A STUDY OF ATTITUDE CHANGES ABOUT ALCOHOL THROUGH EDUCATION

by

R a l p h F . T u r n e r *

i n 1 96 0 , p r o f e s s o r Radzinowicz of Cam­bridge University was quoted as saying, “Criminologists cannot solve the problem of crime; they should accept tha t crime is, to a large extent, inevitable, tha t it is an integral part of our society ( 1).

Dr. George L. M addox, in his writings on teen-age drinking, indicates tha t the use of beverage alcohol is a learned behavior. A majority of adults in the U nited States drink a t least sometimes, and research in­dicates tha t the proportion of drinkers and their drinking patterns have remained rela­tively stable since 1953. T he use of alcohol is obviously a part of the cultural tradition of the U nited States, bu t so also is ab­stinence (2 ).

The 1965 National Safety Council report on Traffic Accident Facts contains the following information: “From 1900 through1964, motor vehicle deaths in the U nited States totaled about 1,510,000. U.S. m ilitary casualties in the principal wars from 1775 through 1964 totaled 1,128,000. Of this total, about 605,000 were battle deaths and523,000 were from disease, accidents, etc., connected with the operation of war” (3 ).

report that the use of alcohol is a relatively predictable facet of our society and that young people in their adolescent years do not discover how to drink and drive . . . they learn both. O ur vast driver education program gives us some reassurance that we are attem pting to teach people how to drive in a safe and prudent manner. O ne must not draw the hasty conclusion tha t this paper is advocating teaching all people how to drink, for we must acknowledge and respect the wishes of those who choose not to use alcoholic beverages . . . but the record suggests tha t very little is being done to give young people a proper fund of information so tha t those who so choose can use alcoholic beverages in a safe and prudent manner. Finally, the National Safety Council figures should prom pt us to ask, “W hat progress are we really making in reducing the misery and tragedy associated with driving while under the influence of excessive amounts of alcohol when data continue to m ount in favor of the fact that alcohol appears to be associated with ap­proximately 50% of our automobile fatali­ties.”

Informed workers in the field of the use and effects of alcoholic beverages are aware of the enormous influence that reli­gious, cultural, and social forces play in the determ ination of how an individual uses, or does not use, beverage alcohol. M addox’s statement that drinking is a learned be­havior suggests tha t attention m ight be given to the modification of this learning process through a program of education. I t is not intended, in this paper, to discuss programs of alcohol education at the ele­m entary or secondary school levels, but rather to report on work in progress which is attem pting to observe w hether or not a meaningful change in attitude toward al­cohol as a social problem can be effected through a modest instructional program at the college level.

Alcohol Education

These three unrelated statements can be paraphrased in a way tha t may provide us with a slightly different emphasis to our attack on the alcohol and road safety problem. I t seems reasonable to assume that one can translate Professor Radzinowicz’s rather gloomy statem ent on the inevitable fact tha t crime is a part of our society to the equally foreboding picture tha t we will have to live with a certain am ount of death on the motorway. M addox and his fellow sociologists provide us with a convincing

* Professor in the School of Police Adm inistration and Public Safety, College of Social Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

9 3

94 P U B L IC E D U C A T IO N , M A S S C O M M U N IC A T IO N S

A brief review of public education laws relating to alcohol shows that in 1882, V erm ont was the first state to pass a public education law which made the teaching of “ scientific tem perance” compulsory. W ithin tw enty years, every state legislature and the D istrict of Colum bia had passed laws requiring tha t instruction about the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics be given as a part of physiology and hygiene courses (4 ). Compliance with these laws from tha t date to the present ranges from haphazard adherence to sometimes rather effective im plem entation to flagrant ignor­ing of the regulation. Reasons advanced are:( 1) the subject is too controversial; ( 2 ) teachers are ill-equipped to deal adequately w ith the topic; and (3) lack of interest or concern on the part of the adm inistration or the community. The Yale C enter of Alcohol Studies, established in 1940, has undoubtedly contributed the most amount of inform ation and sparked the imagination of the greatest num ber of teachers to take a fresh look a t our present methods of deal­ing w ith education about alcohol. In re­cent years, it has become this w riter’s firm conviction tha t the alcohol and road safety field has not established a proper alliance between the social scientist, the psychologist, the psychiatrist, the educator, and those who are preoccupied w ith legislation, en­forcem ent, and analytical procedures. One m ight even ask the question, “Has the work of the analytical chemist, the legislator, and the enforcem ent officer reached a point of dim inishing re tu rns?”

Following is an account of some measure­ments which are still in progress, designed to assess changes in a ttitude toward the alcohol problem as a result of a modest educational program.

ProcedureT hree groups of students a t M ichigan

S tate University, enrolled in a regularly scheduled course entitled “Alcohol— A Social D ilem m a,” have been studied. The classes consisted of a m ixture of undergraduate and graduate students. G roup I was made up prim arily of students from various disciplines or m ajor areas of study. GroupsII and I I I consisted almost entirely of w orking high school teachers. At the first m eeting of the class, w ithout any introduc­tory inform ation, two tests were adminis­tered. These tests, in modified form, were again adm inistered a t the conclusion of the course. Q uantitative measurements for both tests were recorded and compared.

The course consisted of th irty hours of instruction and discussion by qualified per­sons and included the following topics: physiology of alcohol, sociology of alcohol, psychology of alcohol, medical aspects, alcohol education programs, the position of the church, alcohol and road safety, the position of the beverage industry, enforce­ment problems related to the use of alcoholic beverages, and the role of Alcoholics Anony­mous. A reference library was made avail­able to the students and they were required to prepare papers related to their field of academic study.

Test Instrum ents

Two test instruments were used. One was a scale for the assessment of knowledge concerning alcohol and its use. The second test assessed selected attitudes toward alcohol and its use. The tests were developed by Drs. George E. Passey and Dempsey F. Pennington, Jr., for the Alabama Commis­sion on Alcoholism and have been used by that agency.*

These tests were also used by Dr. M ar­garet Clay of the Psychological Research Institute, University of M ichigan, in a survey conducted in Macomb County, M ichigan, during the period 1962-64. D ur­ing the survey 2,736 certified employees, including high school teachers, hospital workers, and some administrators and 693 high school students in Macomb County were studied. The adm inistration of the test, however, was not followed by a pro­gram of alcohol education. I t is entirely possible that a follow-up study will be made in the foreseeable future to measure attitudes at a later date.f

The knowledge scale measured the stu­dent’s knowledge about: etiology of alcohol­ism, physiological action of alcohol, trea t­ment procedures for alcoholism, effectiveness of treatm ent, symptoms of alcoholism, pre­valence of alcoholism, effects of alcohol on overt behavior, legal control of alcoholic beverages, m anufacture of alcoholic bever­ages, and drinking customs. The attitude scales measured the student’s favorableness tow ard: the treatm ent of alcoholism, edu­

*M onographs describing the preparation of these test instruments, including pre-test data, may be ob­tained from the Alabama Commission on Alcoholism, 715 State Office Building, M ontgomery, Alabama,

f Reports on these surveys may be obtained from the Alcoholism Program , M ichigan D epartm ent of H ealth, 212 South Grand Avenue, Lansing, M ichi­gan.

R A L P H F . T U R N E R 95

cation concerning alcoholism, legal and social control of alcoholic beverages, moder­ate (social) drinking, and alcoholism as an illness.

D ata O btainedD ata obtained from this study are pre­

sented in the following tables. I t is included merely for purposes of illumination and recording of initial results. No inferences or conclusions are draw n at present because of the limited sample size.

A subjective evaluation, however, tempts one to believe tha t basic knowledge about the alcohol problem can be improved through education and attitudes be modified. How successfully these changed attitudes

will compete with deeply ingrained social, cultural, and religious attitudes over a long period of time remains unanswered. Never­theless, one is encouraged by the interest displayed by both young and more m ature students, and one has the feeling tha t this kind of educational approach is a partial answer to the statements made by an ad hoc committee of the National Safety Council Committee on Alcohol and Drugs in July,1965, at Rutgers University Center for Alcohol Studies. “It is the opinion of the Committee that use of such slogans as If You Drink, Don’t Drive should be de­emphasized for the following reasons: ( 1) Such slogans may or may not be based upon sincere beliefs, but they do not reflect present research findings which indicate

T a b l e I

T opics

1. Etiology of alcoholism2. Physiological action of alcohol 1.3. Treatm ent procedures for alcoholism4. Effectiveness of treatm ent5. Symptoms of alcoholism 2.6. Prevalence of alcoholism7. State treatm ent facilities in M ichigan8. Effects of alcohol on overt behavior 3.9. Legal control of alcoholic beverages

10. M anufacture of alcoholic beverages

General Alcohol Knowledge Test Sample Questions

T F D uring the prohibition era exces­sive drinking was principally re­garded as a moral issue.

T F Children of m oderate drinkers have mental disorders more often than do children of abstainers.

T F Wines are fortified by adding ad­ditional alcohol after fermentation is stopped.

T a b l e II

Types of Questions Used in A ttitude Measurement

1. Treatm ent of Alcoholism

2. Education about Alcoholism

3. Legal and Social Control

4. M oderate Social Drinking

5. Alcoholism as an Illness

The families of alcoholics should encourage them to seek expert treatm ent for their condition.

General hospitals should not accept alcoholics for treatm ent as such.

The facts of alcoholism should be extensively taught in every high school in America.

Public education concerning alcoholism is a waste of time and money.

Alcoholic beverages should be sold on Sundays and holidays.Legal control of alcohol should be on a purely local option basis.

The “social drinker” is probably basically disturbed emotionally.Social drinking is all right if, and only if, it is done with

moderation.

Alcoholism is the direct result of a sick and decadent society.No one should presume to criticize the alcoholic w ithout knowing

why he drinks.

These questions are answered DISAGREE or AGREE.

96 P U B L IC E D U C A T IO N , M A S S C O M M U N IC A T IO N S

tha t blood-alcohol levels of less than .05% show no statistically significant relationship to the occurrence of automobile accidents;(2) Such slogans do not reflect the present practical public in terpretation of existing drinking and driving laws which are not directed toward drivers whose blood-alcohol level is less than .05% ; (3) There is in­creasing reason to believe tha t a negative reaction exists in the driving public toward the abstinence approach to driving. Abstin­ence slogans are believed to reinforce this negative reaction. I t is our opinion tha t realistic inform ation stressing responsibility for drinking control by individuals will gen­erate a greater degree of voluntary compli­ance by a m uch greater segment of the driving public. . . . Effective communication should em anate from specific, correct, and continuously updated information. Means for evaluating effectiveness must be included in all education, enforcement, and other action programs in this field.” (5)

In conclusion, two remarks are brought to the reader’s attention which will serve to provide a rationale for the type of teach­ing and testing program herein described. D r. N orbert Kelley writes in Raymond G. M cC arthy’s book, Alcohol Education for Classroom and Com m unity, “For some time it has been known th a t informal social controls tend to be more efficient and last­ing than formal controls. M oreover . . . it is doubtful tha t the values and norms prac­ticed by a social group can be effectively elim inated against the will of tha t group. Legal controls are efficient only when they are backed by group sentiment.” (6 )

A similar sentim ent is expressed in the recent publication, D rinking in the French Culture, by Sadoun, Lolli and Silverman. W hile adm ittedly this volume is concerned prim arily with the problem of alcoholism in France, we cannot divorce the problem drinking driver from the potential alcoholic. M ark Keller writes in the introduction, “T he proposal to try to educate French boys

and girls to drink only moderately and only in circumstances that favor moderation seems to be reasonable and appropriate.”(7)

The purpose, then, of this paper is to report on an experiment wherein college students who either are, or will be, teaching in elementary and secondary schools have been exposed to a program of alcohol edu­cation. A ttitudes toward the total alco­hol/society problem were measured before and after the course of instruction. Pre­liminary observations suggest that these a t­titudes are subject to favorable modification . . . favorable in terms of w hat qualities are desirable if our society is to cope with the alcohol problem in its broadest aspects or in the more restricted area of road safety.

An American program of alcohol educa­tion will respect the wishes of those who choose not to use alcoholic beverages and will provide those who do so choose with a frame of reference tha t will enhance the development of positive informal social con­trols rather than negate the intended effect of formal controls.

R e f e r e n c e s

1. Alcohol and Traffic Safety. Edited by B. H . Fox and J . H . Fox. Bethesda, M d.; U . S. D epartm ent of H ealth, Education, and Welfare, National Institu te of H ealth, 1963, p. 24.

2. Alcohol Education for Classroom and Comm unity. Edited by Raymond G. M cCarthy, New York, N .Y : M cGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964, p. 32.

3. Traffic Accident Facts, 1965 Edition. National Safety Council, 425 N orth Michigan Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60611. p. 2.

4. Alcohol Education for Classroom and Community. Edited by Raymond G. M cCarthy. New York, N. Y .: M cGraw Hill Book Company, 1964, p. 52.

5. National Safety Council. Report of ad hoc com­m ittee to Com m ittee on Alcohol and Drugs. Pre­pared at Rutgers University, 12-16 July, 1964.

6. Alcohol Education for Classroom and Community. Edited by Raymond G. M cCarthy. New York, N .Y .: M cGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964, p. 30.

7. Drinking in French Culture. R. Sadoun, G. Lolli, M . Silverman. New Brunswick, N .J .: Rutgers C enter for Alcohol Study, 1965, p. xvii.

T a b l e I I I

General Knowledge About Alcohol

N um ber of Subjects

N um ber Correct Before

AnswersA fter

%Before

Correct AnswersA fter

G roup I 34 27.26 32.73 68.16 81.83

G roup II 38 28.22 32.22 70.54 78.40

G roup III 29 27.80 31.50 69.50 78.70

101 27.76 (Avg.) 32.15 69.73 79.64

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T a b l e V

Opinions on the M inim um Legal Drinking Age

for the State of MichiganAge 18 Age 21

Group I ........................................... 8 40Group II ......................................... 14 17Group III ................. ................... 4 25

26 82

T a b l e VI

Attitudes toward a Local Wet-Dry Issue at Conclusion of Course

Sale of Alcoholic Beverages in the City of East Lansing, Michigan

Yes NoGroup I ................. .......................... 17 30Group II .................... .................... 8 24Group III ....................................... 9 19

34 73

T a b l e V II

Religious BackgroundCatholic Protestant

Group I ....,................... 5 24Group II ...................... 9 27Group I II ..... .............. 9 19

Jew111

23 70

T a b l e V III

Self-Assessed Drinking HabitsOccasion- Holiday

Often ally Seldo m Never OnlyGroup I 7 14 7 5 1Group II 3 19 9 7 0Group III 2 17 9 3 0

12 50 25 15 1

98 P U B L IC E D U C A T IO N , M A S S C O M M U N IC A T IO N S

D ISCU SSIO N

Question: A lthough you ended your paper on an optimistic note, tha t is, tha t these attitudes are modifiable, your actual data leaves me with a little bit more pessimism about this. I t seems tha t w hat appears to be a very fine course covering m any areas had relatively little im pact on the precon­ceived notions of these students. Have you given any thought as to why those are so and in what way you can modify your source so tha t the students m ight be more modifiable ?Professor T urner: Yes, I have become pessimistic in one area. Please don’t en­courage me to be pessimistic in this one also. W hen M r. Longhetti was speaking about the program of public inform ation, I was rem inded especially because of this particu lar date, 1941. M r. Holcomb and I were in Kansas City, Missouri. We went through a very elaborate public information dem onstration on train ing in driving, in­cluding prosecutors, judges, etc., etc., which was reported in the issue of Life Magazine which came out on Pearl H arbor Day. T h a t is why I remember the date. I t cer­tainly was not a dem onstration to end all demonstrations. The point I want to make is tha t some sort of thing in the traffic field has been going on in m any parts of the country for m any years, and I don’t think we have made substantial progress. I have turned to this educational venture in an effort to see if we could make some kind of a dent there. O f course, I had a num ber of years of trial and tribulations to get this type of a course going on the campus. I have run the course now about four times, and it is scheduled for repeats in the coming years. This is the first item tha t I have actually had a chance to put together.

Q uestion: T here may be a long-term effect from these courses tha t is not picked up in

a test that is given immediately at the end of the course.

Professor T urner: There will have to be some follow-up. I agree that this is not a dram atic change, although there hasn’t been enough work done in this field to indicate if these things are significant or not.

Question: You gave some statistics on a number of people in the service who died during the World W ar and then the num­ber of people who died during, I believe, the comparable period as a result of acci­dents traceable to alcoholism. Did your figure include, for example, the case where a man under the influence of liquor was killed in a smashup on the road when he had a head-on collision with a teetotaler, a m other who had three children in her car? Did your figures include the mother and her three children ?

Professor T urner: I am sorryf I cannot answer your question intelligently. I am quoting from the National Safety Council report. I am sure that Mr. Lhotka could speak with more authority about the source of tha t figure. However, this was not a comparable figure. From 1900 through1964 is the basis of the motor vehicle death figure, and the military casualty figure is from 1957 through 1964. I am sorry, I cannot answer your question.

Professor Haskins: O ur campus for the past seven years has been the scene of an annual workshop on problems of alcoholism and alcohol education for graduates and undergraduates under the auspices of the Indiana Division of Alcoholism and theI.U . School of H ealth, Physical Education, and Recreation. The 1966 dates for this workshop are June 8 through June 18, and it offers two hours of university credit.