider

specifics. In order to affect this role, they must be

stimulative and conducive to a questioning point of view

(1, p. 62).

Incubation

When preparative efforts are exhausted and no solu-

tion to the problem is in sight, there is a time of wait-

ing, perhaps of frustration. The end of the incubation

period comes with the attainment of insight. V/hat occurred

in the mind during this stage is, according to Haefele, the

least understood event of the total process. Incubation

is an essential period, following the sense of defeat,

wherein something happens besides waiting. The main evi-

dence of this is the sudden appearance of insight wherein

confusion of facts gives way to order. There appears to

be certain elements necessary for the period of incubation

to become fruitful. There must be a time element involved,

which may be either a short interval or an expanded span.

Recurrence of the problem must be witnessed, perhaps to

the point of nagging the mind. A tension is built pro-

portional to the motives involved s need to solve problems,

141

drive for reward, and the urge to remember. Intimation

announces that insight is near. The near insight further

searches and makes choices. Finally insight flows, normal-

ly into deliberate work on the problem. Insight may hang

on the outer fringes of consciousness, or it may announce

itself with sudden impact. Insight is transient and, if

not utilized immediately, fades rapidly and becomes lost

once again. Haefele's view of the unconscious activity •

taking place suggests that frustration is a kind of prob-

lem-solving anxiety. When preparative efforts cease, the

material being utilized is pushed into the unconscious.

Therefore, the means and energy for continuation are 3till

available. An anxiety state develops which recalls the

unsolved prpblem to the conscious mind from time to time

until useful new material is revived, unless interference

is imposed by interpersonal and situational frustrations

(1, pp. 68-70).

During the period of incubation, the drive to achieve

solutions to the problem and relief from the nagging

creative complex supplies the energy for manipulating and

scanning new combinations. Problem anxiety may be relieved

through avenues other than by a specific problem solution.

Relief may come through thinking of new preparational

approaches, modifying goals, or generating a different

idea (1, p. 78).

142

Haefele stated that the individual who incubates with

ease and thoroughness possesses personality traits con-

sidered essential to the creative process. These traits

are: flexibility of mind, tolerance of ambiguity, perse-

verance, discernment, self-confidence, parsimony, gulli-

bility, and retained capacity for childlike wonder (1,

p . 7 9 ) .

Insight

Insight is the answer to the problem posed. It is

the birth of a new idea, which is the culmination of the

preparatory efforts. It is the prelude to the verifica-

tion of that which is to be communicated.

According to Haefele, insight is the distinguishing

mark of the creative outcome. It is new to the recipient.

It is a common, pleasant, sought experience. Insight af-

fects the ego: the sublimation of sex, the hope of economic

profit, the hope of coherent communication, the sense of

the aesthetic, and of the altruistic.

Insight enters thinking processes, whether they are

of the simplest or most complex forms, whether the solu-

tions are arrived at through deliberate cognitive approaches

or through spontaneous arousal from the mind; but there

appears to Haefele to be degrees of encounters with insight

between the polarities of problems solved through perceptual

143

response and problems solved through difficult and complex

operations (1, p. 85)•

There are similarities within all types of problem

solving, hut a major difference lies in the role insight

plays in the more complex problems. The more difficult

problems require greater dependence upon insight, but the

insight comes through spontaneous rise. This occurs be-

cause insight is not susceptible to logical attack and

becomes manifest in a climate of relaxed mental state in

dissociated thought (1, p. 86).

In considering the types of insight, Haefele refers

to the classifications presented by Dundeer and Hutchinson.

Duncker classifies insights as being total analytic,

total synthetic, or a mixture of the two types. Total

analytic insight utilizes the direct preparative progress

to the solution. Total synthetic insight is sudden re-

organization of material when the individual is not active-

ly seeking the problem solution. Mixed insight is sudden

reorganization of material at some stage during a conscious

period of resumed effort toward solution. Hutchinson

classifies insight according to whether it occurs as the

result of creative tendency, chance, completion of estab-

lished partial pattern, preparative labor, or the creative

process (1, p. 92).

Haefele listed eleven possible causes which may result

in insight (1, pp. 96-98):

144

1* Sudden chance stimulation on a problem not being coriscious 1y cons idered«

2. Spontaneous realization of the answer to a problem when engaged in some other physical activity. .

3» An unexpected clue which may trigger further progress even though the direction of progress may appear weak.

4. Effort in a continuous sequence of problem, work, and solution.

5» Resumption of conscious effort after preparative and incubative periods have lapsed.

6. Unconscious solution which appears after prepara-tive and incubative periods have lapsed. This differs from number two in that the answer does not appear sudden-ly; rather, the parts to the answer fall into place suddenly and without great conscious effort.

7. .Delimiting the area of study, specifying the methods of attack to be used, and covering all areas of the problem as a total unit.

8. Relay information which involves the decision of selecting problems for solution. It does not pertain to answers but does pertain to the goodness of the select-ed problem.

9. Ordering of ideas, as when a mass of material suddenly aligns itself or falls into an orderly arrangement.

10. Recognizing a particular aspect of a more general case as being true, best, or useful in a particu-lar instance.

Concerning the aspects of insight, Haefele believes

that it may manifest itself through any of the senses; it

may come at any particular time under varying environ-

mental conditions, but there are certain times when it is

most likely to occur for some individuals (1, p. 98).

145

"Verification

After insight comes the decision to follow up.

Following up insight involves determining the scope of

its meaning, which involves abilities to reason, to de-

duce implications, to formulate corollaries, and to utilize

various methods of elaboration. Verification usually re-

quires invention and the expansion of the means of proof.

During this course of work, there may arise many minor

insights which may stem from the preceding major one.

Blocks in the process may occur which require repetition

of the prior stages for their dissolution. Through elabora-

tion, work is brought into completion in a rough initial

form. It is then refined and brought into its final state

through processes of revision. Abilities to criticize and

judge in a skillful manner are brought into play.

Haefele believes there are five emotional states which

can be witnessed in the stage of verification: elation of

insight, anxiety of separateness, drive to communicate,

anticipation to astound, and disappointment over failure

to achieve the full insight (1, p. 107)•

Personality Traits

Haefele contends that the construct of creativity may

be thought of either as a unit or as a composit of quali-

ties or attributes that are related. These attributes

are: sensitivity to problems, fluency, flexibility,

146

originality, penetration, analysis, synthesis, and redefi-

nition (1, p. 198-199)•

The interaction of these attributes, or parts, is the

substance of the creative process as a whole; however, the

whole of the creative process affects and is affected "by

certain personality traits. These traits may carry over

into human performance which is not considered to he crea-

tive, hut they are revealed in performance which is con- -

sidered to he creative. Haefele divided these traits into

four groups dependent upon the individual's relation to

others, job attitudes, self attitudes, and other charac-

teristics. He believes that the traits under these head-

ings are not all-inclusive, but that they are the ones

which appear to be the most significant among creative

people. The lists of traits according to Haefele follows.

Relations to others:

1. Not a joiner.

2. Pew close friends.

3» Independent.

4 • Dominant.

5. Assertive, bold, courageous.

6. Little interest in interpersonal relations.

7. Independence from parents.

8. Independence of judgment, especially under pressure.

9. Conventional morality.

147

Job attitudes:

1. Preference for things and ideas to people.

2. High regard for intellectual interests.

3* Less emphasis on and value in job security.

4. Less enjoyment in and satisfaction from de-tail work and routine.

5« High level of resourcefulness and adaptability.

6. Skeptical,

7« Precise, critical.

8. Honesty, integrity.

9. Ability to toy with elements.

10. High tolerance for ambiguity.

11. Persistence.

12. Emphasis on theoretical values.

Self attitudes:

1. Introspective, egocentric, internally pre-occupied.

2

3

Openness to new experiences.

Less in need to protect self.

4. Great awareness of self.

5* Inner maturity.

6. Great ego strength.

7. Emotionally responsive.

8. Less emotional stability.

9. Less self-acceptance.

148

Other characteristics:

1. Spontaneity, enthusiasm.

2. Stubborness.

3* Originality.

4 • Adventurousness.

5. High excitability and irritability.

6. Compulsiveness•

7. Complexity as a person.

8. Anxiety.

Haefele stated that the apparent inconsistencies

which may be seen in the foregoing lists should be ex-

pected, because the creative personality is such a complex

structure that even the major facets of it are difficult

to apply to the unique individual. Some causes for this

lie in the nature of the group being considered: their

educational experiences, their training levels, and the

environment in which they exist (1, pp. 122-125).

In the attempt to identify the creative researcher,

Haefele ascribes to the conclusions drawn by the authori-

ties who have identified personality factors between sub-

jects from several divergent occupational fields.

Compared with the average man, the scientist was shown to

be withdrawn, internally preoccupied, more intelligent,

more dominant, and more inhibited. Compared with admin-

istrators and teachers, the scientist was more withdrawn,

less emotionally stable, more self-sufficient, more

149

Bohemian, and more radical* There were no distinct dif-

fernces found between the researcher and the artist,

except the usual divergencies which exist within the

occupations (1, p. 126).

Roe: Creativity in Science

In early studies of the relationships "between person-

ality and vocation, consideration had been given to voca-

tion based largely upon job analysis and aptitude. Roe

believed that the implications of a relationship between

vocation and personality went beyond vocational guidance

and mental hygiene, that it involved a direct and vital

bearing upon the social interactions of the groups in-

volved (6, p. 317)* The personal characteristics of

people who are involved in the fields of science are not

different from those of people who are involved in some

other field of activity. She referred to Walker's studies

of creative chemists, which indicated that creative in-

dividuals did not manifest all but exhibited most of the

characteristics of fluency, flexibility, originality, the

ability to perceive disequilibria in the environment, and

the ability to tolerate ambiguity (4-? p. 214). Even within

the various branches of science, there are no marked per-

sonality differences that are unique to any particular

area. She believes, however, that there are patterns which

are more characteristic of people in science than of those

150

in other areas and that, within the sciences, there are

patterns which are characteristic of a particular branch

of activity. These patterns stern from life histories,

intellectual abilities, and personality structure (3,

p. 136? 4, p. 230).

Pattern Sources

Life histories.—-Roe5s studies of eminent scientists

revealed that, as a group, they came from select families.

Their fathers were either skilled or professional men.

She "believes that this is the greatest determinant for

entering the science professions. The reason for this be-

lief lies in the great value the families of these men

place on intelligence and the knowledge of learning for

its own sake for the enrichment of their lives. Even the

scientists who did not come from such a family environ-

ment had been in close association with someone, usually

a teacher, who held a similar viewpoint.

Most of the subjects studied were inveterate readers

who enjoyed education and studying. They had intense

personal interests. These interests were usually accom-

panied by some event which had placed the individuals on

their own resources. Such events included loss of a

parent, a serious physical defect, or being the first

child•

151

Their interests became varied at an early age. Those

who became physical scientists tended toward an early in-

volvement with different sorts of gadgets# The ones who

entered biological professions were more interested in

natural history (4, pp. 231-232).

Intellectual abilities.—The entire group of subjects

studied by Roe possessed a very high level of intellectual

functioning. She found a relationship between the pro-

fession of these men and their thought strategy. Biolo-

gists were concentrated in the group of subjects whose

thought processes relied predominantly on visual imagery.

Physicists were concentrated in the group whose thought

processes relied mostly on auditory-verbal imagery and

imageless thought. She stated that visual imagery in

these cases referred to the process of thinking in terms

of pictures. They may be in terms of memory images of

real things, they may be contrived diagrams, or they may

be symbols which are seen rather than said. Auditory-

verbal imagery involves thinking in terms of words. The

words need not be spoken, but they are heard in the mind.

Imageless thought is thought that cannot be described in

terms of any sensory modality. It involves the feeling

or sensing of relationships without the aid of visual or

verbal processes (2, p.146).

152

The high degree of concentration that is necessary for

high levels of achievement requires a mastery of available

information which permits drive toward professional ac-

complishment. Conversely, it may become an escape mech-

anism which resuit3 in the loss of rational judgments in

other aspects of the performer's personal and professional

life.

Personality structure.—The patterns revealed that

biologists were oriented toward reliance upon rational

controls, and that scientists were oriented toward less

insistence upon rational controls. Personality traits

which characterize creative performers in all areas of

science that she considered in her studies, involve

emotional and personal dedication to the activities which

they undertake (2, p. 234).

The Hole of Heed

Satisfaction of vocational choice.—Hoe believes that,

although the foregoing personality patterns are observable

and are valid within limits, that there are other reasons

for vocational choices in the sciences. These choices may

be based upon certain needs which may be satisfied by the

chosen profession. Foremost among these needs is the need

for satisfaction of vocational choice. Based upon the

fact that none of her subjects expressed a desire to change

professions, she contends that this is the most gratifying

-153

need fulfillment in the professions. The degree of sat-

isfaction the scientist obtains from his vocation is in-

dicated by his willingness to work hard for extended

periods of time. Paralleling this ability to work hard

is the ability to concentrate, the requirement for free-

dom, and the necessity of discipline.

Curiosity.—Another need pertinent to the science

professions is the need to find answers to questions

and to formulate questions in such a manner that answers

may be arrived at. This involves a high degree of curios-

ity, which is usually concerned with a specialized, rather

than a more general, event. The strength of this curi-

osity is dependent upon the individual's ability to

survive a childhood of repressive training, discourage-

ment of questioning, insistence 021 conformity, or differ-

ing types of emotional problems or neuroses (2, p. 236).

Independence .—There is also the need for independence*

autonomy, and personal mastery of the individual's environ-

ment. Roe stated that the intensity of this need is re-

lated to the biological makeup of the individual and to

the experiences he has encountered in growing up. She be-

lieves the strength of this need is the key motivational

factor that leads to the higher levels of success in the

chosen field of activity. This strength of personal

154

security is a proportional response to the insecurities

encountered in the maturational process. She conjectures

that its origin stems from such events as early loss of

parent, nonadjustnent to the group, or rapid removal of

protection from an over-protected child (2, p. 236).

Konpersonal interests.—Roe found that scientists

generally found ease in "becoming interested and absorbed

in things outside the human realm. Fewer of them had

close personal relations with their parents or sibs;

however, most of them apparently achieved a state of

masculine identification with their fathers. This com-

bining of interest in nonpersonal things, of the insecuri-

ties of growing up, of an adequate level of intellectual

functioning, and of the retained curiosity factor per-

mitting the individual to attain a degree of success in

finding out things for himself, results in the realiza-

tion that he can do research. According to Roe, this is

a natural introduction of the individual to fields of

activities wherein these functions can be exercised (2,

p. 236).

The Scientific Strategy of Performance

When a scientist is confronted with a problem, he

must decide on the observations to be made to satisfy

his hypothesis. He must choose or select what to observe,

.155

to record results* After these decisions a.re made arid the

accompanying techniques of procedures "have "been determined,

he must then make direct observations and record the re-

sults as he finds them. Errors may enter into this pro-

cess, most likely because of personal bias. These errors

may be minor, but they can be important and have lasting

effect on the final results.

Once the observations are recorded, other questions

arise concerning the outcomes. Usually these questions

concern the validity of the conclusions, the descrepan-

cies in the solutions, or the degree of generalization that

may be present.

When the hypothesis has been found to be tenable, it

inevitably leads to another question, and the cycle begins

anew. The choices at each step of the cycle involve

highly personal decisions, and this, according to Roe, is

one expression of the creative process (5, P* 456).

The Creative Process

The creative process, according to Hoe, is intimate

and personal. It characteristically takes place at the

subconscious and preconscious levels. Because of this

fact, it is very difficult to study; no means have been

found to control its flow.

Scanning.—Roe believes that although the fundaments

of the process are the same in all fields, some fields

156 - •>*

seek an advance of knowledge which requires a greater store

of information and experience Than others. It involves a

seeking of information stored in memory. This search may

he frustrated very early because of the enormity of the

available information which may or may not be readily

accessible to recall. Because of this, the reliance upon

conscious, orderly, logical thinking may not produce re-

sults. This is a stage of scanning, usually for complex

patterns and associations, rather than for specific de-

tail. It is a state in which the individual enters into

prelogical thought. This is sometimes looked upon as ran-

dom thought, because it utilizes seemingly illogical and

unrealted material. It is, however, goal-directed, and

there is selection and rejection of pertinent and nonper-

tinent materials. This stage may be accompanied by states

of preoccupation; it cannot be hurried or controlled.

Insight.—The scanning or searching stage ends with

the first enlightenment of solution. This insight may

occur in a moment when attention is directed elsewhere.

It often, but not necessarily, occurs in a moment of

sudden realization. Apparently, it occurs more readily

when there is a vast store of information available to

form the necessary interconnections. Conversely, as

interconnections of available material increase, scanning

becomes a more effective device. This process of scanning

157

and insight requires the capacity to assimilate experiences,

along with strong motivations to persist in effort. If corn-

par tmentalizat ion has occurred in the storage areas of past

experiences in such a manner that they are inaccessible,

limitation of search occurs. This usually occurs as the

result of cultural restrictions. The degree to which such

restrictions affect creative performance depends upon how

close the areas are in content to the solutions being

sought. Roe concluded that the more areas of experience

that are accessible to conscious and preconscious thought,

the more likely the prospects for creative performance

(2, p. 257; 5, p. 457).

Verification*—The insight stage is followed by a

lengthy process of production and checking. This stage may

involve persons other than the creator, because, according

to Roe, some people who possess the ability to produce

highly creative ideas cannot function in the role of

evaluator and must rely on colleagues or other audiences

(5, p. 458).

The Creative Scientist

The range of characteristics that are associated with

creative performance is very broad, falling into almost

all categories of personal traits that have been utilized

for the purposes of study. Concerning creativity in

scientific production, Roe contends that, although the

158

attributes are evident in other fields, the creative

scientist must possess above normal intelligence and

curiosity. She "believes that intelligence plays a greater

role in scientific creativity than it does in some of the

other vocations.

Although curiosity and intelligence play major roles

in scientific creative performance, Roe places great em-

phasis on the role of personality patterns in the identi-

fication of individuals who are capable of such perform-

ance. The patterns revealed in her studies are summarized

as follows:

1. Those who seek experience and action. They are

independent and self-sufficient with regard to perception,

cognition, and behavior.

2. Those who prefer apparent but resolvable dis-

order and aesthetic ordering of forms of experience. They

possess a high tolerance for ambiguity.

3* Those who possess strong egos which permit re-

gression to preconscious states, but less compulsive

superegos, than others. They are capable of disciplined

management of means leading to significant experience.

They have no guilt feelings about independent thought and

action. They possess strong impulse control.

4. Those whose personal relations with others are of

low intensity. They dislike interpersonal controversy and

are sensitive to interpersonal agression.

159

5• Those who exhibit stronger preoccupation with

things and ideas than they do with people.

6. Those who enjoy taking the calculated risk.

Roe believes that these personality characteristics

relate to the creative process in science in the following

manner. An open attitude toward experience makes possible

accumulation of experience without compartmentalization,

and reordering of accumulated experiences occurs to a

greater degree when independence of perception, cognition,

and behavior have been exercised. The ability to bring

order out of disorder shortens the search period of the

creative cycle which was permitted by the exercise of

tolerance for ambiguity. Strong egos permit regression

to prelogical thought without fear of returning to logical

thought. The content of creativity is directly related

to preoccupation with things and ideas (5, pp. 456-459)•

Taylor: Scientific Creativity

Creative performance, according to Taylor, results

from many complex hereditary and environmental factors.

Attempts are being made to identify and measure these

factors so that potential performers can be recognized.

Once they have been identified, he believes that greater

provisions can be made for fostering these abilities in

later environmental experiences. He believes that crea-

tivity occurs at all ages, in all cultures, and in all

160

fields of human activity; however, there are differences

in frequency, level, and type of performance (11, p. 8).

The Creative Process

Taylor believes the creative process involves a four-

stage, cyclic operation. The first stage is one of prepa-

ration, the second stage is one of incubation, the third

stage pertains to insight, and the fourth stage involves

deliberate effort toward production.

Preparation.—The preparatory stage involves a state

of mental effort resulting from a sensed problem. It

pertains to a search in the conscious, preconscious, and

subconscious mind for elements which in some way affect

some aspect of the existing problem. In this stage there

appears to be a need for privacy of thought, for accept-

ance of positive thinking, for recognition of signs of

progress, and for probing the unknown. There may be both

verbal and nonverbal stimuli which may be brought into

play to further activate the creative process at this

stage (7, p. 171).

Incubation.—The second stage is a gestation period.

It is the incubating state, wherein there is no awareness

of mental activity. He suggests that this is a period of

quiescence. Relaxation, thinking in other directions, or

permitting diffused attention to occur may be more

161

effective strategies during this atage than attempts at

forced or concentrated thought (7, p. 171) •

Insight.—-The third stage is the stage of illumina-

tion from sudden insight which has entered the conscious

mind. Constant questioning of this insight may lead to

further insight, perhaps resulting in better solutions to

the sensed problem or in a new problem. During this stage

there may be a subjective challenge to closure at work:.

There appears to be a need for tolerance of disorder,

lack of focus, a degree of confusion, and utilization of

trial-and-error approaches during this stage (7, p. 172).

Deliberate effort.—The fourth stage of the creative

process is the stage of deliberate effort. This stage in-

cludes the operations of elaborating, revising, and veri-

fying until the most acceptable result occurs (7, p» 172).

Creativity in Science

Taylor believes that each field of human endeavor may

need to formulate a definition of creativity that will af-

ford the flexibility necessary to account for the various

nuances of uniqueness within the fields. Although no

single definition will serve this.purpose, he subscribes

to Ghiselin's and Lacklan's definitions as being relevant

and believes that they may serve as an operational base

for a definition for any field. Ghiselin suggested that

162

the product be measured as creative by the extent to which

it restructures the universe of understanding. Lacklan

believed that creativity may "be witnessed in terms of the

extent to which it contributes to the area of science in-

volved. Taylor stated that, in formulating a working de-

finition of creativity, there is a need to distinguish be-

tween creativity and productivity; creativity and produc-

tivity overlap, but they are distinguishable, in that the

latter encompasses the primary objective of quantity and

the former encompasses the objective of quality (9, p. 7;

10, pp. 247-248).

Creativity, according to Taylor, encompasses both pro-

cess and product. Each of these has given rise to attempts

to formulate devices to be utilized as indicators of crea-

tive performance for assessment purposes. There is more

emphasis being given to assessment of products than to

processes because of their tangible nature. The formula-

tion of indicator devices in the pursuit of either aspect

presents the problem of criteria of creativity. These

criteria concern the evaluation of the degree of creative-

ness of a product or performance and is different from

the criteria utilized in the prediction of potential.

Taylor stated that the formulation of criteria of creativ-

ity is one of the most pressing needs in all the various

research programs dealing with this dimension of human

163

Taylor 'believes that current tests of creative ability

are inadequate criteria when relied upon as the exclusive

predictor of creativity and that the chief criterion, which

is often overlooked, is adult creative performance (12,

p. 16; 14, p. 174). In attempting to describe such per-

formance, consideration was given to the personal charac-

teristics of the individual performers® Such descriptions

remained heuristic because of the probability that many •

factors which have emerged from creativity studies may

be less significant than they are currently believed to

be, and many significant factors may yet be unrevealed.

Some of the discernible characteristics of creative be-

havior, as observed by Taylor, are related to intellectual,

motivational, and personality traits. There are also

emerging patterns in group attitudes and environmental

influences which may reveal other characteristics of such

behavior (8, pp. 55-55} 12, p. 18).

Intellectual factors •--'laylor concurs that Guilford's

intellectual factors are probably the most valid known

measures of creative ability. These characteristics are

listed as: originality, redefinition, adaptive flexibili-

ty, spontaneous flexibility, associational fluency, ex-

press ional fluency, word fluency, ideational fluency,

elaboration, and some of the factors of evaluation.

These factors are encompassed by the mental operations of

164

memory, cognition, and evaluation, along with the appar-

ently stronger processes of convergent and divergent pro-

duction. Taylor believes that divergent production is the

more important factor of the group, because it includes

the production of ideas, originality, flexibility, sensi-

tivity, and redefinition abilities which are essential to

the creative process (12, p. 20). He stated that convergent

production also has a role in creative work, in that it

permits the extracting of generalizations from mass media.

Tnis possibly leads to compactness of t ho light and expres-

sion-which may contribute to the aesthetic value of the

final product#

There are other intellectual differences which,

according to Taylor, aid in the discernment of creative

from noncreative scientists: they have more ability and

greater tendency to toy with ideas; they seek solutions

when problems arise from gadgets, rather than becoming

frustrated with the problem; they are more humorous; and

they have more fantasies. They also possess the ability

to sense problems and to see patterns in data; they enjoy

a capacity to be puzzled. They exhibit a high degree of

curiosity, paralleled with the ability to sense ambigui-

ties and to formulate effective questions. They are

intellectually thorough and are skilled at manipulating,

restructuring, and reworking ideas. They possess the

165

ability to work intermittently over long periods of time.

The traits of hypothesis testing, to foresee consequences,

to infer causes, and to present ideas effectively are

other characteristics of creative people in science (12,

p. 23; 13, p. 366).

Taylor supports Barron's belief that creative people

are more open to relevant experiences and are more ob-

servant than noncreative people. They place high value on

accurate reporting of their experiences in an explicit

manner. They sense complexities, make more meaningful

syntheses, and rely on impulse more than do noncreatives

(12, p. 23).

Motivational factors.—Motivation is one component

Taylor believes to be vital to creative performance. He

suggests that it stems from many sources: the creative

person's curiosity, enterprise in ideas, intellectual

persistence, and tolerance of ambiguity; individual in-

iative; enjoyment of thinking and manipulation of ideas;

inner need for recognition; need for variety and autonomy;

preference for complexity and its challenge; aesthetic

orientation; resistance to premature closure, but the

strong need for closure; desire for mastery of problems;

the challenge of intellectual ordering of the apparently

unclassifiable; and wants for improvement of currently

accepted orders and systems. Motivation is usually

1 6 6

accompanied "by high energy with vast work output through

disciplined habits (12, p. 24).

Other traits which Taylor "believes to have an effect

on motivation involve: long range risk-taking for greater

gain, taking the calculated risk when the individual's

own efforts make a difference in the odds, and the capaci-

ty to revolt against past knowledge and experience rather

than holding them in awe. He found that the scientists

who were considered to be more creative rated themselves

high in drive, dedication to work, resourcefulness, desire

of principle, desire for discovery, quality in written

work, theoretical contributions, and level of originality

in their productions (12, p. 25).

Personality factors.—Personal characteristics reveal-

ed by creative performers in science are referred to by

Taylor as: autonomous, self-sufficient, independent in

judgment, open to the irrational self, stable, feminine

in interest and characteristics, dominant and self-

assertive, complex, self-accepting, resourceful and ad-

venturous , radical, self-controlled, emotionally sensi-

tive, and introverted but bold.

They rated themselves high in professional self-

confidence, self-sufficiency, independence, and emotional

restraint. They rated themselves low in aggressiveness,

167

assertion, social desirability, sociability, and masculine

vigor.

Characteristics which may be relevant to different

types of creativity include liking for ideas rather than

people and things, tendencies toward socialization and

interpersonal involvement, introversion, commitment to

primary thought processes, impulse control, and urgency

(9, p. 1; 12, p. 28).

Summary

Haefele believes the process of creativity involves

four major steps, or stages: preparation, incubation, in- •

sight, and verification. He further believes that each of

these stages is heightened through a strong emotional in-

volvement of the performer. This involvement may reflect

the desire for practical things, satisfaction, anticipa-

tion, desire for freedom, desire for challenge, and

sublimation.

The preparation stage involves the selection and

activation of mental meterial, permits the creator to see

problems, permits analysis of the problem, permits the

assemblage of material, and permits reworking the problem.

It involves the polypreparation procedures of restructur-

ing, symbolizing, analogy, heuristics, and check lists.

Restructuring involves the search for solution clues and

new exploration territory. Syabolisation is a means of

168

dealing Frith information in a nonverbal manner. Analogy

is a means of arriving at new relationships through the

consideration of similarities in existing ones. Heuris-

tics are theorems which, when applied, aid in the detec-

tion and handling of useful material. Check lists in-

volve the forcing of the mind to consider specifics.

Preparation is followed "by a time of waiting, per-

haps of frustration. This is the least understood stage *

in the total process. It is an essential period when some

nonconscious mental activity is taking place. Haefele

believes that during this stage there is a kind of problem

solving taking place. The anxiety recalls the problem to

the conscious mind from time to time until new, useful

material is recalled or "other frustrations take place. Re-

lief from these anxieties may come through thinking of new

preparational approaches, through the modification of

foals, or through the generation of a new idea. The per-

son who incubates well possesses the traits of flexibility,

tolerance of ambiguity, perseverance, discernment, self-

confidence, parsimony, gullibility, and capacity for child-

like wonder.

The incubation stage ends with insight. Insight en-

ters the thought process either through deliberate cogni-

tive approaches or through spontaneous arousal from the

mind. Haefele relied on Duncker's and Hutchinson's classi-

fication of insight as a base for establishing a list of

169

eleven types of insight which be "believea may "become mani-

fest through any of the senses, at any time, and under

varying environmental conditions.

Verification involves following up insight to deter-

mine the scope of its meaning. It relies on abilities to

reason, to deduce implication, to form corollaries, and

to elaborate. It normally requires the ability to invent

and expand. In its final state it relies on the abilities

to criticize and perform skillful judgments. There are

five emotional states which may be found in this stages

elation, anxiety, drive to communicate, anticipation,

and disappointment.

Haefele believes that the construct of creativity

may be thought of in terms of Guilford's factors: sensi-

tivity to problems, fluency, flexibility, originality,

penetration, analysis, synthesis, and redefinition. In

addition to these factors, there are certain personality

traits which may be observed in the creative performer,

depending upon the individual's relation to others, at-

titude toward his 30b, attitude toward himself, and cer-

tain other characteristics which lie outside these three

groupings.

In his attempt to characterize creative scientists,

Haefele found that, when compared with average men, they

were shown to be withdrawn, internally preoccupied, more

intelligent, more dominant» and more inhibited. Compared

170

with administrators aid teachers, they were more withdrawn,

less emotionally stable, more self-sufficient, more Bohemian,

and more radical. The differences between scientists and

artists were found to be in the divergent natures of their

individual fields of performance.

Hoe believes that, although the personal character-

istics of people in all fields are the same, there are

patterns stemming from the individual's life history, in-

tellectual abilities, and personality structure which are

more typical of scientists than of people in other profes-

sions# The scientists used in her studies typically came

from educated families who placed great value on learning

as a means toward life's enrichment. They read extensive-

ly and enjoyed studying. Their personal interests were

very intense, although they were greatly varied. They re-

vealed a high level of intellectual functioning. There

was an established relationship between their thinking

strategies and their vocations; biologists' thought pro-

cess relied predominantly on visual imagery, and physicists'

thought process relied more strongly on auditory-verbal

imagery and imageless thought. There was a fluctuation

in, the degree of reliance upon rational controls. Biolo-

gists generally relied strongly upon them, and research

scientists relied very little upon them.

There are other reasons for the degree of success in

a chosen profession which are based on certain needs.

171

These needs include: the need for satisfaction of voca-

tional choice, the need to find answers to questions and

to formulate effective questions, and the need for

independence*

Scientists typically reveal work satisfaction, the

ability to concentrate, demand freedom, and exhibit

disciplined work habits.

Creative scientists are deeply involved both etno- •

tionally and personally in their work. They must sense

problems, form hypotheses, decide on the types of obser-

vations to be made, decide what to observe, what to mea-

sure, what instrument to use, and how to record the accumu-

lated data. Once these decisions have been made, observa-

tions must occur and the results be recorded. Questions

usually arise from these outcomes concerning the validity

of conclusions, discrepancies in solution, or degrees of

generalizations which may have been made. Once the hy-

pothesis has been accepted as tenable, other questions

arise calling for new hypotheses. This forms the cycle

which is expressive of the creative process.

The creative process takes place on the subconscious

and preconscious levels of the human raind. The fundaments

of it are the same in all fields, but some fields require

a reliance upon a greater store of information than others

do. The process involves a scanning stage involving pre-

logical thought utilizing illogical and unrelated material

172

in a selecting and rejecting operation. Scanning ends with,

insight. Insight may occur more readily if there is a vast

store of information available to form the necessary inter-

connections. Insight introduces the stage of production

and verification-in the creative cycle.

The range of characteristics of creative performers

encompasses all the known categories of personal traits

that have been utilized in the search for clues in iden-

tifying creative performance. The outweighing character-

istics of creative scientists, according to Hoe, is that

they must possess above normal intelligence and exhibit

above normal curiosity.

Personality patterns of creative scientists include

desire for experience and action, preference for solvable

disorder and aesthetic ordering, ability to regress to

preconsciousness, little desire for personal relations

with others, strong preoccupation with things and ideas,

and enjoyment of risk taking. These patterns relate to

scientific creativity, because they generate an open at-

titude toward experience, the ordering of disorder

shortens the search period of the cycle, the return to

logical from prelogical thought is affected by strong

egos, and preoccupation with things and ideas is the

substance of creative performance.

Taylor believes that creative performance is the re-

sult of many complex hereditary and environmental factors

173

and that, if these factors can "be identified, provisions

can then be made to foster such performance in all areas

of human experience. He "believes creative performance is

a cyclic experience involving the stages of preparation,

incubation, insight, and production. Each stage inter-

acts with the others, serving as a catalyst for further

development in the process; however, blocks causing pre-

mature closure may occur at any stage.

Taylor stated that creative activity can occur in any

area of human performance; but, because of the complexities

of the individual fields of performance, there may be a

need to formulate a unique definition of creativity for

each field. He believes that, in formulating such a

definition, distinction should be made between quality of

creative performance and quantity of simple production.

Taylor contends that creativity encompasses both pro-

cess and product and that, in the attempt to formulate

indicator devices, more attention has been given to pro-

ducts because they are easier to evaluate. He stated

that the formulation of indicator devices which will seek

out the clues to either aspect of the act involves the

problem of criteria. He attempted to identify the criteria

of creativity through studies of adult creative perform-

ance. The criteria identified in these studies were re-

lated to the intellectual, motivational, and personality

characteristics of the involved subjects.

174

In addition to the intellectual factors isolated "by

Guilford, other intellectual traits of the creative

scientist include their abilities to handle ideas, remain

curious, be thorough and skilled, work for extended periods

of time, test hypotheses, and make intuitive decisions*

Motivation involves curiosity, enterprise, persistence and

tolerance, initiative, autonomy, enjoyment, recognition

needs, complexity, aesthetics, resistence to closure, de-

sire for mastery or problems, challenge of ordering, and

wants for improvement# Other motivational traits are:

risk taking, revolution against established orders, strong

drive, dedication to work, resourcefulness, desire for

principle, discovery, quality in writing, theoretical

contributions, and originality in production. Personality

traits are referred to as autonomous, self-sufficient,

independent, open to the irrational, stable, feminine,

dominant, complex, self-accepting, resourceful, radical,

self-controlled, sensitive, and introverted.

Characteristics which may relate to different types

of creativity, as suggested by Taylor, are: preference for

ideas over people and things, tendency tov/ard socializa-

tion, introversion, commitment to primary thought processes,

impulse control, and urgency.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Haefele, John ¥., Creativity and Innovation, New York^ Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1962.

2. Roe, Anne, The Making of. a Scientist, New York, Dodd Mead and Company, 1952.""" ~

3. . "Personal Problems and Science," Scientific Creativity: Its Hecognition and Development,"edited by C.Y,'. Taylor and P. Barron, Hew York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963•

4. , The Psychology of Occupations, New York, John Wiley and Sons, IncT, 1956.

5• . "The Psychology of the Scientist," Science, 134 (August, 1961), 456-459.

6. , "A Rorschach Study of a Group of Scientists and Technicians," Journal of Counseling Psychology. X (November-December, 1946J7 316-327.

7. Taylor, Calvin "Clues to Creative Teaching: the Creative Process and Education," Creativity: Its Educational Implications, edited by J.C. Gowan and others, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

8. , "The Creative and Other Contribu-tions of One Sample of Research Scientists," Scientific Creativity: Its Recognition and Develop-ment, edited by C.Y.'. Taylor and F. Barron, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.

9« , "A Creative Process Checklist: Its Development and" Validation," Widening Horizons in Creativity, edited by C.W. Taylor, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964.

10. "Educational Changes Needed to Develop Creative Thinking," Productive Thinking in Education, edited, by M.J. Aschner and C".E. Bish, Washington, B.C., National Education Association, 1968.

175

176

11. Taylor, Calvin W., "Introduction," Creativity: Progress and Potential, edited by C.W, Taylor, New York, McGraw-Hill Boole Company, 1964.

12. , "Predictors of Creative Performance," Creativity; Progress and Potential, edited by C.W. Taylor, I-Iew York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.

13. , "Some Possible Relations Between ~~ Communication and Creative Abilities," Scientific Creativity; Its Recognition and Development", edited by C.V;. Taylor and P. Barron, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

14. , "A Tentative Description of the . Creative Individual," A Source Book for Creative Thinking, edited by S.J. Parnes and H.F. Harding, Hew York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962.

CHAPTER V

THE UNIFYING OP TRAITS, FACTORS, EVENTS, AND

RESPONSE PROPERTIES OP THE CREATIVE

PROCESS AS REVEALED IN THE STUDIES

Personality and Cognitive Theory: Guilford, Torrance,

and Jackson

According to Guilford, the personality traits that ex-

tend "beyond the mental factors of creativity and which

characterize the creative individual include humor,

tolerance of discrepancies in "beliefs, tolerance of am-

biguities, curiosity, desire for new experiences and ad-

venture, impulsiveness, independence, and preference for

complexity. Torrance "believes they include experimenta-

tion, curiosity, nonconformity, imaginative thinking, day-

dreaming, independence, and preference for complexity.

Jackson stated that they include humor, tolerance of am-

biguities, risk-taking, seeking new directions, openminded-

ness, reflective thought, spontaneous action, analytical

and intuitive procedures, desire for qualities unrelated

to adult success, use of stimulus-free themes and unex-

pected endings, and playfulness. Table XVII reveals common

agreement on the trait of nonconformity. Two authorities

agree on the trait of nonconformity. Two authorities agree

178

TABLE XVII

PERSONALITY TRAITS OF CREATIVE PERFORMERS AS REVEALED BY THE STUDIES OF GUILFORD, TORRANCE, AM) JACKSON

G-uilford

Humor

Tolerance of dis-crepancies in be-lief and of am biguities

Curiosity

Desire for new experiences and adventure

Impulsiveness

Independence

Preference for complexity

Torrance

Curiosity

Nonconformity

Independence

Preference for complexity

Experimentation

Imagination

Daydreaming

J ackson

Humor

Tolerance of ambiguities

Desire for new directions

Spontaneous

Risk-talcing

Ope nmind edne s s

Reflectiveness

Preference for the analytical and intuitive

Desire for quali-ties unrelated to adult success

Use of stimulus-free themes and un-expected endings

Playfulness

179

on the traits: humor, tolerance of araibguity, experimenta-

tion, curiosity, impulsiveness, independence, imagination,

and daydreaming. - One authority lists analytical and in-

tuitive, desires qualities unrelated to adult success,

use of stimulus-free themes and unexpected endings, and

playfulness.

The factors most closely associated with creative

performance, according to Guilford, lie within the para-

meter created by the intersection of the divergent pro-

duction and transformation of products abilities matrixes

of the structure-of-intellect cube. Other factors make

important contributions to creative performance; however,

divergent production and transformation abilities are

necessary for the creative flow to occur. Within this

parameter lie those factors which are usually referred to

as fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, rede-

finition, and sensitivity to problems. As shown in the

analysis of the cube, the fluency, flexibility, and

elaboration factors pertain to the divergent production

abilities; redefinition and originality factors pertain

to transformation abilities; and sensitivity to problems

pertains to evaluation abilities.

Torrance concurs with Guilford's factors of fluency,

flexibility, originality, sensitivity, and elaboration.

He does not utilize the Guilford term redefinition; how-

ever, its meaning may be encompassed in his term

180

inventivlevel» Ke further lists curiosity and penetration

as two additional factors of creativity.

Jackson lists the factors of fluency, flexibility,

originality, sensitivity, redefinition, and poetic be-

havior as being necessary ingredients of creative per-

formance. Poetic is a term utilised by Jackson to identify

the contradictory personal qualities of the creative

TAB EE XVIII

CREATIVITY FACTORS REVEALED IN STUDIES BY GUILFORD, TORRANCE, AND JACKSON

Guilford Torrance Jackson

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Redefinition

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Inventivlevel

Penetration

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Redefinition

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Inventivlevel

Penetration

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Inventivlevel

Penetration

Poetics Poetics

performer: thought and feeling, reflection and spontaneity,

and acceptance and rejection.

As shown in Table XVIII, the factors on which there is

unanimity are fluency, flexibility, originality, and

181

sensitivity* Two authorities agree on the factors,

elaboration and redefinition. The factors of inventiv-

ievel, penetration, and poetics are unique ones; however,

as presented "by Torrance and Jackson, they relate to

strategies which fall within the framework of the creative

process.

TABLE XIX

THE PLOW OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS AS REVEALED IN THE STUDIES 0? GUILFORD AND TORRANCE

Guilford Torrance Jackson

Cycle I Sensing Problems Input I

Sensing Problems

Filter Collecting infor-Retrieval mation Evaluation Cognition Defining problems Production

Cycle II S e arching~Gue s s ing-Input II Hypothesizing Filter

Hypothesizing

Retrieval Testing-Retesting-Evaluation Modify in<g-Cognition Retesting Production

Retesting

Perfecting-Communi-

Cycle III cating

Cycle III cating

Input III Filter Retrieval Evaluation Cognition Production

Guilford's model of the flow of the creative process

involving input, filter, retrieval, evaluation, cognition,

162

and production is in accord with Torrance's belief that the

process involves sensing problems, collecting information,

defining problems, searching-guessing-hypothesizing,

testing-retssting-modifying-retesting, and perfecting-

communieating. Jackson offers no statements, except

through implication, relevant to the flow of the creative

process. Table XIX shows the parallel of these two theories.

Concerning the products category in Guilford's

structure-of-intellect cube, those units, classes, re-

lations, systems, transformations, and implications which

are based on figural, symbolic, semantic, or behavioral

content, arrived at through the operations of divergent

production, are considered to be creative. Also those

transformations resulting from cognitive, memory, conver-

gent, and evaluation operations pertaining to figural,

symbolic, semantic, and behavioral content are regarded as

creative. The exceptions to this are memory figural trans-

formations, memory behavioral transformation, evaluation

behavioral transformations, and divergent figural rela-

tions, which have not been verified in future studies.

All the verified products of this parameter transmit

varying states of transformations, originality, adequate-

ness, motivation, and reward. According to Torrance, the

products of creativity must exhibit novelty and possess

value; they must have been arrived at through discovery

rather than through established formula solution; they

183

must "be unconventional, they must have demanded high mo-

tivational interest and persistence in performance; and

they must be true, generalizable, and surprising. Jack-

son's criteria for the distinction between creative and

noncreative products is encompassed predominantly by the

subjective evaluations of judgmental standards, response

properties, and aesthetic reactions to the product.

TAB IE XX

CREATIVE PRODUCT RESPONSE PROPERTIES REVEALED IN THE STUDIES OP GUILFORD, TORRANCE, AID JACKSON

Guilford Torrance Jackson

Transforming

Original; un-usual, remote clever

Adequate

Motivating, re-warding, exhil-arating, feelings of mastery, feel-ings of superi-ority

Novelty and value discovered

Unconventional

True, generaliz-able, and sur-prising

Product norms unusual and sur-prising

Product content appropriate and satisfying

Product constraint transforming and stimulating

Product summary power condensing and savoring

Concerning judgmental norms, the response to the product

must be one of unusualness, and the aesthetic response must

be one of surprise; judgmental context must exhibit a

' 184

response of appropriateness and produce the aesthetic

response of satisfaction; judgmental constraints must

exhibit the response of transformation and the aesthetic

response of savoring. Table XX indicates that, although

there are differences in terminology, these three authori-

ties are in essential agreement concerning the nature of

the creative product.

4 Base for a Theory of Creativity in the Field of Personality and Cognitive

Theory

The transactions occurring within the parameters

involving personality traits, process.events and factors,,

and product properties serve as the base for a heuristic

theory of creativity in the field of learning theory. The

interactions between these parameters generate the cyclic

involvement of creative performance, each parameter of-

fering feedback to the other in the regeneration of neces-

sary events and responses to carry the experience to

culmination. There is perpetual involvement between the

outcomes of the experience and the new problems which

arise from it, renewing the performance cycle, reactivat-

ing the response sets, and reinforcing the behavioral

traits of the creator.

The creative individual, as identified in the field

of learning theory, possesses the dominant personality

traits of curiosity, preference for complexity,

<457

persistence, humor, tolerance of ambiguity, experimenta-

tion imagination, daydreaming, impulsiveness, and inde-

pendence. During the events of production, be exhibits

the functioning of the mental traits of fluency, flexi-

bility, originality, sensitivity, elaboration, and re-

definition. His strategy of performance is believed to

parallel that of the general thought process of input,

filter, retrieval, evaluation, cognition, and production.

However, production is directed toward divergency, utilis-

ing operations involving extensive use of transformation

abilities. She products of hi3 creative involvement are

transforming, original, adequate, motivating, and reward-

ing to both himself and his audience. They serve as the

stimulus for further performance, reactivating the per-

sonality traits and production procedures of the creative

individual.

Art Education: Burkhart, Feldman, and Hubbard

The personality traits of creative performers, accord-

ing to Burkhart, include intellectual openness, perceptual

openness, self-determination, preference for spontaneity,

need for freedom, desire for open-ended thinking, ques-

tioning of authority, process orientation, intuitive

thinking, viewing of mistakes as a challenge, dynamic

visualizations, and orientation toward abstract symbols.

Peldman stated that they include the ability to make

186

decisions, to perceive analogies, to prolong deliberation

periods? persistent attitude; spontaneous orientation;

willingness to take chances, explore new realms, and take

risks; willingness to speculate about meaning; readiness

to try again; visual discrimination; visual interpretation;

TABLE XXI

PERSONALITY TRAITS OP CREATIVE PERFORMERS AS REVEALED II THE STUDIES OP BURKHART, PEIDMAN, AID HUBBARD

Burkhart Feldman Hubbard

Intellectually open

Perceputally open

Self-determined Preference for spontaneity

Needs freedom, questions authority

Process oriented

Intuitive

Challenges mis-takes

Dynamic visualizer Abstract symbolic orientation

Ability to make decisions, to perceive analo-gies, to prolong deliberation periods

Persistence Spontaneous

Willing to take risks, explore new realms, take chances, specu-late

Readiness to try again Visual discrimination Visual interpretation

Problem recognition information store, inquisitiveness, wise judgment, serendipity, fantasy

Sensitive

Take risks, test limits, accent failure

Independence

Manipulative ability

Exploring, experimenting

TABLE XXII—Continued

187

Burkhart Feldman Hubbard

Passing time is irrelevant

Expressive objectives

Variety in detail

Enjoyment of new media

Passing time is irrelevant

Expressive objectives

Variety in detail

Enjoyment of new media

Identification of and facing real concerns

Passing time is irrelevant

Expressive objectives

Variety in detail

Enjoyment of new media Desire for new

things

and identifying and facing real concerns. According to

Hubbard they include problem recognition, information

store, inquisitiveness, wise judgment, serendipity, and

fantasy; sensitivity; risk taking, testing of limits, and

accepting failure; independence; manipulative ability;

exploring and experimenting; and desiring new things.

Table XXI reveals common agreement on the traits:

intellectual openness and taking mistakes as a challenge.

Two authorities agree on the traits: persistence, spontaneity,

need for freedom, visual discrimination, visual interpreta-

tion, visual interpretation, expressiveness, and desire for

new things. One authority considered the time element and

variety in detail as personality traits of creatives.

The mental factors involved in the differentiation

of creative from noncreative performers, according to

188

Burkhart, includes spontaneity, flexibility/complexity,

fluency, originality» openness, divergency, elaboration,

and sensitivity. ?eldman suggests that they are fluency,

TABLE XXII

CREATIVITY FACTORS REVEALED IN STUDIES BY BURKHART, FELDMAN, AMD HUBBARD

Burkhart Peldman Hubbard

Fluency Fluency Fluency

Flexibility/ Flexibility Flexibility complexity

Flexibility

Originality Originality Originality

Elaboration Elaboration Elaboration

Sensitivity to Sensitivity to problems problems

Aesthetic Aesthetic openness sensitivity

Divergency Divergency •-

flexibility, originality, elaboration, sensitivity to

problems, and divergency. According to Hubbard, they are:

fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, and

aesthetic sensitivity.

Table XXII reveals common agreement on the mental

factors: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elabora-

tion. Two of the authorities agree on the factors: sensi-

tivity to problems, aesthetic sensitivity, and divergency.

189

Table XXIII reveals that Burkhart1s studies have not

dealt with the events of creative performance in terms of

process development. His interests have "been directed in-

to the observable characteristic differences in working

strategies of people who are involved in the production of

art work. The studies have resulted in the classification

of performance into three distinct categories, with vary-

ing levels of performance in each category. Two of the

categories, spontaneous and divergent, describe production

that he believes to be creative, and the third category,

academic, describes production he believes to be noncrea-

tive. ? eld man believes that creative production in art

involves a procedural operation which parallels the gen-

eral thought process. Accordingly, creative production

involves identification, expansion and elaboration, exe-

cution, presentation, and evaluation. Creative production

in art differs from the general thought process in the

type of resulting product. Peldman believes that art pro-

ducts must involve solutions which are observable, real,

and proven. By comparison, the products of the general

thought process may remain hypothetical or unproven.

Hubbard ascribes to the theory that the flow of the crea-

tive process is one which involves the four-point cyclic

operation of readiness, psychological climate, information

handling, and delineation. Feldman and Hubbard are in

190

TABLE XXIII

THE PLOW OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS A3 REVEALED IN THE STUDIES OP BURKHART, PELDMAN, AHD HUBBARD

Burkhart Hubbard

Spontaneous problem Identification Readiness

Spontaneous strategy: Action over thought Problem held constant Strategy is variable

Expansion and elaboration

Execution

Presentation

Psychological environmental influences

Information handling Delineation

i Goal Evaluation

or

Divergent problem

Divergent strategy: Thought over action Strategy held constant

Goal variable

agreement on the general process; ho?/ever, there are dif-

ferences in terminology. Burkhart implies a similar pro-

cedural development, although he reveals two distinct

strategies of performance, either of which may "be at work

in creative production.

191

According to Burkhart, tlie products of creativity may-

be identified when they transmit a preponderant attitude

of art quality and design evidence. Art quality encompasses

TABLE IXIV

CREATIVE PRODUCT RESPONSE PROPERTIES REVEALED IN THE STUDIES OF BURXHART, FELDMN, AM) HUBBARD

Burkhart Zeldman Hubbard

Art quality: Originality Satisfaction aesthetic quality, progress in aes- Satisfaction Design evidence thetic quality, spontaneity, Pluent dis- Aesthetic progress in course quality spontaneity spontaneity

Discrimination Imagination Design evidence: variety, Aesthetic Originality distortion, atmosphere: constrast, approbation, complexity, enthusiasm, gradation, beauty, spatial orien- order. tation, pathos, unity heroism,

grandeur

the realms of aesthetic quality, progress in aesthetic

quality, spontaneity, and progress in spontaneity. De-

sign evidence encompasses the satisfactory blend of varie-

ty, distortion, contrast, complexity, gradation, spatial

relations, and unity among the elements being utilized to

achieve the product. Peldman believes products of the

creative process must be original and transmit feelings of

192

satisfactions fluent discourse, discriminating atmosphere,

and the aesthetic atmosphere of approbation, enthusiasm,

beauty, order, pathos, herioism, or grandeur. Hubbard

stated that the products of creativity must exhibit feel-

ings of satisfaction, design evidence, aesthetic quality,

imaginative stimulation, and originality.

Table XXIV reveals essential agreement among the three

authorities in terms of art quality and design evidence.

Two of the authorities agree that originality and satis-

faction are criteria which may be utilized in determining

creative from noncreative products. One authority believes

that creative products should transmit an imaginative

atmosphere.

A Base for a Theory of Creativity ""in the PI eld of Art Education

The consideration of the three parameters involving

personality traits, process events and factors, and pro-

duct response properties is essential in the identifica-

tion of creative from noncreative behavior. The personali-

ty traits of creative artists include intellectual openness,

taking mistakes as a challenge for further involvement, per-

sistence, spontaneity, need for freedom, visual discrimina-

tion, visual interpretation, expressiveness, and the desire

for new things. The mental factors operating in creative

performance include fluency, flexibility, originality,

elaboration, sensitivity to problems, aesthetic

193

sensitivity, and divergency. The events of the creative

process include problem sensing and identification, ex-

pansion and elaboration, execution, presentation, and

evaluation of the product. The products, or objects of

evaluation, must transmit a decisive feeling of art quality

and design evidence. They must be original and satisfying.

The process is cyclic; the resultant responses to the pro-

ducts generate the necessary motivations and accompanying

problems to reactivate the creative functioning of the

individual performer.

Science: Haefele, Roe, and Taylor

The personality traits of creative performers as pre-

sented by Haefele consist of independence, no interests

in joining groups, and few close friends? dominant per-

sonality, boldness, and assertiveness; little interest in

interpersonal relations, independence from parents, and

independence of judgment; conventional morality; prefer-

ence for things and ideas rather than people; high regard

for intellectual interests; placing of low value on job

security; finding less enjoyment in the satisfaction from

detailed work: and routine operations; resourcefulness,

adaptability, skepticism, precision, criticalness, and

honesty; experimentation; tolerance of ambiguity; per-

sistence; theoretical orientation; introspection and

egocentricity; openness; self-awarenessinner maturity,

•194

and ego strength; emotional responsiveness and emotional

stability, spontaneity; stubborness; adventuresomeness;

excitability, compulsivenss, and anxiety; and curiosity.

Roe contends that the personality traits of creative in-

dividuals are low personal relations; independence; self-

sufficiency-preference for things and ideas, rather than

people; seeking of experiences and actions; tolerance of

ambiguities; egocentricity; impulse control; willingness

to take risks; and curiosity. Taylor lists the personali-

ty traits as being radical; needing autonomy and independ-

ence; being self-sufficient; desiring principle; enter-

prising in ideas and thinking; sensing problems and seeing

patterns; being resourceful, manipulative, willing to re-

work, willing to restructure, thorough and accurate;

tolerance of ambiguity; dedication, working over-extended

time periods, persistence, and desire to master a problem;

hypothesis testing, foreseeing consequences, inferring

causes, and theoretical orientation; inner need for recog-

nition; resistance to premature closure, and openness;

self-accepting, introversion, self-confidence, and self-

control; emotional sensitivity, impulse stability, and

emotional restraint; intuitiveness; being adventuresome,

taking risks, and revolting against prior knowledge;

sensing and preferring complexity; curiosity; sensing

ambiguities, effective questioning, ordering knowledge,

improving orders, and seeking quality; aesthetic

195

TABLE XXV

PERSONALITY TRAITS OP GREAT PTE PERFORMERS AS REVEALED BY THE STUDIES OP BAEPELE, ROE, AM) TAYLOR

Haefele Roe Taylor

Independent, no joiner, few close friends; dominant, "bold, assertive; low interest in interpersonal re-lations, independ-ent of parents, independent of judgment

Low personal re-lations ; inde-pendent; self-sufficient

Radical; needs autonomy, inde-pendence; self-sufficient

Prefers things and ideas to people

Prefers things and ideas to people

Enterprising in ideas and think-ing

Experiments Seeks experience and action

Experiments

Tolerant of ambiguity

Tolerant of ambiguity

Tolerant of ambiguity; senses ambi-guity, ques-tions, orders, seeks improve-ment, quality

Introspective, egocentric

Egocentric Inner need for recognition

Emotionally re- . sponsive, emo-tionally stable

Exhibits strong impulse control

Emotionally sen-sitive, shows impulse stabili-ty, emotional restraint

Adventuresome Takes risks Adventuresome, takes risks, re-volts against past knowledge

TABLE XXV—Continued

196

Haefele

Curious

Follows conven-tional morality

High regard for intellectual interests ? theoretical orientation

Resourceful, adapt-able, skeptical, precise, critical, honest, integrity, open

Aware of self, inner maturity, ego strength

Spontaneous

Excitable, com-pulsive, complex, anxious

low value on job security

less enjoyment in and satisfaction from detail work and routine

Roe

Curious

JL™

Taylor

Curious

Desires principle

Senses problems and sees pat-terns; hypothe-sis testing, foresees con-sequences , infers causes, theo-retical

Resourceful, manip-ulating, rework -ing, restructur-ing, thorough, accurate, open, resists premature closure

Self-accepting, introverted, self-confident, self-control

Intuitive

Senses and prefers complexity

Aesthetic orienta-tion, feminine interests, low masculinity

197

orientation, feminine interests, and low masculinity.

Table XX? reveals that there i3 common agreement among

these authorities concerning these traits: independence;

preference for things and ideas to people; experimentation;

tolerance of ambiguity; introspection; emotional responsive-

ness and stability; adventuresomeness; and curiosity. Two

authorities list desire for principle; intellectual

interests; resourcefulness; ego strength; spontaneity; and

complexity. One authority lists low value on job security;

less.enjoyment in and satisfaction from detail work and

routine; and aesthetic orientation.

Haefele believes the factors of creative performance

are sensitivity to problems, fluency, flexibility, origi-

nality, penetration, analysis, synthesis, and redefini-

tion. According to Roe, the factors of reordering,

fluency, flexibility, originality, and the ability to per-

ceive disequilibria in the environment are at work in

creative behavior. Taylor contends that the factors of

creativity are originality, redefinition, flexibility,

fluency, elaboration, and evaluation.

There is common agreement among these three authori-

ties, as shown in Table XXVI, on the factors of fluency,

flexibility, originality, redefinition, and sensitivity to

problems. Two authorities include the factor, elaboration.

One authority lists the factors of analysis and synthesis.

TABLE XXVI

CREATIVITY FACTORS REVEALED IN STUDIES BY HAEFELE, ROE, AND TAYLOR

198

Haefele Roe Taylor

Sensitivity to problems

Ability to per-ceive equilibria in the enriron-ment

Evaluation

Fluency Fluency Fluency

Flexibility Flexibility Flexibility Originality Originality Originality Redefinition Reordering Redefinition Penetration , Elaboration Analysis Analysis Synthesis Synthesis

Haefele believes that the creative process is a four-

stage cyclic operation. The stages involve preparation,

incubation, insight, and verification. Roe concluded that

there were three major stages in the creative process,

with the third stage sometimes involving someone other

than the creator. The stages, according to Roe, are

scanning, insight, and production, with the accompanying

evaluations. Taylor stated that the creative process en-

tails: perparation, incubation/gestation, illumination,

and deliberate effort.

Table XXVII shows the agreement among these authori-

ties in their theories of the flow of the creative process.

199

TABLE XXVII

THE PIOW OF THE CREATIVE; PROCESS AS REVEALED IN THE STUDIES 01 HAEEELE, ROE, AFD TAYLOR

Haefele Roe Taylor

Preparation

Incubation

Insight

Verifies; tion

Scanning

Insight

Production/ evaluation

Preparation

Incubation/ gestation

Illumination

Deliberate effort

.Products, according to Haefele, are creative when

they exqibit a condition of newness, social value, and

TABLE XXVIII

CREATIVE PRODUCT RESPONSE PROPERTIES REVEALED IN THE STUDIES 0? HAEPSIE, ROE, AMD TAYLOR

Haefe le Roe Taylor

Newness

Social v

Aestheti

alue

c form

Noniraitative

Restructuring

Contributing quality

aesthetic form. Roe offers no criteria for the identifica-

tion of creative products, except through implication.

Taylor believes creative products exhibit a nonimative, or

newness, character; they show evidence of restructured

200

information; and they possess a quality which contributes

to the body of "knowledge already in existence. Table

XXVIII shows the agreement between Haefele1s and Taylor's

statements concerning the response properties of creative

products.

A Base for a Theory of Creativity in the~~?ield of Science

The interaction of the parameters of personality

traits, process events and factors, and product response

properties distinguish the creative scientist from the

noncreative scientist. The creative scientist is inde-

pendent, prefers things and ideas to people, is an experi-

menter, tolerant of ambiguities, introspective, emotionally

responsive and stable. He is adventuresome and curious.

He desires principle, has strong intellectual interests

and ego strength. He is resourceful, spontaneous, and com-

plex. The mental factors at work in his creative perform-

ance include fluency, flexibility, originality, redefini-

tion, sensitivity, to problems, and elaboration. Such

performance involves the cyclic operations of preparation,

incubation, insight, and verification. The resulting pro-

ducts must transmit the properties of newness, possess

social value, and contain aesthetic form. The responses

generated from them renew the cycle of creative

performance.

201

Personality and Cognitive Theory, Art Education,

and Science

Table XX3X is a comparative summary of the personality

traits most commonly agreed upon by the selected authori-

ties from the fields of personality and cognitive theory,

TABLE XXIX

A COMPARISON OP THE DOMINANT PERSONALITY TRAITS OP CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS AS REVEALED IN STUDIES

PROM THE SELECTED PIELDS

Learning Theory

Curiosity

Preference for complexity

Persistence

Experimentation

Impulsiveness

Independence

Tolerance of ambiguities

Humor

Daydreaming

Imagination

Art Education

Persistence

Challenge of mistakes

Spontaneity

Independence

Openness

Visual discrim-ination

Science

Curios ity

Preference for complexity

Persistence

Experimentation

Spontaneity

Independence

Tolerance of ambiguities

Resourcefulness

Openness

TABLE XXIX-—Continued

202

Learning (Theory Art Education Science

Visual inter-pretation

Expressiveness

Desire for new things

Preference for ideas and things over people

Impulse control

Risk-taking

Desire for principle

Intellectual interests

'Theoretical orientation

Self-confidence

art, and science. It shows common agreement from the

three fields concerning the personality traits(£persistence,

experimentation, spontaneity, and independence. Two of

the areas agree on curiosity, preference for complexity,

tolerance of ambiguities, imagination, and openness. One

field lists visual discrimination, visual interpretation,

expressiveness, desire for new things, preference for

ideas and things over people, impulse control, risk-taking,

203

desire for principle, intellectual interests, theoretical

orientation, and self-confidence.

Table XXX is a summary'comparison of the mental

factors at work in creative performance as revealed in

the three chosen fields. It indicates that there

IE ABIE XXX

A COMPARISON OF THE DOMINANT FACTORS OF CREATIVITY AS REVEALED IN STUDIES FROM THE SELECTED FIELDS

Personality and Cognitive Theory

Art Education Science

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Redefinition

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Divergency

Fluency

Flexibility

Originality

Sensitivity

Elaboration

Redefinition

is common agreement on the factors: fluency, flexibility,

originality, sensitivity, and elaboration. Two fields

list redefinition. One field lists divergency.

The comparison of the flow of the creative process

as revealed in the studies of the selected authorities

from the chosen fields indicate, as shown in Table XXXI,

that there is essential agreement on the flow of the

204

creative process, although there are variations "between

the fields in the designated number of steps involved.

TABLE XXXI

A COMPARISON OF THE PLOW OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS AS REVEALED IN STUDIES FROM THE SELECTED FIELDS

Personality and Cognitive Theory Art Education Science

Input Identification Preparation

Filter Expansion and elaboration

Incubation

Retrieval Execution Insight

Evaluation Presentation Verification

Cognition

Production

Evaluation Cognition

Production

The cross-fields comparison of the response properties

of creative products, Table XXXII, indicates that there is

agreement on the factors of originality, social value, and

aesthetic form. The salient difference is the importance

placed on design evidence by the authorities in the field

of art.

205

TABLE XXXII

A COMPARISON OP THE RESPONSE PROPERTIES OP CREATIVE PRODUCTS AS REVEALED IN STUDIES PROM

THE SELECTED FIELDS

Personality and Cognitive Theory Art Education Science

Originality

Transformation

Adequacy

Motivation

Reward

Originality

Art quality

Satisfaction

Design evidence

Newness

Aesthetic form

Social value

CHAPTER YI

A BASE FOR A HEURISTIC THEORY OF CREATIVITY

Introduction

The reasons for creative production lie in the psycho-

physiological domains of human behavior. The motivational

factors which underly creative performance stem from three

component sources: the intellectual components, which en-

compass all the utilitarian needs, human curiosity, and

the components of normal functions, which lead to the

desire to have new experiences, to create new ideas, to

challenge the old order, and to master the environment;

the components connected with the secondary sources of

satisfaction, doing something to be different, preference

for novelty, preference for complexity, and the desire to

be independent; and the components involving interest in

adventure, in tolerance of ambiguity, in expressional

fluency, and in originality (Guilford). In addition to

man's curiosity, there are certain other needs which have

a motivational effect on creative performance: the need

to meet challenge, the need to attempt different tasks,

the need for honesty and truth, and the need to be an

individual (Torrance). Such performance is based on man's

need to act and to communicate (Peldman). The emotional

206

207

states derived from these creative acts are involvements

of satisfaction, joy, desire, and sublimation, which spring

from man's practical needs for physical survival and psycho-

logical equilibrium (Haefele).

The organization of the relationships of creator/

product, product/audience, and audience/creator into an

orderly form demands the utilization of constructs which

may appear fixed. The application of the variables in-

volved in the process and the variations in personality

factors of the performers demand that, rather than being

static formulae for performance, the constructs must al-

ways remain open and subject to change as new information

is accumulated and variations of personality are revealed.

There is considerable agreement in the studies on

creativity concerning the overview of events that take

place during the performance; the major differences lie

in the nature of the product and its function. Each field

of activity involved in creative performance is responsible

for the adaptation of any construct of creativity to fit

its particular character; however, there is enough cross-

discipline agreement on the evidence of creative perform-

ance to permit a structuring of events which will permit

such adaptations without violating the essence of any

part of the creative cycle as it is believed to exist.

Figure 6 is a suggested model based on the findings

from the studies of the selected authorities from the

208

fields of learning theory* art, and science. There are

three major interactive categories in the model. The

Personality Product Traits Properties

Process Events and Mental Factors

Stage

otage

Pig. 6—Base model for the development of a heuris-tic theory of creativity.

209

SABLE XXXIII

SUMMARY OP THE DOMINANT TRAITS, EVENTS, AND FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE CICLE 0F

CREATIVE PRODUCTION

Personality Traits Product Properties

Independence Curiosity Experimentation Openness Spontaneity Persistence

Originality Aesthetic form Social value

Process Events and Mental Factors

Stage I

Events Factors

Stage V

Events Factors

Sense Evoke Search Retrieve Evaluate Identify problem

Early solution attempt I

Sensitivity Flexibility Redefinition

Presentation Evaluation Communication

Sensitivity Originality

Stage IV Events

Stage II Events

Incubation Preoccupation Subconscious transforma-tions

Factors

Verification Perfection Conclusion Refinement

Redefinition Flexibility

Factors Fluency Flexibility Elaboration Redefinition

3vents Stage III

Insight Challenge to closure

Experimenta-tion

Hypothesis formation Guesswork

Factors Elaboration Redefini-tion

first concerns the personality traits of the creative

individual which extend beyond the identified mental

factors at work in the process. The second category is a

duality involving a suggested ordering of the stages of

210

events involved in the flow of the creative process and of

the mental factors at work throughout the process. The

third category pertains to the product roles its func-

tions, audience response, and feedback to the cycle.

Table XXXIII is a summation of the predominant traits,

events, and mental factors involved at each point in the

cycle. It may be applied to Figure 6.

Personality Traits of Creative Performers

Personality traits revealed in the studies of creative

performers are not different from those exhibited by non-

creatives. The differences lie in the magnitude of the

functions of these traits. Creative individuals revealed

stronger tendencies to behave in patterns that permit

these personality variables to be foremost in their

strategies of performance. The variables extend beyond

the necessary creativity factors of originality, fluency,

flexibility, elaboration, and redefinition.

Independence

The desire for freedom creates one of the most

necessary traits of the creative performer. This trait,

independence, often generates a state of rebelliousness

or radicalism. The creative performer must at times

break the constraints imposed upon him by his sociological

and psychological environments and go beyond the restric-

tions of established thought. The autonomy demanded by

• , 2 1 1

creative involvement may generate a dominant, bold,

assertive, or self-sufficient condition within the per-

former. He may also exhibit tendencies toward low per-

sonal relations, few friends, and disregard for parental

guidance and social judgments (Guilford, Torrance, Roe,

Haefele, Taylor).

Curiosity

The human tendency to investigate possible new situa-

tions introduces the dual role curiosity plays in human

behavior; that of being inquisitive, or prying, and that

of questioning the conditions of the experience. Curiosity

is an essential trait in the formulation and testing of

hypotheses in the creative production cycle. It also con-

tributes to the continuation of the cycle once the problem

solution has been accomplished. It does so by causing the

generation of new questions which may stimulate a new

sensed problem. Curiosity, therefore, may be cyclic with

the human desire for new things (Guilford, Torrance,

Haefele, Roe, Taylor).

Experimentation

Any problem concerned with delving into the unknown

demands a high degree of experimentation. At times trial-

and-error procedures must be utilized involving a high de-

gree of risk-taking, testing of limits of known informa-

tion, and exploration of new realms. Sometimes these

212

practices may demand a revolt against existing knowledge

and procedures and the acceptance of its accompanying

risks of failure. When failure occurs, it demands an

attitude of challenge, seeking new strategies rather than

submitting to frustrations and closure. This trait may

he a manifestation of man's innate desire to seek new

experiences and diversified actions. It is the adventure-

some trait (Jackson, Hubbard, Roe, Guilford).

Openness

The trait of openness extends beyond the mental

factors in creative performance. It involves the abilities

and the willingness to speculate, to perceive analogies,

to prolong deliberation periods, to remain inquisitive, to

utilize serendipity procedures, to profit from fantasy,

and to toy with the imagination. This trait demands re-

sourceful, adaptable, skeptical, precise, critical, and

honest judgments for thorough, accurate reworking and

restructuring procedures to materialize in the creative

process. Openness affects all the other personality

traits, in that it permits the mental condition to exist

that is conducive to persistence, experimentation,

spontaneity, independence, and curiosity (Feldman, Hubbard,

Taylor, Haefele).

2X3

Spontaneity

Spontaneity involves mental operations whereby

there can be an abandonment of controlled procedures.

Spontaneous results occur through effortless procedure;

however, they are sometimes vague or incomplete. It in-

volves an intuitive performance and is characterized by

a high degree of impulsiveness (Guilford, Burkhart,

Jackson, Haefele, Taylor).

Persistence

Throughout the cycle of creative performance,

there are many points where blocks to further production

cause conscious functions to cease. In many instances

these blocks require repetition of prior states, frequent-

ly accompanied by elaboration, redefinition, and evalua-

tion procedures. This requires, in addition to skillful

criticism, judgment, and refinement, the desire to master

the problem, the willingness to work over an extended

period of time, and an insisting attitude of dedication

to see the problem to completion. Persistence encompasses

many of the other personality traits. It demands openness

or penetration, it relies on elaboration and redefinition

procedures, it involves an attitude of experimentation,

it necessitates a state of independence, it utilizes play

on the imagination, and it may be the result of the

extension of the curiosity variable (Haefele, Taylor).

214

The Events of the Creative Cycle

The process of creativity, as presented by the

consensus of the authorities studied in the selected

fields, involves certain functions that parallel those

in the general thought process. These functions occur in

certain stages of the process and involve the activation

of particular abilities. These abilities include sensing

and responding in a prescribed way to disequilibria in

the environment and in the self. Although the process is

presented in a sequential order, this is not necessarily

the way it occurs. There are fluctuations, variations,

deviations, and feedback which occur at each stage that

effect or affect the succeeding stages in addition to

possibly causing reappraisal of the previous ones. Also,

the stages intermingle and overlap, sometimes with such

subtlety that they are hardly discernible; however, for

clarification purposes, they are normally presented in an

order which indicates a condition of flow. There are

differences in the names attached to the various stages

of the process, but there is common agreement on the

general events which occur at each plateau.

Stage I

In each of the fields studied, there was an implied

agreement that the creative process begins with an initial

sensing that disequilibrium exists. This is a state of

215

evocation wherein certain environmental and somatic in-

fluences "become manifest (Guilford) - This state, referred

to as sensing a problem, is the beginning of the identi-

fication stage that involves sensed disturbance, doubt,

disequilibrium, or conflict (Torrance, Feldman). It is a

stage of readiness which is permeated by cultural and en-

vironmental influences, educational level, and personality

factors (Hubbard). It involves selection and activation

of mental material which precedes the seeing of a problem

(Haefele). This beginning state is believed to be a con-

scious, preconscious, and subconscious search for infor-

mation utilizing verbal and nonverbal material seeking

stimulus identification (Taylor).

During the initial sensing of disequilibria, the mind

enters into a condition of vigorous activity. There is an

attempt to bring together the available information that

will permit problem identification (Torrance). It involves

a filtering state that creates a condition of arousal and

directed attention (Guilford). This is a screening stage

(Hubbard), scanning 3tage (Roe), or a probing stage wherein

there is a seeking of stored information, the mind entering

into a searching, recognizing, and accepting condition

(Taylor). The mental reworking, reformulation, and ex-

pansion of available material for clarification purposes

are utilized in the identification of the problem

216

The mind, during this stage, enters a retrieval search

utilizing stored information and operational procedures

from the three domains of the mind (Guilford); however,

the resulting thoughts are of a prelogical nature (Roe).

The mind may function in a verbal or nonverbal manner, it

may rely on any of the senses, it may utilize symbol in-

formation that is two- or'three-dimensional, or it may

utilize imageless thought. The recalled information may

be of the replicative or transfer type.

After information is brought to consciousness, there

is a period of evaluation during which the mind becomes

functional in assembling material, reworking material, and

analyzing possible directions for problem identification

and vague solutions (Haefele). This is a period of stimu-

lus evaluation and the beginning of cognition. Activated

mental material permits the formulation of the specifics

of the problem (Guilford). During this aspect of the

stage, the mind utilizes polypreparation procedures of

restructuring, symbolizing, forming analogies, utilizing

heuristics, and using check lists (Haefele). Cognition

follows and is concerned with problem identification and

structure (Guilford).

Once a problem has been identified and the avenues

for its solution have been exhausted, there is agreement

that, if the problem is not discarded as being insignifi-

cant or unsolvable, the mind enters into a new strategy of

• 217

performance. Even if frustrations occur and the creator

gives up, there is usually continued mental effort toward

an economical solution. The' majority of the authorities

refer to this stage as "being a state of incubation.

Stage II

The second stage of the creative process is the period

of gestation (Taylor). It is an incubating period that re-

quires relaxation, thinking in other directions, and

tolerating diffused attention. There may he a time when

preoccupations occur and future strategies can be neither

hurried nor controlled (Roe). This is the least under-

stood stage in the process because of its elusive nature,

but there are certain elements that can be witnessed with-

in it. There is a time element which may be either a

short or an extended period; there is recurrence of the

problem in a, perhaps nagging, manner; there is a built-

up tension state; and intimations normally occur indicat-

ing the approach of insight (Haefele). This phase of the

process has not been explained satisfactorily in terms

of operational events; some authorities treat it simply

as a period of unconscious problem solving, some advocate

a fatigue hypothesis, and others maintain the concept of

recency value. The hypothesis that this state is one

during which transformations are talcing place in the sub-

conscious and preconscious domains, which take time to

O-18

"bring about, has been presented (Guilford). Based on the

frequency of occurrence of inspirations which emerge to

consciousness as already solved products, this hypothesis

appears tenable. It suggests that transformations had

already occurred prior to the emergence of these inspira-

tions (Guilford).

This stage normally ends when an operational proce-

dure becomes evident to the creator that will lead him to

the solution of the stated problem.

Stage III

When conditions permit the continuation of the crea-.

tive process, there is entry into a period of expansion

and elaboration involving a search for appropriateness and

interpretative, reinforcing, and organizational abilities

(Feldman). During this state there is a period of rein-

forcement which produces the continuation of the cycle,

or of frustration, which arrests its continuation. This

is brought about through the forces of threat or nonthreat

and reward or punishment (Hubbard). It may begin with the

illuminating atmosphere generated by the realization of a

new idea. This phenomenon is referred to as a state of

insight. It may occur in sudden realization when atten-

tion is directed elsewhere? it may occur intuitively.

The constant questioning of initial insight leads to fur-

ther insights, perhaps resulting in better solutions to

219

the problem or introducing new problems. There is a chal-

lenge to closure during this stage:, there is an apparent

need for tolerance of disorder, lack of focus, degree of

confusion, and use of trial-and-error procedures (Taylor)•

The insight state culminates preparatory effort and intro-

duces verification procedures. It is of great importance

to the creative process, regardless of the work strategies

involved (Haefele). The emotional states which accompany

insight are dependent upon the strength of the motivation

of the individual performer, the amount of frustration en-

countered during the cycle, the size of the intuitive

leap, and the importance of the result. The mental state

of the individual during this event must be one of aban-

donment of controlled thinking and of succumbing to the

urge to create through persistent effort (Guilford).

There is a search for solutions which usually entails

guesswork and hypothesis formation (Torrance).

Once a solution to the problem has been sensed, a

strategy of performance is entered into which will lead

to a satisfactory verification.

Stage rv;

The fourth stage of the creativity cycle corresponds

to the third cycle of Guilford's creative production model.

The cognition, evaluation, production events of this cycle

pertain to the verifying of the hypothesis. The exit on

this model suggests that an acceptable solution has been

arrived at (Guilford). Two blocks of performance occur in

this stage, first there is the labor of testing, retesting,

modifying, and retesting the hypothesis. Second, there is

the labor of perfecting the hypothesis and drawing conclu-

sions that are to be presented for public discourse

(Torrance). There are distinct strategies of perform-

ance which identify creative and noncreative individuals

(Burkhart, Torrance, Guilford). This stage entails the

integration of idea, image, and emotion into an articu-

late. statement which will later be presented for public

response (F eld man). It is characterized as a delineation

stage (Hubbard), verification stage (Haefele), production

stage (Roe), and a stage of deliberate effort (Taylor).

The products of creativity must have an audience

other than the creator in order to fulfill the criteria of

social value and restructuring of existing knowledge.

Stage V

Once a product is presented for communication pur-

poses, it enters into the final stage of the creative pro-

cess. There may be feedback during this stage that renews

the creative cycle, generating new ideas and resulting

in other creative performances. The resulting discourse

between product/audience, and audience/creator completes

the triumvirate with creator/product. It is these

221

relationships which serve as the bases for the criteria

utilized in the attempted clarification of the subjective

evaluations that are involved in the creative process

(Jackson). This stage is one of communicating the results

of production (Torrance). Presentation of creative pro-

ducts involves creator/audience discourse, which is brought

about through the human desires to transcend personal dis-

covery and to engage in social exchange (Peldman). The

purpose of these desires lies in the reinforcements in the

reinforcements derived from the discourse, which affect

further creative production. This final stage of the

process involves the abilities to criticize and judge in

a skillful manner. The drive to communicate underlies

these abilities (Haefele). In this final stage there are

some creative performers who cannot function in the role

of evaluator and must rely on an audience to form the

necessary value judgments pertaining to the product (Roe).

The Mental Pactors Involved in Creative Behavior

The proposed flow of the creative process allows for

conditions which exist in each stage, permitting a dis-

tinction between thinking which is considered creative and

that which is considered noncreative. There is concurrence

that these differences lie in the pattern of mental factors

which differentiate consistency of performance from

uniqueness of performance. These factors have been

222

verified in the studies, and the terms have been adopted

"by the majority of the authorities selected. They perme-

ate the entire process of creative performance; however,

at various stages certain ones appear dominant*

Stage I

The creativity factors that appear most dominant

during this initial problem sensing, identification,

solution-search period are sensitivity to problems,

flexibility, and redefinition. During this period the

individual must exercise the abilities to sense and see

problems, to analyze strategies of performance, to as-

semble material, and to rework the problem. The restruc-

turing utilised in the search for clues to solution is

dependent upon the ability to combine and recombine know-

ledge . This ability is subconscious exercise, which of-

fers new awareness to the conscious. Although symbol

formation and symbol transformations occur throughout the

process, their greatest impact occurs during this prepara-

tory stage. Analogy, which is a form of symbolization,

utilizes the ability to see relationships between ideas

and to utilize these observed relationships to formulate

corrolaries. Heuristics, utilizing all the necessary

conscious manipulative and reasoning abilities leading to

new discoveries through recombinations of material,

brought about by imaginative thinking, bring about new

223

results: reliance upon logic alone brings about the re-

establishment of existing results (Kaefele). One of the

greatest differences between creative and noncreative

thinking during this stage is the reliance creative per-

formance places upon transfer recall and the accompanying

transformation activity. The flexibility factors which

pertain to divergent production abilities of shifting from

class to class in quest for figural, semantic, and symbolic

information and the originality factors are at work: in

these transformation activities. The redefinition fac-

tors, or convergent transformations, are also at work.

All these factors, along with the evaluation factors,

contribute to the selection of the material that is to be

used (Guilford). In this stage the associative elements

permit seeing new combinations through reorganizational

procedures. The evaluations and resulting expressions are

directed toward diversity rather than conformity. This

necessitates reliance upon the use of free associations,

provocative questions, and analogies. Getting creative

ideas demands more reliance upon emotional and irrational

components of personality than upon the intellectual and

rational components (Torrance). Aspects of the personal

qualities and cognitive styles of performance indicate the

necessity for analytic and intuitive sensitivity, open-

mind edness , and the ability to function in a reflective and

spontaneous manner. A candidate who responds sensitively

224

to his environment and his material is the most likely one

to produce a sense-provoking idea. Sensitivity occurs

either analytically, intuitively, or in combination. Will-

ingness to deviate from tradition in expanding ideas, as

well as utilization of the stability and fluidity of ex-

isting material, provide the polarities for transforming

existing material into new relationships (Jackson). When

reliance upon conscious, orderly, logical thought does not

produce satisfactory answers, there is a shift into pre-

logical thinking, utilizing illogical and unrelated materi-

al (Roe). The creative performer is skilled at manipu-

lating, restructuring, and reworking ideas, exhibiting the

ability to make good analytical and intuitive decisions

(Taylor). He is characterised by spontaneity in thought,

involving the components of flexibility, complexity, im-

pulsiveness, inquisitiveness, abstractness, perception,

intellectual and perceptual openness, and self-determina-

tion (Burkhart).

Stage II

Most of the mental activity that is utilized during

this period is directed toward creative problem-solving in

the preconscious and subconscious domains. Only specula-

tion can be made concerning the factors at work during

this stage. Many of the transformation factors are be-

lieved to be functioning (Guilford). The retrieval and

225

evaluative skills called for in creative thinking rely

"heavily on the preconscious processes (Torrance), and there

is manipulation and scanning'of new combinations in the

subconscious (Haefele) involving flexibility factors

(Taylor). This is a period of quiescence during which

mental strategies should be directed toward other goals.

It is a stage of perceiving, wherein the forces of threat

or nonthreat and reward or punishment indicate the strong

utilization of the flexibility factors (Hubbard).

Stage III

The factors which have been functioning in Stage I

and the probable factors in Stage II are also present in

Stage I I I . Other factors on which greater emphasis is

placed include the elaboration, redefinition, and evalua-

tion factors. This is a period of construction and destruc-

tion, or revision and addition (Burkhart). This stage of

information handling involves the ability to utilize cate-

gories of learned information (Hubbard), the expansion and

elaboration of which lead to the transitions involved in

the search for the most appropriate route to solution

(Peldman). This demands the utilization of the abilities

to interpret, reinforce, and organize. Insight involves

the sudden reorganization of material, which may occur

through many operational procedures which appear to the

conscious (Haefele). Solutions occur more readily when

226

there is a vast store of information available to form the

necessary interconnections, utilizing the ability to as-

semble experiences, paralleled by a tendency toward strong

motivations of persistent effort (Roe). There is a re-

sistance to closure during this stage exemplified by tol-

erance of disorder, lack of focus, degrees of confusion,

and use of trial-and-error procedures (Taylor)• This is

the time of bringing together new relationships, identi-

fying missing elements, making guesses, formulating hy-

potheses, and searching for the most appropriate solutions

to the problem (Torrance). There are factors of evalua-

tion, cognition, and production involved in the search

for solution which are encompassed by the transformation

and divergent production factors associated with creative

performance (Guilford).

The transformation and divergent production abilities

characterize this stage of the creative cycle (Guilford).

The stage is one of perfecting the results of thinking

(Torrance) through the involvement of the factors of

fluency, originality, sensitivity, elaboration, redefini-

tion, and flexibility. The production stage differentiates

the creative from the noncreative performer through work-

ing strategies and goals which are constant or variable

(Burkhart).

227

Stage Y

The creativity factors do not cease functioning with

the emergence of a product. When the product is passed

for jury, there are those value judgments made which must

rely upon many of the same factors which were at work

throughout the .prior stages of the process. The dominant

ones are the evaluation factors which pertain to sensitivi-

ty to problems, transformations, and originality. In ad-

dition, a factor of sensitivity to aesthetic response is

functioning (Feldrcan, Burkhart, Hubbard). Product con-

straints must be transforming, and the audience must

exercise analytical or intuitive sensitivity (Jackson).

Evaluations stemming from the product of performance may

serve as the stimuli evoking the regeneration of the crea-

tive performance cycle and the factors associated with it.

Product Response Properties

The products of creativity are the manifestations of

the exercise of the creativity factors through a strategy

of performance. They may serve a number of purposes, which

encompass the total range of man's experiences. They may

be ideas or objects serving objective or subjective

functions.

In the attempt to discern creative products from non-

creative ones, there are variables involved which rely on

value judgments arrived at through an overlapping of

228

subjective choices and fixed criteria, Subjective choices

pertain to the goodness of an event, and tliey are continu-

ous and varying in their degree of acceptability. Choices

made from a set of fixed criteria pertain to rightness and

are usually categorical, leading to a restricted degree of

acceptability (Jackson). lYhen a product is intended to

demand further human involvement, the conditions of that

involvement must be weighted with some degree of value

based on the abilities to discriminate and interpret, to

make quality decisions, and to respond sensitively and

openly (Feldman)• Such evaluations are concerned with

response properties attached to products "believed to be

creative. These response properties pertain to conditions

which permit three broad categories of events relating to

specific roles the product is intended to fulfill.

Originality

Originality is one of the primary requisites for the

discernment of creative products. The judgment criterion

for the determination of originality requires that the pro-

duct be compared with other products and notes the fre-

quency of occurrence of similarities and reproductions.

The infrequency of occurrence becomes the value judgment

criterion, which is related to a set of norms (Jackson).

Transformations are involved which force new viewpoints and

approaches to solutions which transcend conventional

'•'20

constraints going beyond unusualness. Transformations in-

volve the generation of a new form, whereas unusualness

may involve only the restructuring of an existing form.

Originality is the result of the exercise of divergent

semantic transformation production abilities (Guilford,

Torrance). Original products must exhibit an attitude of

newness, remoteness, or cleverness arrived at through re-

structured information, revealing a degree of quality which

differs from the quantity goal of common production

(Taylor, Guilford). Uniqueness and discovery are essen-

tial .to the originality value of creative products. They

are arrived at through operations involving divergent pro-

duction abilities; however, the refinement of the product

develops through operations involving convergent produc-

tion abilities (Hubbard).

Aesthetic Form

The consensus of the authorities reveals that creative

products exhibit response properties that are predominantly

subjective. Evaluation of these internal responses, re-

ferred to as aesthetic responses, cannot be accomplished

through fixed criteria. Such responses can be ranked in

regard to their varying degrees of strength of impact and

length of endurance. Aesthetic responses generate condi-

tions of surprise, satisfaction, stimulation, and savor

(Jackson). They also serve a motivational function

230

generating the reward feelings of exhilaration, mastery,

and superiority (Guilford). Aesthetic sensitivity reflects

the degree to which a creative person responds in apprecia-

tive terms and degree of competency "by which he expresses

himself (Hubbard), The ability to respond sensitively,

perceptually, decisively, and critically arises from the

ability to organize sensory material which encompasses

the elements of satisfaction, approbation, and enthusiasm*.

Discoveries made result in the bases which underlie at-

titudes of beauty, order, pathos, heroism, and grandeur

(Peldman)»

Social Value

The degree of fulfillment of the social value of

creative products also involves value judgments which en-

compass the domains of subjective and fixed criteria.

The degree to which a product is judged creative may be

arrived at proportional to the degree that it restruc-

tures existing knowledge. This relationship involves

the appropriateness of the product in meeting the demands

of a situation and is necessarily relative to existing

conditions (Taylor, Jackson). Condensations involving

the intensity, concentration of meaning, multiplicity of

interpretations, and the extensiveness of the expansion

generated must be evaluated within the polarities of

simplicity and complexity of the created product. The

231

primary social purpose underlying the product is the

generation of reinforcements necessary for the trans-a

cendence of product and communication, transmitting the

necessary feedback to regenerate the cycle of creative

production (Peldman).

Conclusion

The foregoing base for a heuristic theory of creativ-

ity is compatible with the concepts of creative perform-

ance as they have been studied in the three selected fields.

Only minor variations were - found to exist in the inter-

pretations of the creative process in these fields as it

encompassed the parameters of personality traits, process

events and mental factors, and product response proper-

ties. Although there are variations in the number of

stages involved in the process, the majority of the authori-

ties agreed on the plateaus of development therein and on

the dominant functions of the resulting products. The

major differences lie in the value placed on the process

over product or product over process. The nature of the

product and its primary role differ depending upon the

field of production and whether the emphasis is placed on

the restructuring of man's intellectual environment or

satisfying the psychological drives of his subjective

domain.

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