DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2018-004

A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Adara of Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria

Luther Hon, Grace Ajaegbu, Carol Magnusson, Uche S. Nweke, and Zachariah Yoder

A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Adara of Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria

Luther Hon, Grace Ajaegbu, Carol Magnusson, Uche S. Nweke, and Zachariah Yoder

SIL International® 2018

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2018-004, March 2018 © 2018 SIL International® All rights reserved

Abstract

The survey team visited the Adara language group of Kachia, Kajuru and Paikoro Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Niger States in Nigeria, from March 1 to March 16, 2011. The team did not visit Muya LGA because the dialect spoken is the same as the one spoken in Paikoro LGA. The Adara people are commonly called Kadara, especially by outsiders. They are known to speak dialects of the Kadara language. The dialects are Adara [kad], Ada [kad], Eneje [kad], Ajiya [idc] and Ekhwa [ikv]. The main goal of the survey was to determine the most suitable dialect(s) that all speakers of Adara understand and accept as the best for a standard written form of Adara that would serve all of them. The survey team tested for intelligibility, interviewed different people and groups, gathered words for checking lexical similarity and asked the people about their potential support of a language project.

The name Adara has two meanings in this work: “Adara” as the name of the language, and “Adara” as the name of one of the dialects. As such, we will use “the Adara language” for the whole language, “the Adara people” for the whole people, and “the Adara dialect” for the dialect. For language and people, we will use Kadara in square brackets after Adara when referring to the language and the people, for example: “Adara [Kadara] language” and “Adara [Kadara] people.” Our findings indicate that the Adara dialect may be developed to serve the Adara, Ada and Eneje speakers, while the Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects may need separate literature. Alternatively, the Ada dialect may be developed to serve only Ada and Eneje speakers, while Adara, Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects may each need separate literature.

Acknowledgements

This survey would not have been possible without the support of many people throughout the language area surveyed. We express our profound gratitude firstly to the paramount ruler, His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara,1 Mr Maiwada Galadima (JP2), who permitted us to go into the villages of the Adara people to do our work. We also express our appreciation to the various district, village and family heads who mobilized their people to participate in the survey process.

We appreciate the time and energy of those who volunteered to help us in eliciting the wordlists from the five Adara varieties, those who narrated the stories used for testing dialect comprehension, as well as the pastors, other church leaders and teachers who, in spite of their tight schedules, responded patiently to the questions on our interview forms.

1 The literal translation from the Adara language means “chief person” or more likely “chief of the Adara people.” Agom means ‘chief’ and Adara means ‘person’. 2 The abbreviation JP means Jerusalem Pilgrim.

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Contents

Tables 1  Introduction 

1.1  Previous research/background information 1.2  Social setting 

1.2.1  Adara administrative setting 1.2.2  Adara villages 1.2.3  Neighboring languages 1.2.4  Intermarriage 1.2.5  Agriculture and economic/commercial units 1.2.6  Health care services 1.2.7  Religious profile 1.2.8  Estimated population 

1.3  Goals 2  Language identification 

2.1  The dialects that the Adara people speak in their area 2.2  Dialect relatedness 2.3  Summary of language identification 

3  Social interaction 3.1  Intermarriage between the Adara [Kadara] people 3.2  Interaction with neighboring language groups 3.3  Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area 3.4  Government officials in the area 3.5  Local development associations 3.6  Economic/commercial units 

4  Language vitality 4.1  Children’s language use 4.2  The domains where Adara is primarily spoken 4.3  The Adara [Kadara] groups who mainly speak the local language without mixing with Hausa 4.4  The language that the people mostly use in rural and urban areas 4.5  The people’s perception of their language 4.6  The people’s attitudes towards the shift and death statuses of their language 4.7  The Adara [Kadara] people’s attitudes towards languages of wider communication 4.8  Summary of language vitality 

5  Language acceptability 5.1  The dialect(s) that people are willing to read and write in 5.2  Most acceptable dialect that might be used as a standard written form for all Adara people 5.3  The languages that literature is available in 5.4  Summary of language acceptability 

6  Intelligibility 6.1  The dialect(s) that the people are reported to understand 6.2  Recorded text testing 6.3  Summary of intelligibility 

7  Bilingual proficiency/language use 7.1  Other languages spoken by the Adara [Kadara] people 7.2  Neighboring languages spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people 7.3  Language spoken by each segment of the Adara [Kadara] society 7.4  Where these languages are learned 7.5  Summary of bilingualism

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8 Contact patterns 8.1 Interaction among speakers of the dialects 8.2 Local development associations 8.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area

9 Literacy 9.1 The age group(s) that can read and write 9.2 The language(s) that each age group can read and write well 9.3 The best medium to serve the Adara [Kadara] people 9.4 Summary of literacy

10 Church support 10.1 Church leaders’ feelings about language development 10.2 The people’s desire for materials in their language 10.3 The people’s ability to work together and support a language project 10.4 Summary of church support

11 Methodology 11.1 Interviews 11.2 Recorded text testing (RTT)

11.2.1 Test development and administration 11.2.2 Reliability of the RTT method 11.2.3 Subject selection 11.2.4 Testing procedure 11.2.5 Scoring 11.2.6 Post-test questions

11.3 Wordlist 11.3.1 Wordlist elicitation 11.3.2 Wordlist comparison

11.4 Observation 11.5 Sampling 11.6 Participatory method

12 Results 12.1 Lexical similarity and interpretation 12.2 Adara [Kadara] dialects for which people can score above 75 percent on RTT

13 Findings 14 Conclusion and recommendation Appendix A: Ada of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix B: Ankwa of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix C: Adara of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix D: Eneje of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix E: Adja of Kaduna Wordlist References

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Tables

Table 1. Names of villages visited and the dialects spoken in each Table 2. Names of markets and market days Table 3. Percentage of Adara [Kadara] language speakers per LGA Table 4. Names of dialects and alternate names Table 5. Where wordlists were elicited and checked Table 6. Comparing words for ‘medicine’ Table 7. Lexical similarity percentage Table 8. Test site and recorded text testing percentage Table 9. Comparing three Eneje texts (different subjects)

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1 Introduction

The purpose of the Adara survey was to elicit data that would assist the Adara people and interested organizations that are involved in language development to identify which of the dialects of the Adara language group of the southern parts of Kaduna and Niger States of Nigeria is most suitable and accepted by the people for a standard written form of the Adara language. The survey team visited the Adara language group of Kachia, Kajuru, and Paikoro Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Niger States in Nigeria, from March 1 to March 16, 2011.

The Adara people are commonly called Kadara, especially by outsiders. They are known to speak dialects of the Kadara language. The dialects surveyed are Adara dialect [kad], Ada [kad], Eneje [kad], Ajiya [idc] and Ekhwa [ikv]. Note that there are two meanings of Adara used in this report, “Adara dialect” and “Adara language.” One dialect of the Adara language is also called Adara. Therefore, in this report, we will be referring to this dialect as “the Adara dialect,” the whole language as “the Adara language” and the people as “the Adara people.” We will use Kadara in square brackets after Adara when referring to the language and the people, for example: “Adara [Kadara] language” and “Adara [Kadara] people.”

Map of the Adara area

© 2016 OCHA ROWCA, through Ngandu Kazadi Bruno-Salomon, the Information Management Officer,

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Nigeria – 15, Mississippi Street, Maitama, Abuja. Adapted by John Muniru (used QGIS, free mapping software). Used with permission.

1.1 Previous research/background information

Temple reports that Adara [Kadara] is spoken in the southern part of the old Zaria Province in Northern Nigeria, in the districts of Zana, Wali and Kajuru as well as at Riban and in Fuka, in Kuta District of the former Niger Province (1919:179). Gunn further writes that the Adara [Kadara] language is spoken in Bida, Agaie and Abuja Emirates. These areas are now parts of Paikoro and Muya LGAs (1956:123).

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However, he maintains that the actual settlements of the speakers in these three places are not known. Dancy and Gray, in their survey report of 1966, state that the language is spoken north of Abuja and north-east of Minna, while Crozier and Blench (1992:62) report that the speakers of Adara [Kadara] are located in Kachia LGA of Kaduna State and in the former Chanchaga LGA, now Paikoro and Muya LGAs of Niger State.

Temple writes that Hausa is generally understood by the Adara [Kadara] speakers (1919:180). Dancy and Gray say that most young and a few older people speak Hausa (1966:2). Temple also maintains that the Adara [Kadara] speakers in Fuka also speak Gbagyi (1919:180). Gunn feels that the people may be assimilating into the culture and language of other groups in these areas (for example Gbari, Koro and Ganagana) (1956:123).

Three wordlists were collected over the years: the Swadesh one hundred-item wordlist that was collected in 1966 by Dancy and Gray; John Ballard’s list of Adara words as incorporated into the Benue Congo Comparative wordlist by Williamson (1973:lxi); and another recent set in 2004̵̵̵–2006 of the Adara [Kadara] language group by Alex Maikarfi with Roger Blench (Maikarfi 2006).

1.2 Social setting

1.2.1 Adara administrative setting

The Adara language speakers are headed and guided by a paramount ruler, His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, and other senior title holders. There are also lower chiefs, village heads and their assistants who are answerable to the paramount ruler. The palace serves as a place where the speakers of the various dialects of the Adara language meet and interact with each other.

1.2.2 Adara villages

The Adara have many villages but we were only able to visit a few where we did our work. Each village that we visited has a village head who looks over all affairs and reports to the district head who may be living in a separate village. The villages that we visited are tabulated here with the dialect that is spoken in each:

Table 1. Names of villages visited and the dialects spoken in each

Village Dialect Amalle Ada Ankwa Ekhwa

Barakwai Ada Barga Eneje

Kurmin Kare (Ovah) Ada Mai Ido Rafi Eneje Rafin Kunu Adara

Rubu Adara Sabon Gari Ankwa Ekhwa

Tudu Iburu Ajiya

1.2.3 Neighboring languages

Kuturmi, Kamatan Ikulu, Jabba, Gbagyi, Gbari, Ganagana, Koro, and Fulfulde are the languages that are spoken around the area of the Adara language group. Hausa is also spoken as a language of wider communication (LWC) by Hausa settlers, many other immigrants, and also the Adara.

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1.2.4 Intermarriage

The Adara people intermarry mainly among the Adara language group and with the Kuturmi, Kamatan, Ikulu and Jabba people.

1.2.5 Agriculture and economic/commercial units

The Adara people are mostly subsistence farmers who grow maize, guinea corn, yams, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, millet, rice, soya, cocoyams, ginger, and sugar cane. They have many markets in the area where some of the produce is offered for sale on market days. The markets are attended according to the days shown in table 2. Most of these markets provide opportunities for speakers from the different dialects to meet each other.

Table 2. Names of markets and market days

Names of markets Market days Those who attend the market Adunu Tuesday Ada Amalle Friday Ada Ankwa Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Doka Tuesday All speakers except Ajiya Ishau Wednesday Ada Kachia Friday All speakers except Ajiya Kafi Every four days Ada Kasuwan Magani Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Kufana Monday All speakers except Ajiya Mai-Ido Kufai Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Rafin Kunu Friday All speakers except Ekhwa

1.2.6 Health care services

We came across some good looking structures that were said to be designed to serve as either hospitals or clinics in some of the villages that we visited, but most of them were reported and observed not yet in use. In fact, while we were working at Ankwa, a pregnant woman was about to give birth but because the clinic in the village was neither equipped with facilities nor personnel, she had to be rushed in our car to the hospital in the main town, Kachia, where the general hospital is located. The situation was a little better at Rafin Kunu where we came across a maternity home where two women were reported to be the only staff.

1.2.7 Religious profile

There are Christian churches of different denominations (see section 3.3) in the area. The population of Christians is estimated at 66 percent while the Muslim population is estimated at 7 percent and the African traditional religionists were also estimated at 7 percent.

1.2.8 Estimated population

Table 3 presents the 2006 national population census figures of the four LGAs in Kaduna and Niger States where the Adara [Kadara] language speakers predominantly live. In order to find out the present population of Adara [Kadara] language speakers in these LGAs, we asked a colleague about the population of the people in the area. He estimated the percentages of the speakers in each LGA as they

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appear in table 3. The population in Kaduna and Niger States between 2006 and 2011 increased annually by an estimate of 3.0 percent and 3.4 percent respectively (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007). We used the 2006 figures and the estimated annual growth rate percentages together to calculate the population in the four LGAs in 2011. We used the percentages of Adara [Kadara] speakers as they were given to us by our colleague to determine the estimated population in each of the LGAs for 2011. In conclusion, we estimate the population to be almost 300,000.

Table 3. Percentage of Adara [Kadara] language speakers per LGA

Census 2006

Estimated population

2011

Percentage of Adara[Kadara]

speakers

Population of Adara[Kadara] speakers

per LGA

Kajuru 110,868 128,526 80 102,821

Kachia 244,274 283,181 45 127,431

Paikoro 158,086 186,851 30 56,055

Muya 103,651 122,511 10 12,251

Total 298,558

1.3 Goals

We gathered data primarily based on these goals: • To identify Adara dialects and their linguistic relationship. • To determine whether the speakers of the dialects understand each other. • To determine which dialect is central and would be the best choice for all Adara literature. • To determine whether the Adara are shifting to speaking primarily another language or if Adara

is still their primary language. • To determine whether the local church would support language development and literacy work. The field work for this survey was done from March 1 to 16, 2011. The field surveyors elicited data in ten villagesː Kurmin Kare (Ovah),3 Sabon Gari Ankwa, Barga,

Mai Ido Rafi (Ivlo), and Ankwa villages in Kachia Local Government Area (LGA) of Kaduna State; we also collected data in Rubu, Rafin Kunu and Tudu Iburu in Kajuru LGA of Kaduna State and in Barakwai and Amalle of Paikoro LGA of Niger State (see map). We chose these three LGAs because that is where the five dialects of the Adara [Kadara] language are spoken. We did not choose to work in Muya LGA because the dialect in Muya is the same as the one spoken in Paikoro LGA.

2 Language identification

2.1 The dialects that the Adara people speak in their area

The people of the villages that we visited reported that five Adara dialects are spoken in the area: Adara dialect, Ada, Ajiya, Ekhwa and Eneje. However the respondents did not know the dialect names that the speakers of each dialect used for their dialects. The speakers of each dialect could easily identify each

3 The people in Kurmin Kare were said to be discussing changing the name to Kurmin Jama’a.

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other by their different ways of expressing the emphatic phrase: ‘I say…’ in their respective dialects (see table 4).

Table 4. Names of dialects and alternate names

ISO 639-3 Language /dialect

‘person’ ‘people’ ‘I say…’* Other name(s)

kad Adara [ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄]

Adara [ɑ́ːdɑ̄ɾɑ̄] Adara [ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄] Misiyo [mīsījō]

Edra [édɾɑ̄]

kad Ada[ɑ́dɑ̄] Anda [ɑ́ndɑ̄] Ada [ɑ́dɑ̄ː] Misiyen [mīsījẽ]

Eda [édɑ̄]

kad Eneje [énēdʒē]

Anda [ɑ́ndɑ̄] Ada [ɑ́dɑ̄ː] Misiya [mīsījɑ̄]

Eji/Aji [édʒī/ɑ́dʒī]

Idc Ajiya [ɑ́dʒījɑ̄]

Ajiya [ɑ́dʒījɑ̄] Ajiya [ɑ́dʒīːjɑ̄] Misiwa [mīsīwɑ̄]

Ajuli [ɑ́dʒùlī]

Ikv Ekhwa [ékʰwɑ́]

Eneyi/ Adara [énéːjī/ɑ́ːdɑ̄ɾɑ̄]

Anare/Adara [ɑ́nɑ́ːɾē/ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄]

Ewengor [éwēnɡɔ̄ː ]

Ankwa/Ahua [ɑ́nkwɑ́/ɑ́húɑ́]

*These phrases, which mean ‘I say…’ are used for identification of each other by all speakers.

His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, told us that the name or term Kadara is the Hausa term for the name Adara, which means ‘people’. Furthermore, many respondents reiterated the Agom-Adara’s claim during the group interviews. Contrastingly, an elderly man who is a speaker of the Ajiya dialect said Kadara, as written by previous researchers, was the original name. He maintained that Adara referred only to the speakers of the Adara dialect.

2.2 Dialect relatedness

Our respondents for group and individual interviews in Rubu, Barga, Rafin Kunu, Barakwai, Kurmin Kare and Mai Ido Rafi reported that all the dialects (and their speakers) are linguistically, socially and culturally related but that the Ekhwa and Ajiya dialects have a high degree of linguistic variation from the other three dialects.

Speakers of the Adara, Ada and Eneje dialects whom we interviewed reported that they speak the same as each other, but with lexical and phonological variations. On the other hand, the Ekhwa and Ajiya people were reported by the other groups to speak very different dialects (see lexical similarity results in section 12.1).

2.3 Summary of language identification

The people identified their language as Adara [Kadara] and the dialects as Adara dialect, Ada, Eneje, Ajiya, and Ekhwa. But they simply refer to each other by the emphatic phrase ‘I say…’ in their language. However, speakers of Adara dialect, Ada, and Eneje say they understand each other, but do not understand either Ekhwa or Ajiya.

3 Social interaction

3.1 Intermarriage between the Adara [Kadara] people

The Adara [Kadara] live freely and happily among themselves and intermarry with each other without discrimination. They also participate in all Adara [Kadara] cultural activities.

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3.2 Interaction with neighboring language groups

The Adara language speakers co-exist happily with the Kuturmi, Kamatan, Ikulu, Gbari, Gbagyi, Jabba, Koro, Fulani and Ganagana people groups. They go to the same markets, farming areas, churches, mosques and schools. They also intermarry and are at peace with each other.

3.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area

There are many churches of various denominations working with each other. The churches are: Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA); Catholic; Baptist; Maranatha; Assemblies of God; Deeper Life; Chapel of Good News; Anglican; Seventh Day Adventist; Chapel of Grace; Methodist; and Living Faith. Furthermore, many Adara [Kadara] people attend ECWA and Catholic churches because they are the two big denominations that are found in many villages in the area. Also, there are a few subgroups in each church working hand in hand with the leadership. These include the women’s fellowship, youth fellowship, choir, and Boys and Girls Brigades. These subgroups from the various denominations bring the speakers of the various dialects together during inter-church group or association programs. The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) is the large fellowship umbrella and the forum that brings all the churches and the speakers of the various dialects together, through its regular general meetings.

3.4 Government officials in the area

The Adara [Kadara] language speakers are headed and guided by His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, and other senior title holders. There are also lower chiefs, village heads and their assistants who are answerable to the paramount ruler. The palace of His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, in Kachia town serves as a place where the speakers of the various varieties of the Adara language meet and interact with each other.

3.5 Local development associations

The interviewees reported that there is an Adara Development Association at the village, state and national levels. The Adara [Kadara] people, at home and abroad, come together every year to celebrate their cultural festival named Adara Day and to discuss the way forward for the entire Adara language group. There is also an association called the Akpazuma (in the Adara dialect) or Akpazwã (in the Ada dialect). Each dialect group is said to have their own Akpazuma which draws people together to discuss the problems and progress of their own community.

3.6 Economic/commercial units

There are many markets in the area. The markets are held on specific days as earlier indicated in section 1.2.5. These markets provide opportunities for speakers from the different dialects to meet each other.

4 Language vitality

4.1 Children’s language use

In the villages that we visited the children were reported to speak and we observed them speaking their dialect of Adara fluently in informal contexts. The children at Rafin Kunu, Barakwai, Tudu Iburu and Rubu appeared not to speak Hausa well. In fact, the primary six pupils who were our subjects at Rafin Kunu and Tudu Iburu found difficulty responding to our questions in Hausa. We had to seek the assistance of interpreters to have the children respond.

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4.2 The domains where Adara is primarily spoken

Adara seems to be the language most often spoken in the home domain. The people reported and were observed speaking the Adara [Kadara] language in their homes with all age categories: parents with children, grandparents with grandchildren, wives with husbands and brothers with sisters. The Adara [Kadara] language was said to be mainly spoken during hunting, on the farm and at play with age-mates and friends in school during the recess.

4.3 The Adara [Kadara] groups who mainly speak the local language without mixing with Hausa

The age groups in each village that we visited reported—and we observed—that they mainly spoke their language among themselves. Even so, Ekhwa speakers in Sabon Gari Ankwa seemed to use Hausa loan words. They also use complete Hausa clauses in long discussions.

4.4 The language that the people mostly use in rural and urban areas

In the villages that we visited it was reported—and we observed—that the people use their own dialects of Adara [Kadara] in all non-formal domains. We also observed some use of Hausa in all of the villages we visited. It was reported—and we observed—that Hausa was mostly used in the towns. Curiously, in Katari, a big town of the Ada speakers, a few people of all age groups were observed speaking the Ada dialect at the houses near the palace. This indicates that the desire to maintain the Ada dialect is strong; despite the contact they have with Hausa speaking outsiders, they still maintain their language.

4.5 The people’s perception of their language

The people in the villages we visited said that everyone in their villages speaks their Adara [Kadara] dialect. They said their children start learning this language first before any other language. They also said that a few of their non-Adara neighbors, both adults and children, also learn to speak their language. Furthermore, they reported that they use their language in all domains, except with non-Adara [Kadara] speaking outsiders. Contrary to Gunn’s 1956 view that the Adara [Kadara] people are assimilating other cultures and languages (see section 1.1), the Adara [Kadara] language is very much in use, despite the general use of Hausa in their areas.

4.6 The people’s attitudes towards the shift and death statuses of their language

The people we interviewed in the villages we visited responded both in the group and in the individual interviews that they would never be happy if their language was diminishing or dying. The group in Barakwai expressed strong optimism that the Adara [Kadara] language would never diminish or die and they maintained that “even the unborn generation would continue to speak the Adara [Kadara] language.” The group in Ankwa felt that the diminishing or death of the Adara [Kadara] language would amount to throwing away their heritage and culture.

4.7 The Adara [Kadara] people’s attitudes towards languages of wider communication

Almost every group we interviewed appeared to have a moderately positive attitude towards the use of English and Hausa. In fact the people in Tudu Iburu, Barakwai and Ankwa appeared to have strong positive attitudes towards English. The people in these three villages feel that learning to speak English will make their children “bring cars home,” they feel it will “help them in life” and that it will show that their children are educated. They also said that they speak English and Hausa because they are general languages. These beliefs are common in Nigeria, where English is considered as a language of prestige

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and economic advantage. It appears that English is desired because of its perceived advantage while Hausa is used because it is widely spoken in the Adara [Kadara] language area.

4.8 Summary of language vitality

Adara is the language of every home, particularly in the rural areas. Children speak it with each other and their parents, and all adults speak it in all domains. The speakers expressed strong positive attitudes towards the maintenance of their language.

5 Language acceptability

5.1 The dialect(s) that people are willing to read and write in

The information gained from the questionnaires, interviews and the participatory method of data gathering showed that most people would choose the Adara dialect as the dialect that should be developed for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in. Their second choice would be Ada, followed by Eneje. Furthermore, the answers showed that the speakers of Ekhwa and Ajiya would also choose the Adara dialect. However, the intelligibility and lexical similarity results showed that Ajiya and Ekhwa are separate languages both from the other three dialects and from each other and would benefit from separate development.

5.2 Most acceptable dialect that might be used as a standard written form for all Adara people

The groups and individuals that we interviewed would choose Adara as the main dialect that could be used for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in. Adara was also chosen as the dialect that could be used for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in during the facilitation of the participatory method of data gathering. The groups gave reasons that, “everyone understands the tongue,” “they [Adara dialect speakers] are the majority,” “it is central and easy” and “it is like the general one.” The groups in Barga (Eneje) and Sabon Gari Ankwa (Ekhwa) chose Ada and Eneje respectively. This choice could have been made because of the proximity between Ekhwa, Ada and Eneje villages. The group in Barga felt that Ada was “pure, no adulteration.”

5.3 The languages that literature is available in

Hausa and English literature is available throughout the Adara [Kadara] language area. The expressed feelings of the groups and individuals interviewed seemed not to be very favorable to literature in Hausa or English.

5.4 Summary of language acceptability

Adara speakers we worked with chose Adara dialect for development because it is central to the other dialects and easily understood by everyone. The speakers believe that it is the only dialect that could unite them.

6 Intelligibility

6.1 The dialect(s) that the people are reported to understand

During group discussions, the respondents from each dialect group reported that they at least partially understand each other. Even so, Ajiya speakers said they can only understand a bit of Adara dialect and

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speakers of Adara dialect also said that they understand a bit of the Ajiya dialect. Only Ekhwa speakers claimed to understand all the dialects.

6.2 Recorded text testing

We used the recorded text testing (RTT) method to directly measure the intelligibility between the Adara dialects. Generally, if results are lower than 75 percent on an intelligibility test, separate literature needs to be developed (SIL 1991). However, if the results are 75 percent or greater, other factors need to be considered before we can be sure that literature can be understood by speakers of two or more dialects. The results indicate that:

• Each of the five groups scored above 90 percent on its own text. • Eneje speakers scored 100 percent on the Adara dialect text and 96 percent on the Ada text. • Ada speakers scored 75 percent on the Adara dialect text and 70 percent on the Eneje text. • Adara dialect speakers scored 75 percent on the Eneje text and 66 percent on the Ada text. • Adara dialect, Ada and Eneje speakers scored very low on the Ekhwa’s text and Ekhwa speakers

also scored very low on texts from these dialects.

6.3 Summary of intelligibility

The Adara text was easily understood by Eneje speakers and marginally (75 percent) by the Ada speakers. This implies that Adara may serve the three dialects. Also, the Ada story was easily understood by Eneje speakers, but the Adara speakers scored an insufficient score of 66 percent.

Ekhwa and Ajiya speakers did understand the Adara, Ada and Ekhwa texts; however, they achieved a low score on the three texts.

7 Bilingual proficiency/language use

7.1 Other languages spoken by the Adara [Kadara] people

Besides speaking their own dialect of Adara [Kadara], almost every person in the villages that we visited was reported and observed to speak Hausa to some level. English was also reported to be spoken well by just a handful of individuals who have acquired higher Western education in the area. Furthermore, a few people were said to speak Kuturmi, Jabba, Kamatan, Ikulu, Gbagyi or Koro.

7.2 Neighboring languages spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people

None of the neighboring languages mentioned in sections 3.2 and 7.1 was reported in the group and individual interviews to be spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people. Some people are reportedly able to speak a bit of some of the languages. A few children and women were said to speak Kuturmi quite well.

7.3 Language spoken by each segment of the Adara [Kadara] society

All segments of the Adara [Kadara] society speak the local language fluently in all domains. The youth are said to be the primary speakers of Hausa in the region. Many middle-aged people and children are also said to speak Hausa but not as well as the young people, while most old people are said to speak just a bit of it.

Similarly, of the handful that speak English well, youth are reported as the predominant speakers in the area, while most middle-aged people and children are reported to speak just a bit of it. In like manner, only a few old people are said to speak a bit of English.

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7.4 Where these languages are learned

A child learns his/her dialect in the home and we observed its use everywhere in the village. Furthermore, the people reported that their children learn to speak Hausa from the children of strangers, particularly the Fulani, who live around all their villages. They said their children meet with other children in school and use Hausa as the common and easiest medium of communication between them (Hausa is taught as a subject in almost all schools in northern Nigeria). Also, teachers are said to occasionally instruct in Hausa whenever pupils appear not to understand concepts in English and other subjects.

English is the major language of school everywhere in Nigeria. Pupils in the Adara [Kadara] language group area are said to be encouraged to speak it while in class. In fact, a pupil may reportedly be punished for speaking Adara [Kadara] in class. However, we observed primary and secondary school children struggle mostly without success to respond to our questions in English. As a result, we did almost all our interviews in Hausa.

7.5 Summary of bilingualism

The people are mostly bilingual in Hausa and some of them, especially children, youth and middle-aged adults, speak English, and a few women and children speak Kuturmi quite well.

8 Contact patterns

This section has to do with how and where the Adara speakers meet with each other.

8.1 Interaction among speakers of the dialects

The Adara [Kadara] people are conscious of their oneness and reportedly men and women from the different dialects intermarry. Wives and husbands speak each other’s dialect or learn to speak them when necessary. Adara-Day, the cultural festival of all the Adara [Kadara] people, brings people together from Kaduna and Niger States. It is celebrated in the town of Kachia, where the palace and house of the paramount ruler are located. Kachia remains the primary place of convergence. Also, there are many markets in the various villages that we visited where the speakers of the various dialects meet.

8.2 Local development associations

The people reported that there is an Adara [Kadara] Development Association at the village, state and national levels. All the Adara [Kadara] people, at home and abroad, come together every year to celebrate their cultural festival named Adara-Day and to discuss the way forward for the entire Adara language group. There is also an association called the Akpazuma. Each dialect group is said to have its own Akpazuma which draws people together to discuss the problems and progress of their own community.

8.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area

The nature of church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area is such that there are many churches of various denominations working with each other in the area. There are a few subgroups in each church working hand in hand with the leadership. These include the women’s fellowships, youth fellowships, choirs, and Boys and Girls Brigades.

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9 Literacy

This section deals with the reading/writing ability of the people and the people’s access to education. It also deals with the kind of medium that would be most appropriate and the people’s attitudes towards the available literature in the area.

9.1 The age group(s) that can read and write

Many people reported in the group and individual interviews that they can read and write. The children, youth, and middle-aged people seem to be the most literate among all of them. Only a few old people are said to be able to read and write.

9.2 The language(s) that each age group can read and write well

The youth are said to read and write in Hausa and English, which they learn at school. Middle-aged people are also reported to be able to read and write in Hausa and English, but not as well as the youth. Only a few old people reported that they are able to read and write in Hausa or English. Only a handful of all the age categories are reported to be able to read and write letters and other notes in the Adara language.

9.3 The best medium to serve the Adara [Kadara] people

Books and audio-visual media seem to be the primary means that could be used to serve the Adara [Kadara] language group. The youth and children, who are the future of the Adara [Kadara] people, were reported during the group and individual interviews to prefer reading and watching TV to only listening to audio messages. Only a few middle-aged people were also reported to prefer reading, watching and listening to just listening to audio or radio messages.

9.4 Summary of literacy

The children, youth and middle-aged people are the most literate in English and Hausa in the area, although the youth and middle-aged were said to read and write better than the children. The people chose book and audio-visual mediums over merely listening to audio messages.

10 Church support

10.1 Church leaders’ feelings about language development

The church leaders interviewed in the Adara language group area expressed enthusiasm about the translation of materials into the local language. They said that if materials were translated into an Adara [Kadara] dialect, children and youth would learn how to read and write in it. Also, they reasoned that Adara [Kadara] language development would help maintain the mother tongue. The church leaders pledged to give their support and do awareness campaigns among the people should there be a language development project, so that everyone may support it in various ways.

10.2 The people’s desire for materials in their language

The Adara [Kadara] language speakers we interviewed appeared eager to have vernacular materials in their language. They said they would like themselves and their children to learn how to read and write in their language. They feel that they are left behind, saying many people had literature in their

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language but they did not. They further demonstrated their desire to see their language developed when they reported that they were ready to get involved in any kind of project that would lead to the development of their language into a standard written form.

10.3 The people’s ability to work together and support a language project

During the interviews, it became apparent that the people’s ability to work together for their progress is remarkable. They said they had jointly built primary schools, classrooms, markets, roads to clinics, bridges, and dug wells in their various communities. We personally observed some of these projects.

10.4 Summary of church support

The people have demonstrated an ability to work together and potentially support language development and literacy work in their area. They also mentioned a few names of individuals who may be of tremendous assistance in the cause of the prospective language development work.

11 Methodology

Following are the methods that we used to investigate the language situations in the Adara [Kadara] area.

11.1 Interviews

We visited ten villages. In one village from each dialect area (Adara dialect, Ada, Eneje and Ekhwa), we interviewed a group of forty individuals of both sexes and all ages. We also interviewed teachers and church leaders. We did not do individual interviews in any Ajiya village because we did not plan for it. We thought the Ajiya dialect was the same as the Adara dialect until we discovered during a group interview in Rubu village that Adara dialect speakers could not understand it.

11.2 Recorded text testing (RTT)

We did recorded text testing in each dialect area in order to ascertain mutual intelligibility between the speakers of the different dialects of the Adara [Kadara] language.

11.2.1 Test development and administration

First, short stories about an interesting event in the storyteller’s life were recorded in the vernacular in four dialects: Adara, Ada, Eneje and Ekhwa. Two more stories were recorded in the Eneje dialect, making the Eneje stories three. They were used to test for reliability of the RTT method. The stories were named “Eneje Love,” “Eneje Travel,” and “Eneje Farm.” The stories were about two to three minutes in length. These texts were transcribed, and then an English phrase-by-phrase free translation was made with key words glossed. For each of these texts, fifteen basic comprehension questions were created. No inferences or background knowledge were required in order to answer the questions correctly; the correct responses were found in the texts themselves. The questions attempted to cover a wide range of semantic categories (e.g., who, what, when, where, how many, action, instrument, quotation, etc.) and were formed in such a way as not to be answerable on the basis of common knowledge alone. The texts were recorded on minidiscs, and track marks were inserted indicating points where comprehension questions should be asked.

Standard RTT methodology (Casad 1974) prescribes that the questions then be recorded in the speech variety of the subjects and inserted into the story following the information being asked about. This would ensure consistency of test administration and eliminate the variable of the subject’s command

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of a language of wider communication (LWC) from the test results. However, experience has shown that subjects tend to find responding to questions coming from a machine extremely unnatural and rather confusing. Responding to a person asking questions is much more natural and eliminates this confusion from the testing situation. Hence, we verbally asked questions and did not insert the questions into the recording.

We administered the RTT by playing the text up to the point where a question should be posed, pausing the playback and then asking the subject the question. We asked the questions in English or Hausa, sometimes followed by a translation into the local dialect, provided by local interpreters. The subject responded in either the local dialect, Hausa, or English. The response was written down in English, Hausa or Adara. When appropriate, the tester would prompt to clarify if the subject understood that portion of the text. For example, if the subject responded with other elements of the story but not the answer sought by the question, the question was posed again or rephrased slightly. The tester, as well as the interpreter, had to take care not to give away the correct answer in their prompt questioning and interpreting. If there was some distraction during the playback of a portion of the text, such as loud noises, people talking, or the subject had a problem understanding the text the first time, the tester replayed that portion of the text. All such follow-up questions and replays were noted on the answer sheets.

Since the tester is working with a rough transcription of a text in an unfamiliar speech variety, it is possible that the questions devised will not coincide with the text or not appear to be logical to native speakers. The initial fifteen questions were pilot tested with ten speakers of the same speech variety as the story. Questions which elicited unexpected, wrong, and/or inconsistent responses from vernacular speakers were eliminated, and the ten best questions were retained for the final test.

11.2.2 Reliability of the RTT method

The professional term “reliability” means the state of dependability or similarity of test results if a test is repeated. To determine the reliability of the tests we used more than one text, each tested with speakers of other dialects. Thus, three Eneje texts were used to test with speakers of the Ada, Ekhwa, Ajiya, and Adara dialects. This was part of a larger study that included three other language areas besides Adara [Kadara] (Yoder 2014).

11.2.3 Subject selection

For the pilot test we found at least ten subjects of any age (most were young) and gender who were vernacular speakers of that dialect and who were willing to participate.

When administering the actual test, we tested people with as little contact with the other dialect as we could find. The guidelines for acceptable levels of inherent intelligibility are based on testing people with no contact with the other varieties. This is necessary to determine the inherent intelligibility of the test dialect as opposed to intelligibility acquired through contact. Pupils in primary school class 3 (P3) to junior secondary school class 3 (JSS3) were chosen as test subjects. Where possible, we tried to choose subjects in primary school classes P4–P6 or junior secondary school classes 1–3 (JSS1–JSS3). The students in this age range are old enough to have a good command of their own dialect but have not usually had many opportunities to visit other villages. Therefore, they are likely to be those with the least amount of contact with other dialects.

We selected a sample of twenty vernacular speakers of each dialect to listen to the texts. We chose two villages from each dialect area with the exception of Ajiya, and tested ten subjects from each of these villages. Related to the study of the reliability of the RTT, which we mentioned earlier, we selected a different sample of fifteen to twenty subjects each in three villages to listen to the three Eneje texts.

11.2.4 Testing procedure

The testing procedure for the RTT on this survey was in four parts: subject identification and screening, a practice or familiarization test, a “hometown” test, and intelligibility testing. The first phase consisted of

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gathering basic demographic information (age, sex, level of education), verifying that the subject was a vernacular speaker of the dialect of interest (mother and father were both from the dialect area), and screening for contact with the other dialects being tested (subject does not travel to one of the other dialect areas frequently or have close relatives from another dialect). With only a few exceptions (due to a shortage of subjects), all subjects met these criteria.

The second phase was a short practice test in the subject’s own dialect, which served to familiarize the subject with the testing procedure. The practice story was written out by a surveyor and then translated and recorded in order to save time on transcription and to make sure the story contained useful content. Four questions were created for this story. The test was not graded as part of the RTT. This was sometimes played twice if it appeared the subject was beginning to understand the procedure, but had not completely understood. This was done to screen out poor test takers.

The third phase was the hometown test. Each subject was tested using the text in their own dialect first, which served as a further screening procedure. If subjects could not score 85 percent on the test in their own dialect, they were judged incompetent to follow the testing procedure (or incompetent in their vernacular dialect) and no further testing was performed.

The final phase was administering the test in the dialects of interest. After passing the hometown test, each subject was tested on the three other stories. The order in which the other tests were played was rotated in order to avoid any effect on the average scores by testing-fatigue of the subject.

11.2.5 Scoring

For each text, the answers given by the vernacular speakers of that dialect were taken to be correct. Usually, the pilot testers gave consistent answers to each of the ten questions selected for the final test. Occasionally, there was a small range of related answers given by the pilot testers and/or the hometown subjects (e.g., “he is not grown enough” versus “he did not reach age”), and in this case, the entire range of these answers was considered a correct response. Sometimes, a subject would give a response that was partially correct (e.g., correct noun or object but incorrect action, such as: “rain wants to fall” instead of “rain fell”), and such responses were scored as half correct. During the analysis phase of this survey, every response was crosschecked for consistency in scoring.

11.2.6 Post-test questions

Immediately after hearing each story, each subject was asked a series of questions regarding that speech variety:

1. Is the way this man speaks the same as the way you speak, a bit different, or very different? 2. What language was he speaking? 3. How much of the story did you understand: all, most, some, little, or none? 4. Was he easy to understand: easy, not difficult, a bit difficult, not easy, difficult? Carla Radloff (1993) found in a similar survey that the answers to questions like numbers 1 and 3

usually corresponded to intelligibility test results, which supported the tests’ conclusions. Moreover, where responses to these questions differed from the test results, they corresponded to strong attitudes (usually negative) towards the dialects in question. On this survey, question 4 allowed subjects to further clarify their response to question 3. Question 2 revealed whether the subject had had enough contact with the dialect that they had just heard to be able to identify it. Responses to all of these questions can indicate not only the information specifically asked for but also any strong language attitudes.

11.3 Wordlist

We collected a 364-item wordlist in each of the five dialect areas in order to determine cognates that are similar between the dialects. The analysis of these wordlists helps us to identify the dialects that are lexically similar and those that are not.

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Wordlists were elicited to compare how similar the lexicons of each dialect of the area surveyed are to each other. A total of five wordlists (of five dialects) were elicited in five villages—two villages per dialect. The wordlist taken in village A was crosschecked in village B of the same dialect before proceeding to village C to collect a fresh wordlist in a different dialect. However, we did not check the Ajiya wordlist in a second village.

Table 5 below provides more explanation.

Table 5. Where wordlists were elicited and checked

Wordlist/Dialect Elicited at Checked at Adara Rubu Rafin Kunu Ada Ovah Barakwai

Eneje Barga Mai Ido Rafi Ajiya Tudu Iburu Not checked

Ekhwa Sabon Gari Ankwa Ankwa

11.3.1 Wordlist elicitation

The wordlist was based on the one used in surveying the Fali of Mubi LGA, Adamawa State, Nigeria. We elicited a wordlist from a group of three or four residents in each village. The primary informants were males between eighteen and eighty years of age. In most villages onlookers (men and women) besides the primary informants were present during the elicitation. They helped decide which word was the most appropriate in cases where the gloss we elicited could have been expressed by more than one word in the local dialect. In some cases, the primary informant was not able to help with the entire wordlist, so a new person was sought and found from the group of people who were observing.

Wordlists were handwritten on a printed wordlist form, using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). We elicited both singular and plural forms (where applicable) for nouns. Verbs were elicited in “dictionary form” and 3rd person singular past (or perfective) tense, for example: ‘eat’ and ‘he ate’. Adjectives were elicited both in isolation and with an example noun (e.g., ‘long’ and ‘long road’). For documentation purposes, audio recordings of all the words elicited were taken using a ZOOM Handy Recorder H2 recording device, recording singular and plural nouns and adjective and verb forms (both in isolation and in a frame).

All phonetic transcriptions tend to be influenced by the phonology of the transcriber’s language. The transcriptions were done by Carol Magnusson (American English) and Zachariah Yoder (American English). The wordlists were checked, usually by a different surveyor than the original elicitor and/or transcriber. Each word was re-elicited. Items different from the first transcriptions were re-transcribed and re-recorded in order to make each list as reliable as possible in the amount of time available for the survey.

11.3.2 Wordlist comparison

The 364 wordlist items were analyzed using WordSurv 6, a program that calculates the percentage of forms judged to be similar by surveyors. To judge similarity, we typically followed the methodology for comparison (Blair 1990:27–33). In this method, corresponding phones in two words to be compared are classified into three clearly defined categories. Words are only considered similar if at least half the phones in the words are category one (roughly “almost identical”) and no more than a quarter of the phones are category three (roughly “not similar”). For a more detailed explanation of this method, see Blair 1990:27–33.

By collecting the words in singular and plural forms and in contrasting frames, we were usually able to identify the root, and when recognizable only the root was used in the comparison. For example, consider the words for ‘medicine’ shown in table 6; for the sake of comparison, we look only at the root.

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Table 6. Comparing words for ‘medicine’

Dialect Singular Plural Root Grouping Adara okuŋ ekuŋ oku 1 Ada oka eka oka 1

Eneje oka eka oka 1 Ajiya okaŋ ikaŋ oka 1

Ekhwa oga ega oga 1

We first compare the root of all the dialects. When we match the first phones with the first, second with second, we see that Adara, Ada, Eneje, Ajiya and Ekhwa match similarly (so they are in category one). Since more than half of the phones of the two words are category one (in this case 2 out of 2) and less than a quarter are category three (0 out of 2) we conclude words are “similar” and include them in one group.

11.4 Observation

We also used the participant observation method (Spradley 1980) in order to investigate the general language use of the people we visited in each dialect area. Surveyors watched people’s activities and interaction among themselves and listened to the languages they used. Even while working with a group, the facilitators continued to observe how the people used their language and other languages.

11.5 Sampling

We randomly chose the respondents for individual interviews. We met them in informal places and interviewed them. For the RTT testing, we randomly chose a separate group of ten to twenty subjects who had little or no contact with speakers of other Adara dialects.

Our sample consisted of: • Forty respondents each in Kurmin Kare (Ovah), Sabon Gari Ankwa, Barga, and Rubu for

individual interviews.4 • Ten to twenty subjects in each dialect area who have little or no outside contact for the RTT

testing.

11.6 Participatory method

We chose to use the participatory method because it allows speakers of a language to be part of the survey process in identifying the domains in which they use their language and other languages (particularly English and Hausa), and how often they use these languages in their community. The tool also helps speakers to identify their dialects and the names of the villages where their dialects are spoken. Using the tools they are also able to identify the dialects that are very similar to their own and those that are not. This tool is divided into two sections: domains of language use and dialect mapping.

(a) Domains of language use: We asked the speakers to write down the languages that they use in their community, the domain in which the languages are used and how often they use each language. This was done so that we could determine whether the people are still speaking their language or whether they have shifted to speaking another one.

4 Data from individual interviews were not collected at Tudu Iburu.

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(b) Dialect mapping: We asked the speakers to write down the name of their language, its dialects and the names of the villages where their dialects are spoken. Furthermore, we asked them to indicate dialects that are very similar and those that are a bit different. This was done in order to determine the dialect boundaries.

12 Results

12.1 Lexical similarity and interpretation

Blair’s lexical similarity judging standard states that if the results of a wordlist comparison between two speech varieties are greater than sixty percent, then the varieties should be regarded as “similar” and if otherwise “dissimilar” (1990:23–24).

In each of the five dialects we collected a wordlist of 364 items. In all but the Ajiya dialect, this list was re-elicited in a second village to verify that the correct words were transcribed correctly. Similar word forms were identified using the rules described by Blair (1990:27–33). The percentages of similar forms between dialects are shown in table 7.

Table 7. Lexical similarity percentage

Adara dialect (Rafin Kunu) 64% Eneje (Mai Ido Rafi) 57% 70% Ada (Barakwai) 34% 32% 30% Ajiya (Tudu Iburu) (Not checked) 28% 29% 26% 27% Ekhwa (Sabon Gari Ankwa)

From table 7, we can make the following observations: • Ekhwa is a separate language from all the other dialects surveyed (less than 30 percent

similarity). • Ajiya is clearly a very different dialect from Adara dialect, Eneje, Ada, and Ekhwa (less than

35 percent similarity). • Eneje is lexically the most central dialect, having higher similarity with the Adara dialect and

Ada than these two have with each other. • Eneje may be slightly more similar to Ada (70 percent) than to the Adara dialect (64 percent). • The Adara dialect has a rather low similarity with Ada (57 percent). It seems likely that speakers

of these dialects will have difficulty understanding each other.

12.2 Adara [Kadara] dialects for which people can score above 75 percent on RTT

Our original research question sought to determine which dialects speakers of other dialects could score above 75 percent on. Thus, any that cannot succeed in scoring higher than 75 percent are considered to have too low of an intelligibility to use audio or written materials developed in the tested dialect. With reference to section 11.2.3, regarding the question of the reliability of the RTT method, we played one text from each dialect5 to a sample of nine to eleven subjects in five villages, using the text “Eneje Love” to represent Eneje. These results are shown in table 8.

5 We discovered the Ajiya dialect after we had finished testing in most of the other dialects, and so we did not play the Ajiya text for the other dialects.

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Table 8. Test site and recorded text testing percentage

Texts

Dialect

Village

Subjects Adara Eneje Love Ada Ajiya Ekhwa

Adara Rafin Kunu

11 96% 75%a 66%

4%

Eneje Mai Ido Rafi

10 100% 96% 96%

3%

Ada Barakwai

10 75% 70% 98%

6%

Ajiya Tudu Iburu

9 31% 23% 11% 97%

Ekhwa

Ankwa

10 11% 30% 12%

96%

a If the eighth question is removed from the test, the Adara subjects score 79 percent on “Eneje Love.” The other site’s results do not change significantly if this question is removed.

Then, using a different sample of fifteen to twenty subjects in three villages, we tested the three Eneje texts, with the results shown in table 9.

Table 9. Comparing three Eneje texts (different subjects)

Test Sites Texts Dialect Village Subjects Own text “Eneje Love” “Eneje Travel” “Eneje Farm”

Eneje Mai Ido Rafi

10 See 96% 96% 92%

Adara Rafin Kunu

15 97% 80% 76% 64%

Ada Amallea

20 97% 81% 89% 89%

Ekhwa Ankwa

15 99% 24% 7% 5%

a We could not find more than ten subjects who could participate in the research in Barakwai, so we tested the three Eneje texts in a different Ada village.

These two tests did not yield the same results. As seen in table 8, only Eneje subjects were able to score significantly above 75 percent on any text besides their own. In fact, on average they were able to score above 95 percent on both the Adara and Ada dialect texts. The Adara and the Ada subjects did not get a mean score above 75 percent on the Eneje test. The difference may be due to Eneje speakers learning to understand the other varieties (acquired intelligibility; see the comment on contact in section 8.1 as well as the discussion in this section) or it may be that there is an asymmetric inherent intelligibility.

In an attempt to measure contact, we asked the subjects if they could tell where the speaker of each text was from and if they knew anyone from that place. Their answers showed that a few Eneje subjects have contact with the Adara and Ada dialects. If we take into account the second test using the three Eneje texts, we can observe two surprising changes (see table 9). First, when the same “Eneje Love” text was played again for more subjects from the Adara and Ada dialect speakers, a new result, this time higher than 75 percent, was achieved. In addition to this, the Ada subjects scored quite well (89 percent) on the two new Eneje texts. However, the Adara dialect subjects scored lower (76 percent and less) on the new texts.

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Considering the observations made earlier in this section, we can make inferences about which dialects are understood well by speakers of other dialects.

• Considering the low lexical similarity between Ekhwa and Ajiya (see table 7), and the subjects’ low comprehension of other dialects included in this survey, Ekhwa and Ajiya speakers would not be well served by literature in any dialect other than their own. Both Ekhwa and Ajiya dialects will need separate development.

• The Adara dialect text was understood well by Eneje subjects, and marginally (75 percent) by the Ada subjects. Perhaps it could serve all three.

• The Ada text was understood well by Eneje subjects, but the Adara dialect subjects achieved a score of 66 percent which is below the potential intelligibility threshold.

• The Eneje texts produced mixed results (see table 9). Depending on which text test result is considered and which village the subjects are from, the results could indicate that speakers of either Adara dialect or Ada score above 75 percent on Eneje or that speakers from both Adara dialect and Ada or even neither do. Using the more conservative results, we might question whether speakers of either Adara dialect or Ada can understand Eneje well.

13 Findings

The following are the findings of the survey. We found out that five dialect groups claimed to speak the Adara language: Adara dialect, Ada,

Eneje, Ekhwa, and Ajiya. However, lexical similarity comparisons and intelligibility text testing results indicate that Ekhwa and Ajiya are two separate languages. So, the dialects of the Adara language are Adara dialect, Ada and Eneje. Even so, the lexical similarity results indicate that Ada shares more similar words with Eneje (70 percent) than with the Adara dialect (57 percent). Adara, Ada and Eneje speakers reported that they understand the Adara dialect, and the intelligibility test results confirm that the Adara dialect is most understood. Eneje and Ada subjects scored 100 percent and 75 percent respectively on the Adara dialect text.

The Adara dialect is reportedly prestigious and most understood by all, just as indicated in the intelligibility results. These indicators are convincing enough to qualify Adara dialect as the central and best choice for Adara [Kadara] language literature.

Adara [Kadara] children speak their mother tongue in their homes and at play and they also speak Hausa as a second language. The Adara [Kadara] language is still the people’s primary language.

14 Conclusion and recommendation

Based on the lexical similarity, the intelligibility results and the interview responses of some individuals, it seems the Adara, Ada and Eneje dialects are similar and people of these dialect groups could possibly use the same literature. Furthermore, all the interviewees from these three dialects appeared to exhibit positive attitudes towards the Adara dialect as their preference for development. They feel that the Adara dialect is generally the best understood and easiest to learn among these dialects. In fact, even songs in the Adara dialect are reportedly understood and appreciated by the speakers of the other two dialects. Therefore, our first suggestion is that the Adara dialect should be developed to serve not only speakers of the Adara dialect but also those of the Eneje and Ada dialects.

Table 8 indicates that Eneje speakers understand the Adara dialect well, while Ada speakers may need some time to get used to it.

Since work in the Ada dialect is reportedly in progress, and it appears that Ada speakers may need some time to perfect their understanding of the Adara dialect, we make the alternative suggestion that the Ada dialect may also be developed alongside the Adara dialect. If the Ada dialect is developed, some Eneje speakers may prefer to use that instead of the Adara dialect.

The Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects appear to be very different from the others and from each other. We therefore suggest that they should each have separate literature.

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The vitality of all the Adara dialects seems to be high. All the dialects are spoken fluently in every domain by all age categories. There is some level of literacy in English and Hausa which could be built on. In terms of project support, there appears to be a great deal of enthusiasm.

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Appendix A: Ada of Kaduna Wordlist

Languagevillage

Ada Ovah Ada Barakwai

Date 02March2011 12March2011

Givenlanguagename

Ada Ada‐Check

Givenvillagename

Ovah Barakwai

LGA Kachia Paikoro

State Kaduna Niger

Informant SB PA

Age 25 47

Sex M M

Reliability: good good

Elicitedby: CM CM

OtherInformanʦ: DG,28,M DM,49,M

Language (village) Ada (Ovah) Ada (Barakwai)

No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg.1 hair none unsɛɾɛcʷɛ əsɛɾɛcʷe unsɛɾɛcʷɛ

2 head ɛcʷɛ acʷɛ ɛcʷɛ acʷɛ

3 forehead mbɛkɛ umbɛkɛ mbɛkɛ umbɛkɛ

4 ear ɔːtɔŋ aːtɔŋ ɔːtɔŋ aːtɔŋ

5 mouth ɔːnu ɔːnu ɔːnu ɔːnu

6 tooth idʒri edʒɾi idʒri edʒɾi

7 tongue iːno iːno iːno iːno

8 saliva ɛkpɛ none ɛkpɛ none

9 sweat iːdo none iːdo none

10 chin ocʷo ocʷo ocʷo none

11 beard unfocʷo none unfocʷo none

12 nose uᵏpɛwɛ akpɛwɛ ukpelo akpelo

13 eye ijɛ ajɛ ɪridʒre ɪɾidʒ̠re

15 teardrop ajɛ none adɛn none

16 neck ɑnta anta ontoh antoh

17 shoulder obʷe ɑbʷe obʷige abʷige

19 belly ofo̚ ɑfo etuŋ none

20 navel iko nko iko none

21 stomach omofo ɑmɑfo aʲki none

22 intestines onɑ ænæ onɑ ænæ

23 back epetʃe none ɛtʃɾi none

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24 knee uŋbun oŋbun uŋbun oŋbun 25 leg ofɾa afɾa ofɾa afɾa 26 foot apɛnpʰofɾa apampʰafɾa apɛnpʰofɾa apampʰafɾa 27 shoes opula aᵏpala opula aᵏpala 28 thigh okɾo akɾo okɾo akɾo 29 arm onʲe anʲe onʲe anʲe 31 finger eɾenje eɾenje eɾenje eɾenje 32 fingernail eŋbenje eŋbenje eŋbenje eŋbenje 33 skin eta eta etaŋ (none) 34 bone ukʷo okʷo ukʷo okʷo 35 blood eʒi (none) eʒi (none) 36 heart ɛhɾʷɛkɾu (none) ɛhɾʷɛkɾu (none) 38 liver ɛhɾʷɛ ɛhɾʷɛ ɛhcʷe (none) 38.5 body ɛgbɛna ɛgbɛna ɛgbɛna (none) 40 tree eki eki eki eki 41 firewood okoŋ ɛko okoŋ ɛko 42 bush onum onum onbo anbo 43 forest akɾo akɾo akɾo akɾo 44 bark uŋbaki aŋbaki aŋbagarə (none) 46 root ona ana ona ana 47 branch ongaki angaki ongaki angaki 48 medicine oka eka oka eka 49 thorn okɛn akɛn okɛn akɛn 50 rope iwɛ iwɛ iwɛ iwɛ 51 basket ɛnzɛ onzɛ ɛnzɛ onzɛ 52 clothing onkʲoʃe onkʲotʃe onkʲoʃe onkʲotʃe 53 seed eɾa eɾa ɛntɾetɾo ontɾetɾo 54 ax ɛnfo onfo ɛnfo onfo 55 cutlass HAUSA HAUSA HAUSA HAUSA 56 hoe akala akala akala akala 57 and akala ka adda (na) akala ka adda (na) 58 leaf oza aza oza aza 59 ground nut ɛcɾa,ɛtʃɾa ɛcɾa ɛcɾa,ɛtʃɾa (none) 60 bambura nut ɛtasɛ (none) ɛtasɛ ɛtasɛ 61 guinea corn aja (none) okɾu (none) 62 locust bean tree ɛɸɾa (none) ɛkɾa (none) 64 millet ɛndo̚ (none) ɛndo̚ (none) 65 zobo leaf aŋbabuʷu (none) ɛzikʲo (none) 68 shea butter ilije ilije ɪlige ɪlige 69 mohogany akʷo akʷo akʷo akʷo 70 grass õmbo ambo õmbo (none)

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71 grass, dry õmbo kʷo ambo kʷo õmbo kʷo (none) 72 weed (none) (none) (none) (none) 73 flower ifuwo õnfuwo unfuwo õnfuwo 74 fruit ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki 75 meat ɛnam ɛnam ɛnam (none) 76 fat ɛpoh ompoh ɛpoh (none) 77 egg ɛkpa akpa ɛkpa akpa 78 bean ido ido ido ido 79 fufu ɛʃɛ onʃɛ ɛʃɛ onʃɛ 80 soup untʃɛ (none) uncʷi (none) 81 cough ikulo (none) ikulo (none) 82 pain ulo ilo olo (none) 82.5 corpse okɾo akɾo okɾo (none) 83 grave itu itu itu itu 84 one izu (na) izu (na) 85 two epuwa (na) epuwa (na) 86 three eta (na) eta (na) 87 four enaŋ (na) enaŋ (na) 88 five itoŋ (na) itoŋ (na) 89 six ike (na) ike (na) 90 seven itumpuwa (na) itumpuwa (na) 91 eight enaːna (na) enaːna (na) 92 nine ituna (na) ituna (na) 93 ten okoʰ (na) okoʰ (na) 94 twelve okoʰ lɛpuwa (na) okoʰ lɛpuwa (na) 94.5 fifteen okoʰ letoŋ (na) okoʰ letoŋ (na) 95 twenty ɛkwɛpuwa (na) ɛkwɛpuwa (na) 96 hundred atɛlɛ (na) atɛlɛ (na) 97 woman anʃɛ aʃɛ anʃɛ aʃɛ 98 man ɛnki eki ɛnki eki 100 person andah ada ɛnji ɛnjitɾi 102 wedding obɾa abɾa obɾa (none) 102 father ekije ekije ekije ekije 105 mother eja eje eja eje 106 child areŋ are areŋ are 107 brother ewedʒim ewedʒim ewedʒim ewedʒim 108 sister afuwom afuwom afuwom afuwom 111 chief agoŋ agoŋ agoŋ agoŋ 112 friend onusɛm onusɛm onusɛm onusɛm 113 stranger oːsoŋ oːsoŋ oːsoŋ oːsoŋ 114 God onum̚ (none) onum̚ (none)

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115 name ontuwa (none) ontuwa (none) 116 animal onijatʃa (none) oŋketɾaŋ (none) 118 pig ubusuɾum obusuɾum ubusuɾum obusuɾum 119 tail utʃi etʃi utɾi etɾi 122 fly ensuŋ ẽsisuŋ ensuŋ ẽsisuŋ 123 spider agiᵉ agiᵉ agiᵉ agiᵉ 124 mosquito evoh evoh evoh evoh 129 honeybee eɸo eɸo eɸo eɸo 130 honey etoh (none) etoŋ (none) 131 goat abo abo abo abo 132 horn etũwa atũwa etũwa atũwa 133 cow ɛlõw ɛlõw ɛlõw ɛlõw 134 sheep atɛ̃ atɛ̃ atɛ̃ atɛ̃ 135 crocodile aːkwõ aːkwõ aːkwõ aːkwõ 137 chicken ãno ãno arano ãno 138 guinea fowl oɸo aɸo oɸo aɸo 139 bird aɾɛno aɾono aɾɛno aɾono 140 claw ampɾa ampɾa akɛn akɛn 141 wing ufɾu ofɾu ufɾu ofɾu 142 feather ifu̚ ũfu ifu̚ iŋu 143 snake ɛ̃wɛ ɛ̃wɛ ɛ̃wɛ ɛ̃wɛ 144 tortoise ekɾu ekɾu ekɾu ekɾu 145 rat iːki iːki iːki iːki 146 scorpion ena ena ena ena 147 fish arevo̚ arevo arevo̚ arevo 148 toad aɸᵛʷɾa aɸᵛʷɾa aⁱɸirə aⁱɸirə 150 buffalo ɛkuwa ɛkuwa ɛkuwa ɛkuwa 151 elephant ɛnka ɛnka ɛnka ɛnka 154 hyena ɛkɾo õŋkɾo ɛkɾo õŋkɾo 155 dog ava ava ava ava 156 house/hut abaŋ abaŋ abaŋ abaŋ 157 room ũŋko õŋko ũŋko õŋko 158 fence ugbɛl̆ɛ egbɛl̆ɛ ugbɛl̆ɛ egbɛl̆ɛ 159 road/path õŋtʃãŋ ɛŋtʃãŋ õŋtʃãŋ ɛŋtʃãŋ 160 pit ukpo okpo ukpo okpo 161 farm (field) onum onum onum onum 162 at ko mabaŋ ko mabaŋ omabaŋ (de) 163 door anjatija atija anjatija atija 164 chair/stool ɛntɾetʃo ontʃɔtʃɔ ɛntɾetʃo ontʃɔtʃɔ 165 salt onija (none) onliga (none) 166 broom ɛndʒɛ ondʒɛ ɛndʒe ɛndʒe

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167 mortar otʃo otʃo utʃu otʃu 168 pestle aɾa aɾa aɾa aɾa 169 fire ola ela ola ela 170 smoke n̩sung (none) n̩sung (none) 171 ashes anʃɾola (none) oŋtõ (none) 172 stick abːa abːa abːa abːa 173 stone ɛntʃitʃe ontʃutʃə ɛntɾa ontɾotɾa 174 cave ukpote okpote ofopaʰ afapaʰ 175 mountain ɔnko anko ɔnko anko 176 earth, ground ɛːbo ombo ɛːbo (none) 177 mud H utubu (none) H utubu (none) 178 clay itom untom itom (none) 179 sand iʃe (none) iʃe (none) 180 dust unvʷi (none) unvʷi (none) 181 money ikĭli ikĭli ikĭli ikĭli 182 iron ojiɾə ajiɾə ojiɾə ajiɾə 184 market iːze iːze iːze iːze 185 wind uruᵑ (none) uruᵑ (none) 186 cloud amɛn amɛn ɛnkʷĩ (none) 187 rain evɾa (none) evɾa (none) 188 rainy season ekɾo onkɾo ekɾo (none) 189 dry season ewo (none) ewo (none) 190 dew omwo (none) omwo (none) 191 stream igo n̩go igo (none) 192 river udjɾi (none) udʒɾi (none) 193 canoe okpambɾe ekpambɾe okpambɾe ekpambɾe 194 bridge ɛndᶾɾə ondᶾɾə ɛndᶾɾə ondᶾɾə 195 water ambɾe (none) ambɾe (none) 196 lake uŋkpo oŋkpo uŋkpo oŋkpo 197 sky apɾemin (none) apɾemin (none) 198 moon opɾe apɾe opɾe apɾe 199 star eɾinkɛn oɾunkɛn eɾinkɛn oɾunkɛn 200 sun onːum (none) onːum (none) 201 year aːme aːme aːme aːme 202 morning otuɾəmbo (none) otuɾəmbo oturəmbo 203 afternoon aɽe (none) aɽe (none) 204.1 evening anle (none) anle (none) 205.1 night otu otu otu (none) 206 yesterday õle (none) õle (none) 207 tomorrow ombu (none) ombu (none) 208 knife ɛ̃n̥ɸ̥̃ɾə õn̥fɸ̥ɾə ɛ̃n̥ɸ̥̃ɾə õn̥fɸ̥ɾə

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208.1 my bow oːtəm (na) oːtam (na) 208.2 your oːtəŋ (na) ota umʷɛm (na) 208.3 his oːtag̥a (na) otaŋ (na) 208.4 her oːtag̥a (na) (none) (na) 208.5 our oːtanji (na) etanji (na) 208.6 your (pl) (same as 208.02) (na) etawo (na) 208.7 their oːtawɒ (na) eːtawɒ (na) 209 bow oːtə eːtə oːta (na) 210 arrow ecɾa oncɾa ecɾa acɾa 211 quiver okum okum okum okum 212 spear okɾe akɾe okɾe akɾe 213 war okwɪnona (none) okwɪnona (none) 214 who? ẽːna wõẽːna? ẽːna ɛnosɛŋa 215 whose? oBibleõweŋgaʷne? (de) (de) 216 what? unseⁱwɪn unsuwa? (de) (de) 217 when? ulubo uluboweŋabaʷ? (de) (de) 218 where? okoʷã koloŋkʷa? (de) (de) 219 here koŋkʷɛn õwɛn (de) (de) 220 how? kemːalajə kemːalotʷãso? (de) (de) 221 why? sabuse? nsaⁱwɔsoŋaba? (de) (de) 222 ripe obɾa (na) obɾa (na) 223 rotten oʃawa (na) aⁱʃaⁱja (na) 224 hungry ewo (na) ewo (na) 225 hot opje (na) afɪn (na) 226 cold/cool oɾaŋ (na) oɾaŋ (na)

227 cold (same as cold/cool) (na)

(same as cold/cool) (na)

228 smooth odedɾe (na) odedɾe (na) 229 white okᵘki (na) okᵘki (na) 230 black otʃutʃi (na) otʃutʃi (na) 231 dark itum (na) itum (na) 232 red ususo (na) ususo (na) 233 sharp ona (na) ona (na) 234 dull osowonama (na) ɛsɛgɛnama (na) 235 evil anehkɾɛbibi (na) anehkɾɛbibi (na) 236 good agjaguwa (na) agjaguwa (na) 237 many ukɾe (na) ukɾe (na) 238 wide upɛsi (na) upɛsi (na) 239 narrow nanoᵊ (na) nanoᵊ (na) 240 straight naʃe (na) naʃe (na) 241 crooked ugun (na) ugun (na) 243 long ɛgbɾa (na) ɛgbɾa (na)

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244 short okuku (na) okuku (na) 246 thick omumuⁱ (na) osolulu (na) 247 thin opopʷɛ (na) sɛrencre (na) 248 heavy olulo (na) olulo (na) 249 light osɛsɛgʰe (na) osɛsɛgʰe (na) 250 old okokɾə (na) okokɾə (na) 251 new opopɾə (na) opopɾə (na) 252 left ipɾe (na) iŋipɾe (na) 253 right ejə (na) ejə (na) 254 yes ɛ̃ː (na) ɛ̃ː (na) 255 no kaⁱ (na) kaⁱ (na) 256 hard sɛkpɛpua (na) umumᶢɪɾi (na) 257 soft usuarata (na) onnɛɾe (na) 258 few nakpaɸɛɾɛ (na) oɸɛ (na) 259 up apɾe (na) apɾe (na) 260 down ɛːbo (na) ilu (na) 261 wet ̃õkʲeola (na) ola (na) 262 dry õkʲeonkʷo (na) onkʷo (na) 263 dirty ilːuwe (na) otuwa (na) 264 all neduwə̃ (na) ididu (na) 265 I mi (na) imi (na) 266 you õŋã (na) õŋã (na) 267 he ãŋã (na) ẽŋã (na) 268 she anʃela (na) aɾaʃe (na) 269 we ɪnʲi (na) ɪndʒi (na) 271 you unu (na) unu (na) 272 they amăla (na) amăla (na) 274 blow opɛh apɛh opɛh apɛh 275 whistle iɸu aʃeiɸu iɸu oʃɛmbu 275.5 sing otante atante ante alatante 276 eat ja oja aⁱja alaja 276.01 I ate maⁱja (na) malaⁱjə (na) 276.02 you ate onaⁱja (na) maⁱjə (na) 276.03 you (f) ate anʃeja (na) anʃejə (na) 276.04 he ate oja (na) ɛnaŋaⁱjə (na) 276.05 she ate anʃeja (na) anʃejə (na) 276.06 we ate injajə (na) indʒaⁱjə (na) 276.08 they ate ɛmaja (na) ɛmaja (na) 276.10 you (pl) ate onaⁱəledun (na) indʒaⁱjə (na) 276.11 he is eating akojonkʲoja (na) ɛŋjasonkʲojə (na) 276.12 he will eat aloja (na) aloja (na)

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276.13 he usually eat akaⁱja (na) aloⁱjə (na) 276.14 he didn't eat asojamma (na) asojamma (na) 276.5 do du odu odu olodu 277 dance ota ata ota alata 278 play ovivili avivili ovivili alavivili 279 smell onja onjʷun onja onjʷun 280 see ʃi eʃi ʃi oləʃi 281 laugh okɾo akɾo okɾo alakɾo 282 say aʃe apɛʃi aʃe alaʃi 283 ask uluwe eluwe uluwe eleuwe 284 beg owã awə owã alawə 285 listen njɛnato aŋjɛnato njɛnato alanjɛnato 286 hear okoᵑ akoᵑ okoᵑ alakoŋ 287 bark ugbɾe ogbɾe ugbɾe olɛgbɾe 288 shout okɛ̚kpa atɛ̚kpa okɛ̚kpa alatɛ̚kpa 289 cry utɾi etɾe utɾi ɛlitɾe 290 fear okibo ekibo ukibu alakibu 291 want oni eni ni ələni 292 think orekɾe arekɾe orekɾe alarekɾe 293 count opuə apuə opuə alapuə 294 know ozə azə aza aza 295 teach ulolo ololo ululo olululo 296 show oniᵘŋ eniᵘŋ oniᵘŋ elɪniᵘŋ 297 drink oɸa aɸa oɸa alaɸa 298 suck oʃʷom aʃʷom oŋa alaŋa 300 vomit uhʷo ohʷu uhʷo alahʷo 301 spit otakpe atakpe otakpe alatakpe 302 sneeze ɛndiʃa atandiʃa ɛndiʃa alatandiʃa 303 bite onwa anwa onwa alanwa 304 sweep oze aze oze alaze 305 sit otʃɛtʃa atʃɛtʃa otɾɪtɾa alatɾɪtɾa 306 stand njinjə anjinjə njinjə alanjɪnjə 307 fight okwɛn akwɛn okwɛn alakwɛn 308 lie down naw anaŋa naw alaŋa 309 yawn oŋanu aŋanu oŋanu olaŋanu 310 rest utɾɪm etɾɪm utɾɪm eletɾɪm 311 sleep ona anɔna ona alanona 312 wash uhulo ohulo uhulo olohulu 313 wash-clothes (same) (na) (same) (na) 314 bathe otʃam atʃam otɾum alatɾum 315 steal utuwo edʒetuwo uᵗʃu uᵗʃu

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316 give oma ama oma alamu 317 hide uje eje uje eleje 318 take n̩n̩ẽ ãŋẽ oŋwe alaŋwe 319 hold ukoʰ okoʰ ukoʰ olukoʰ 320.1 buy olo̚ alo̚ olo̚ alalo 321.1 sell uʈɾo oʈɾo uʈɾo oluʈɾu 322 give birth ubijo obijo ubijo alobijo 323 marry obɾa olobɾa obɾa alakobɾa 324 die uk� po ok� poŋ uk� po oluk� po 325 kill opɾe apɾe opɾe alakpɾe 326 fall ok� pao ok� pao ok� pao ok� pao 327 fall over ok� pa ok� pa ok� pa ok� pa 328 walk ososuŋ ososuŋ ososuŋ olusosuŋ 329 run utito etito utito ɛletito 330 fly ufɾu ofɾu ufɾu olufɾu 331 jump oːfili eːfili utikpɾifu ofɾu 332 swim owo awo owo alawo 333 come ba aːba ba alaba 334 enter onjⁱɾə anjʳɾə onjⁱɾə alanjiɾə 335 exit tʃo ofʃo utɾiti olutɾitri 336 go k� po kaŋ ok� po kaŋ k� po kaŋ olok� pukaŋ 337 follow iɾɛnka iɾɛnka uɾika ɛlɛrika 338 send tũwə atuwə tũwə alatũwə̃ 339 cut fa afa fa alafo 340 break owe awe owe alawe 341 split otɾə atɾə osa alasa 342 scratch okăla akăla okăla alakălu 343 cook okʲe akʲe okʲe alakʲe 343.5 boil opija apija ufɪn ələfɪn 343.6 fry okɾa akɾa okɾã alakɾã 344 hunt uti igbe eti igbe uti igbe eleti igbe 344.5 hunter ɛgbɛᵑ (na) ɛgbɛᵑ (de) 345 hit ola ala okə̆la olakə̆la 346 tie ulo olo ulo olulo 347 sew otŭwə atuwə otŭwə alatuwə 348 forge okiʲə akiʲə (de) (de) 348.5 blacksmith akujə (de) akujə (de) 349 burn uhrum̥ (de) ufu (de) 350 throw ota (de) ota (de) 351 pour onʷⁱiraŋ (de) nɛno (de) 352 pour out ʃe.bo (de) onɛno (de)

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354 fill okʷoŋ (de) okʷoŋ (de) 355 push otaŋjiᵒ (de) uze (de) 356 pull uwo (de) uwo (de) 357 squeeze okʲun (de) oma (de) 358 dig utu (de) utu (de) 359 plant utʃuwe (de) utʃuwe (de) 361 harvest owa (de) oɾa (de) Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my... (na)=not applicable aso=present tense (de)=didn't elicit ako=past tense

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Appendix B: Ankwa of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Ankwa SabonGari Ankwa Ankwa

Date 04March2011 10March2011

Givenlanguagename Ankwa Ankwa‐Check

Givenvillagename SabonGariAnkwa Ankwa

LGA Kachia Kachia

State Kaduna Kaduna

Informant JM SA

Age 36 38

Sex M M

Reliability: good

Elicitedby: CMandZY CM

OtherInformanʦ: YS,32,M

Language (village) Ankwa (Sabon Gari) Ankwa (Ankwa) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg.1 hair ensɛlɛcʷeː onsɛlɛcʷɛ ensɛlɛcʷeː onsɛlɛcʷɛ

2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe

3 forehead ikpoʃo omkpoʃo ikpoʃo omkpoʃo

4 ear oto ato oto ato

5 mouth õnjõ õnjõ õnjõ õnjõ

6 tooth injɛne enjɛne injɛne enjɛne

7 tongue ɛɾle ũɾule ɛɾle ɛɾle

8 saliva ekpʰi none ekpʰi none

9 sweat opʰiɛɾ none opʰiɛɾ apʰiɛɾ

10 chin ikpɛndɛre ukpɛndɛɾe ikpɛndɛre ekpɛndɛɾe

11 beard icʷoŋjo ucʷuŋjo icʷoŋjo ucʷuŋjo

12 nose ɛnʃɛwo oŋʃowo ɛʃeo oŋʃowo

13 eye ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze

15 teardrop eːzi eːdʒi eːzi eːdʒi

16 neck ogor agor ogor agor

17 shoulder oŋkʲe aŋkʲe oŋkʲe aŋkʲe

19 belly ata.ɛnje atonje ata.ɛnje atonje

20 navel iku uŋku iku uŋku

21 stomach enʲe onʲe aⁱəɾeŋi onʲe

22 intestines igɛɾɛ ungɛɾɛ igɛɾɛ ungɛɾɛ

23 back ɛgo oŋgo ɛgo oŋgo

24 knee utʃuroɾo otʃoroɾo utʃuroɾo otʃoroɾo

25 leg obra abra obra abra

26 foot ompabra ampabra ompabra ampabra

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27 shoes otikə atikə otikə atikə 28 thigh ohʷa ahʷa okhʷa akhwa 29 arm ovo avo ovo avo 31 finger emvo omavo emɛmvo amomvo 32 fingernail əkjoᵐ oŋkjoᵐ əkjoᵐ oŋkjoᵐ 33 skin əta ətaː əta ətaː 34 bone uhʷo ohʷo uhʷo ohʷo 35 blood eji (none) eji (none) 36 heart iːɸi uŋɸi iːɸi icɸi 38 liver oje aje oje aje 38.5 body ɛnum onum ɛnum onum 40 tree oʃe aʃe oʃe aʃe 41 firewood ohwo ɛhwo ohwo ɛhwo 42 bush oɾumo oɾumo oɾumo oɾumo 43 forest oɾumaʃe oŋkuɾo oɾumaʃe (none) 44 bark õnfɛn ãnfɛn oguʃe ogʷaʃe 46 root engɛne engɛne engɛne engɛne 47 branch ɛne one ane ane 48 medicine oga ega oga ega 49 thorn ogan agan ogan agan 50 rope iwe iwe iwe iwe 51 basket ɛmbɛre ombɛre ɛmbɛre ombɛre 52 clothing onga (none) onga (none) 53 seed ewo ewo ewo ewo 54 ax andum andum andum andum 55 cutlass ahoɾa.awaʃe onhoɾa.awaʃe ahoɾa.awaʃe onhoɾa.awaʃe 56 hoe okpolə akpalə okpolə akpalə

57 and okpolə na hoɾa.awaʃe (na) same "na" (na)

58 leaf oja aⁱja oja aⁱja 59 ground nut ivi ivi ivi umvi 60 bambura nut ivahʷa ivahʷa ivakʷa umvakʷa 61 guinea corn ogro (none) ogro (none) 62 locust bean tree iwulu (none) iwulu iwulu 64 millet anuma (none) anuma anuma 65 zobo leaf ubowo ubowo obuwᵒ obuʷᵒ 68 shea butter ijo ijo ijo iju 69 mohogany (none) (none) oko ako 70 grass inʃi ɛnʃi inʃi ɛnʃi 71 grass, dry (same) ɛnʃi akɾako (same) ɛnʃi akɾako 72 weed (same) (none) ombije (none) 73 flower umplo omplo umpŭlo ompŭlo

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74 fruit itʃumaʃɛ itʃimoʃɛ ikuɾaʃe ikuɾaʃe 75 meat ɛnom ɛnom ənum ənum 76 fat ekɹom ekɹom ekɹom ekɹom 77 egg ɛkpa akpa ɛkpa akpa 78 bean unʃe (none) unʃe unʃe 79 fufu eɟɛ (none) egʲe oŋgʲe 80 soup oɲɛ (none) oɲɛ oŋje 81 cough unkai (none) unkai ɛnkai 82 pain ornə (none) ornə (none) 82.5 corpse ohʷo ɛhʷko ohʷo ɛhʷo 83 grave itu untu itu itu 84 one ji (na) iː (na) 85 two baⁱ (na) baⁱ (na) 86 three tar (na) etar (na) 87 four nane (na) enane (na) 88 five tuː (na) itu (na) 89 six tan (na) etan (na) 90 seven tancə (na) etancə (na) 91 eight nanane (na) enenane (na) 92 nine əɾaᵘ (na) əɾaᵘokoh (na) 93 ten okoʰ (na) okoʰ (na) 94 twelve okoʰnabaⁱ (na) okoʰnabaⁱ (na) 94.5 fifteen okoʰnotu (na) okoʰnitu (na) 95 twenty ekebaⁱ (na) ekebaⁱ (na) 96 hundred ɛdɛɾi (na) ɛdɛɾi (na) 97 woman enɪŋene eŋɪne enɪŋene eŋɪne 98 man ənaten atɛn ənaten atɛn 100 person adăɾə adaɾə adăɾə adaɾə 102 wedding ebaⁱ uɹolumbaⁱ ebaⁱ umbai 102 father ɛte eːte ɛte eːte 105 mother aŋjinə aːŋjinə aŋjinə aːŋjinə 106 child awʰe ahʷe awʰe ahʷe 107 brother ewɪ̃ⁿɪnɛ ewẽⁿɪnɛ ewɪ̃ⁿɪnɛ ewẽⁿɪnɛ 108 sister afɛn afɛn afɛn afɛn 111 chief agwa agwa agwa agwa 112 friend onoru onoru onoru onoru 113 stranger oɟ̹o, odʒ̹o odʒo oɟ̹o, odʒ̹o odʒo 114 God oŋbɛ (none) oŋbɛ (none) 115 name oŋsə aŋsɛ oŋsə aŋsɛ 116 animal ɛnumoromu ɛnumoramu ɛnumoromu ɛnumoramu 118 pig uɾum ɛgbɛ oɾum ɛːgbɛ uɾum ɛgbɛ oɾum ɛːgbɛ

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119 tail ekʲɛn aŋkʲɛn ekʲɛn aŋkʲɛn 122 fly odʒ̠udʒu oːdʒudʒu odʒu oːdʒudʒu 123 spider oːpantɾe aːpantʃe oːpantɾe aːpantʃe 124 mosquito ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ 129 honeybee ɛsoʰ ɛsoʰ ɛsoʰ oŋsoʰ 130 honey atoʰ (none) atoʰ (none) 131 goat avo avo avo avo 132 horn ɛntuma atuma ɛntuma ontuma 133 cow ɛna ɛna ɛna ɛna 134 sheep antom antom antom antom 135 crocodile ogʷe egʷe ogʷe egʷe 137 chicken ãno ãno ãno ãno 138 guinea fowl uzo ozo uzo ozo 139 bird ɛno õno ɛno awono 140 claw ɛmpʲo ompʲo ekʲom aŋkjom 141 wing ovo.ɛno avo.ɛ̆no opepʲɛʰ apapɛh 142 feather opɛʰ apapɛʰ apɛh apapɛʰ 143 snake ewo ewo ewo ewo 144 tortoise ikru ikru ikru ikru 145 rat iːk� pʰi iːk� pʰi iːk� pʰi iːk� pʰi 146 scorpion ɛːna ɛːna ɛːna ɛːna 147 fish ɛnkʲo onkʲo ɛnkʲo onkʲo 148 toad orːe arːe orːe arːe 150 buffalo ɛkawe ɛkaːwe ɛkawe ɛkaːwe 151 elephant ɛŋka oŋka ɛŋka oŋka 154 hyena ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə 155 dog ɛnvə onvə ɛnvə onvə 156 house/hut ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ 157 room odo ado odo ado 158 fence opaŋ apaŋ opaŋ apaŋ 159 road/path odʒa adʒa odɾa adɾa 160 pit opolo apulo opolo apulo 161 farm (field) oɾumo (none) oɾumo orum 162 at ɛjɛgbɛ (na) asaɛjɛgbe (na) 163 door oŋʲodo oŋʲado oŋʲodo oŋʲado 164 chair/stool ik� pik� po unk� pok� po ik� pok� po ik� pok� po 165 salt õno (none) õno (none) 166 broom ejilɛh oŋjilɛh ejilɛh oŋjilɛh 167 mortar iːdu undu iːdu undu 168 pestle owodu owodu owodu owodu 169 fire ɛndə ondə ɛndə ondə

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170 smoke undʒo (none) undʒo (none) 171 ashes untoʰ ontoʰ untoʰ ontoʰ 172 stick ɛɾale unɾalɛ ɛmba omba 173 stone otaⁱ ataⁱ otaⁱ ataⁱ 174 cave ote ate ote ate 175 mountain opa apa opa apa 176 earth, ground ɛbije (none) ɛbije (none) 177 mud iɾɛli (none) iɾɛli (none) 178 clay ɛzɛʰ (none) ɛzɛʰ (none) 179 sand ige (none) ige (none) 180 dust unvɪn (none) unvɪn (none) 181 money õfɛʰ (none) õfɛʰ (none) 182 iron ɛdom ɛdom ɛdom ondom 184 market atʷe (none) ag�beze (none) 185 wind uᶉo (none) uᶉo (none) 186 cloud umi emi umi emi 187 rain oʲjaʰ (none) oʲjaʰ (none) 188 rainy season egolo oŋgolo egolo oŋgolo 189 dry season ewoʰ oŋwoʰ ewoʰ oŋwoʰ 190 dew ume (none) ume (none) 191 stream akɾo akɾo akɾo akɾo 192 river uŋjine ɛŋjine uŋjine ɛŋjine 193 canoe udʒiɾgi ɛmɛtʃi idʒiɾgi ɛmɛtʃi ukpo okpo 194 bridge ogada egada odɛɾ adɛɾ 195 water ɛmɛtʃi (none) ɛmɛtʃi (none) 196 lake oloko aloko okʷoⁱmutʃi okʷoⁱmutʃi 197 sky aⁱjə (none) ukpume (none) 198 moon oːtə (none) oŋokwe oɾoɾe (none) 199 star ondɾe andɾe ondɾe andɾe 200 sun ombeʰ (none) ombeʰ (none) 201 year owe ewe owe ewe 202 morning odudɾe egʷigʷe odudɾe egʷigʷe 203 afternoon atʃari (none) atʃari (none) 204.1 evening ontoɾe antoɾe ontoɾe antoɾe 205.1 night ugʷe egʷe ugʷe egʷe 206 yesterday kore (none) kore (none) 207 tomorrow ofukʲia (none) ofukʲia (none) 208 knife ɛnkwuɾə onkwuɾə ɛnkwuɾə onkwuɾə 208.1 my bow otaⁱ (na) otaⁱ (na) 208.2 your otaʷ (na) otaʷ (na) 208.3 his otaŋ (na) otaŋ (na)

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208.4 her otaŋ (na) otaŋ (na) 208.5 our otan.n�de (na) otan.n�de (na) 208.6 your (pl) otanjo (na) otanjo (na) 208.7 their otama (na) otama (na) 209 bow otaʰ ataʰ otaʰ ataʰ 210 arrow akɛra (de) akʲɛɾa okʲɛɾa 211 quiver ɪnturu unturu ɪnturu unturu 212 spear ɛkoŋ oŋkoŋ ɛkoŋ oŋkoŋ 213 war ogon (none) ogon egon 214 who? (de) oŋoiŋbom (de) iŋboanɛne

215 whose? (de) iŋbom asunooBiblekɪn (de)

iŋbeɲasɛne ɛnganjɛn

216 what? (de) inkjomɛnɛ (de) inkjɛmumɛne 217 when? (de) okjotukaba (de) okjuɾotu 218 where? (de) kɪnni (de) kɪmbi 219 here (de) kɛmɛn (de) mɛn 220 how? (de) jaotuma (de) inkjumːo 221 why? ɛnco ɔba (de) kɛnkje 222 ripe ɔkɔbɾa itʃimaʃekɔbɾa obɾa (na) 223 rotten ovɔ itʃimaʃɛkovɔ uʃowe (na) 224 hungry ɛyɔ (na) ejo (na) 225 hot oŋkpam emetʃi saŋkpam opije (na) 226 cold/cool ɔflɛ ɛmɛtʃɔflɛ ɔflɛ (na) 227 cold (de) (de) ucʷe (na) 228 smooth ɛŋgɔdɔdɔr otaiɔdɔdɔr ɛŋgɔdɔdɔr (na) 229 white eŋaɔval otai oval ɔval (na) 230 black eŋguolup otai ublup ɪtʃitʃi (na) 231 dark uɟʷɛ uɟʷe utʃitʃi uɟʷɛ (na) 232 red ŋgoŋcoŋ otai oncoŋ oŋcoŋ (na) 233 sharp (de) ɛŋhoɾoŋza ondʒa (na) 234 dull (de) (de) ɛndʒanjamwa (na) 235 evil ibzibzi ancʷibzibzi ekɾɪli (na) 236 good ɛgjom anaɟagjom egjegjom (na) 237 many anaɾɛ adɾa saɾe osoŋɾɛ (na) 238 wide ɔɾɔɾai ɔdʒɔ ɔɾɔɾai ɔɾɔɾai (na) 239 narrow upɾupɾi ɔdʒu upɾupɾi owʰale (na) 240 straight ɛdʒi ɔdʒɔdʒɛ utitubo (na) 241 crooked ɛŋgɔgɾɔgɾai ɔdʒɔɾɔgɾai ugegɛmi (na) 243 long ɛdʒi ɔdʒɔdʒɛ odʒodʒe (na) 244 short utiŋ ɔdʒu utitiŋ ukukʷe (na) 246 thick ip͡tsi oʃup͡tsi ipipi (na) 247 thin omptsaŋ aʃomptsoŋ ontʃɛn (na)

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248 heavy umbɾum oʃombɾum umbɾum (na) 249 light ufululu oʃufululu ohaᵘ (na) 250 old ɔŋkɾɛ odʒɔgble ogbɛle (na) 251 new opalɛ odzɔpolɛ opalɛ (na) 252 left ipɛɾ, ipɛr ovipir avipɛɾ (na) 253 right ɛnza ovɛnza avɛndʒa (na) 254 yes o (na) o (na) 255 no oʔo (na) kaⁱ (na) 256 hard odʒika oʃɔdʒika ɛkaⁱ (na) 257 soft okpokpɛlɛ oʃɔkpokpɛlɛ okpokpɛlɛ (na) 258 few ɛŋgaŋ adɾa awɛŋgaŋ untʃɛn (na) 259 up aja (na) aja (na) 260 down ɛdzɛ (na) ɛde (na) 261 wet ɔkɔbɛŋ nsɔmekɔbeŋ emɛnetʃi (na) 262 dry ohwar okɔhwar ekokɾo (na) 263 dirty ijiŋi nsɔmojiŋi ejiŋ (na) 264 all andɛ andahwa awun (na) 265 I ɛmɛ mɛ ɛmɛ (na) 266 you ɔŋɔ (na) ɔŋɔ (na) 267 he ɔŋɔ (na) ɔŋɔ (na) 268 she (same as he) (na) (same as he) (na) 269 we andɛ (na) andɛ (na) 271 you ɛndɛ (na) ɛndɛ (na) 272 they ɔma (na) andemawa (na) 274 blow ufu okufu ufu okufu 275 whistle ɛɾlɛ okufɛɾlɛ ɛɾɛlə akunɛɾɛlə 275.5 sing unsɔ asɔtunsu uŋʃo asoʃouŋʃo 276 eat oŋza akoŋzɛgoŋza ondʒa akodʒa 276.01 I ate ɛkɔŋza (na) ɛkɔŋza (na) 276.02 you ate ɔkɔŋza (na) anokoŋza (na) 276.03 you (f) ate (same as you ate) (na) (same as you ate) (na) 276.04 he ate akɔŋza (na) akɔŋza (na) 276.05 she ate (same as he ate) (na) (same as he ate) (na) 276.06 we ate andakoŋza (na) andakoŋza (na) 276.08 they ate ɔmɔkɔŋza (na) akonza (na) 276.10 you (pl) ate adndake aŋza (na) anokonza (na) 276.11 he is eating aɾɔnza (na) aɾɔnza (na) 276.12 he will eat ɛsonza (na) ɛsonza (na) 276.13 he usually eat asonza (na) asonza (na) 276.14 he didn't eat konzaŋa (na) akananzaŋa (na) 276.5 do nɛ akɔnɛ wune akɔnɛ

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277 dance ɔtʃɛtʃɛ akɔtʃɛtʃɛ ɔtʃɛtʃɛ akɔtʃɛtʃɛ 278 play ɔdɾɛja akɔdɾaja ɔdɾɛja akodɾaiə 279 smell ɔŋgɔ aŋgɔ ɔŋgɔ akuŋgo 280 see ndʒi ekundʒi unzi akunzi 281 laugh ɔsɘŋa akɔsɘna ɔsɘŋa akosəna 282 say ɔga akɔga ɔga akɔga 283 ask uɾulu okuɾulu uɾulu akuɾulu 284 beg usolu okusolu usolu akusulu 285 listen ŋʷai (??) oʷaŋgo akʷoŋgo 286 hear ɔŋgɔ (de) ɔŋgɔ akoŋgo 287 bark aʃɔ akɔtaʃɔ ogom akʷogom 288 shout akpa akɔakpa obe.ɛɾaɾɛna abiɛ.rarɛna 289 cry ukɾo osukɾo ukɾo akukɾo 290 fear ibzoɾo akoŋgibzoɾu ibzoɾo aŋgwebijoro 291 want (u)ndir ekandir edɛɾ edɛɾ 292 think H H waⁱkɛnicʷu asoŋgo 293 count (wa)bai akɔbai obaⁱ akobaⁱ 294 know ukpe ɛkakpe ukpe akpe 295 teach omanɛ akomanɛŋ omanɛ akomanɛŋ 296 show ujɛni ɛkajɛnitʃimaʃɛ jɛni akujɛni 297 drink ocʷa akɔcʷa ocʷa akɔcʷa 298 suck umuŋu okuŋmuŋu ozoŋ akozoŋ 300 vomit okɾəlu okukɾəlu okɾəlu okukɾəlu 301 spit ɔtaicʷi okɔtecʷi ecʷi otanɛcʷi 302 sneeze ɛtitʃa akɔtɛtiʃa ɛtitʃa akɔtɛtiʃa 303 bite ɔɾai akɔɾai ɔɾai akɔɾai 304 sweep ɔjilɛ akɔjilɛ ɔjilɛ akɔjilɛ 305 sit ɔtʃitʃɛ akɔtʃitʃɛ ɔtʃitʃɛ akɔtʃitʃɛ 306 stand ɔsɘnɛ akɔsɘnɛ oʃɛne akoʃɛne 307 fight ɛɾ̃na akɔder̃na ɛɾ̃na akɔder̃na 308 lie down ununo akunuɔ ununo akunuɔ 309 yawn oɾai onju akɔarai onju oɾai onju akɔarai onju 310 rest H H (same as sit) (na) 311 sleep umblu akumblu umblu akumblu 312 wash uglo okuglo uglo okuglo 313 wash-clothes (same) (na) uglu.ungə akunglu.ungə 314 bathe ɔtʃa akɔtʃa ɔtʃa akɔtʃa 315 steal uʒe ɛkuʒe uʒe ɛkuʒe 316 give ɔzɛ akɔze ɔzɛ akɔze 317 hide usolu okusolu usolu okusolu 318 take opkai, suku akɔkpa opkai, suku akɔkpa

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319 hold uko okuku uko oko 320.1 buy oɾo akoɾa oɾo akoɾa 321.1 sell ogɾanɛ akogɾanɛ ogɾanɛ akogɾanɛ 322 give birth ɔdɔw akɔdɔw odo akodo 323 marry ebai akɔkpai, akɔebai ebai akɔebaⁱ 324 die ukpu akukpuŋ ukpu akukpuŋ 325 kill opɛɾ akɔpɛɾ opɛɾ akɔpɛɾ 326 fall ogba akɔgba ogba akɔgba

327 fall over (same as fall over) akogoɾe.agba (de)

328 walk uɟɛ akuɟɛŋ uɟɛ akuɟe 329 run ocʷa akɔcʷa ocʷa akɔcʷa 330 fly ɔmɛ akɔŋmɛ ɔmɛ akɔŋmɛ 331 jump ɔkɪɾa akɔkɹɾa ɔkɪɾa akɔkɹɾa 332 swim ɔwɔ akɔwɔ ɔwɔ akɔwɔ 333 come ba akɔba ba akɔba 334 enter jo okujo jo okujo 335 exit ɾo okuɾoŋ ɾo okuɾoŋ 336 go ɟo akoɟa ɟo akoɟo 337 follow kɾo okukɾo kɾo akukɾo 338 send tumaŋ okɔtumaŋ otuma akotuma 339 cut wa akɔwa wa akɔwa 340 break uvɾe ekuvɾe uvɾe okuvɾe 341 split osar akɔsar osar akɔsar 342 scratch ajanɛ akɔjanɛ jane akɔjanɛ 343 cook ɔtʃa akɔtʃa ɔtʃa akɔtʃa 343.5 boil upuno okupuno opijɛr akopⁱjɛr 343.6 fry uɾo okuɾo uɾo okuɾo 344 hunt iɾumo ekerumu iɾumo ekerumu 344.5 hunter oɾumo (na) oɾumo orumo 345 hit ŋʷe okuŋwe itru otitɾu 346 tie r̃olu okurolu r̃olu okurolu 347 sew ɔkɔw akɔkɔw ɔkɔw akɔkɔw 348 forge ɔfɔw akɔfɔw ɔfɔw akɔfɔw 348.5 blacksmith akima (na) akima (na) 349 burn ɔpsa akɔpsa(ŋ) opijə (de) 350 throw tʃaŋ akɔtʃaŋ otʃaŋ (de) 351 pour utʃɔ okutʃɔ utʃɔ (de) 352 pour out n͡ŋʷane akɔnŋʷanɛ n͡ŋʷane (de) 354 fill ocʷu okucʷu ocʷu (de) 355 push H H watavo (de) 356 pull dʒai akɔdʒai dɾaⁱ (de)

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357 squeeze pɾe okupɾe upɾe (de) 358 dig tume okutume tume (de) 359 plant tʃalɛ akɔtʃalɛ otʃale (de) 361 harvest vine akuvɪne uvɪ̆nɛ (de) Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my...

aso=present tense ako=past tense

(na)=not applicable (de)=didn't elicit

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Appendix C: Adara of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Adara Rubu Adara RafinKunu

Date 05March2011 14March2011

Givenlanguagename Adara Adara‐Check

Givenvillagename Rubu RafinKunu

LGA Kajuru Kajuru

State Kaduna Kaduna

Informant SC JP

Age 25 31

Sex M M

Reliability: good good,butelicitorwasvoiceless

Elicitedby: CM CM

OtherInformanʦ: MM,65,M AZ,32,M;MM,23,M

Language (village) Adara (Rubu) Adara (Rafin Kunu)No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg.1 hair esalɛcʷeʰ osalɛcʷeʰ esalɛcʷeʰ osalɛcʷeʰ

2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe

3 forehead iːkɪti oːbuke iːkɪti oːbuke

4 ear oːtoᵑ aːtoᵑ oːtoᵑ aːtoᵑ

5 mouth aːɲũ aːɲu aːɲũ aːɲu

6 tooth idʒi a̩dʒi idʒi a̩dʒi

7 tongue iːnɛme iːnɛme iːnɛme iːnɛme

8 saliva akpʷe akpʷe akpe akpe

9 sweat odoᵑ odoᵑ odoᵑ none

10 chin ɜtulu uʰtulu ɜtulu uʰtulu

11 beard osobo osobo əsubotolo osobotolo

12 nose ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ

13 eye iwɪlɪd i iɾedʒi iwɪlɪd i iɾedʒi

15 teardrop ɛdʒi ɛdʒi ɛdʒi ɛdʒi

16 neck otoʰ ɛtoʰ otoʰ ɛtoʰ

17 shoulder obigə abogə obigə abogə

19 belly ɛtafo ɛta.ofõ ɛtafo ɛta.ofõ

20 navel ikubu akubu ikubu okubu

21 stomach ofõ afõ ofõ afõ

22 intestines onuŋ ænuŋ onuŋ ænuŋ

23 back etʃi atʃi etʃi atʃi

24 knee ubuno abunu ubuno abunu

25 leg ofã afã ofã afã

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26 foot epofa apafa epofa apafa 27 shoes okpulo akpulo okpulo akpulo 28 thigh okulo akulo okulo akulo 29 arm onʲe anʲe onʲe anʲe 31 finger ewuleŋge ewuleŋge ewuleŋge ewuleŋge 32 fingernail ɛgbule.ewekŋ ɛgbule.eweleŋ ɛgbule.ewekŋ ɛgbule.eweleŋ 33 skin etaʰ etaʰ etaʰ etaʰ 34 bone ugbuhu ogbuhu ugbuhu ogbuhu 35 blood adʒi ədʒi adʒi ədʒi 36 heart ehʷale ehʷale ehʷale ehʷale 38 liver aʲəfu afua ehʷale (none) 38.5 body ɛnum ənumu ɛnum ənum 40 tree aⁱki əki aⁱki əki 41 firewood ɛkwola ɛkwola okwo ɛkwo 42 bush ənum ənumo ənum ənum 43 forest əpakulo əpakulo ɪgi ugi 44 bark əgbɾaki əgbɾaniki əgbɾaki əgbɾaniki 46 root onuŋaⁱki anuŋaiki onuŋaⁱki anuŋaiki 47 branch əwuniki əwuniki əwuniki əwuniki 48 medicine okuŋ ekuŋ okuŋ ekuŋ 49 thorn okuŋi akuŋi okuŋi akuŋi 50 rope iwe iwe iwe iwe 51 basket eze oze eze oze 52 clothing oⁱke oⁱke oⁱke oⁱke 53 seed eɹə eɹə eɹə eɹə 54 ax afũ afũ afũ afũ 55 cutlass ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo 56 hoe aːkələ aːkələ aːkələ aːkələ

57 and aːkələ konocʷɛtʃu.ogbo (na)

aːkələ konocʷɛtʃu.ogbo (na)

58 leaf azaiki azaiki oza azaiki 59 ground nut itaʃĩ itaʃĩ itaʃĩ (none) 60 bambura nut ɛtale ɛtale ɛtale ɛtale 61 guinea corn okʷu okʷu ilokʷu ilokʷu 62 locust bean tree ekʷã okʷã ekʷã okʷã 64 millet edu edu edu əredu 65 zobo leaf azikʲo azikʲoː oziᵗkʲo aziᵗkʲo 68 shea butter ɪkilige ɪkilige ɪkilige ɪkilige 69 mohogany akʷo akʷo akʷo akʷo 70 grass obu abu obu abu 71 grass, dry obu.ohoho abu.ehʷohoə obu.ohoho abu.ehʷohoə 72 weed (same as grass) (na) (same as grass) (na)

43

73 flower uɟusɪmaːbaː oɟusɪmamaba ifugo ufugo 74 fruit ɛkᵃⁱki ɛkᵃⁱnaki ɛkã.ⁱki ɛkᵃ.ⁱki 75 meat enum enumo enum enumo 76 fat epʰovo apʰovo epʰovo (none) 77 egg ekpha akpha ekpha akpha 78 bean ɛɾido ɜɾido ɪrido ɪrido 79 fufu ɨʃe aʃe ɨʃe aʃe 80 soup utʃĩ utʃi utʃĩ utʃi 81 cough ikʷulo aʷakʷulo ikʷulo ukʷulo 82 pain ulo ilo ulo ɛlo 82.5 corpse oːkʷobo aːkʷobo oːkʷobo aːkʷobo 83 grave uɟi aɟʷi udʒʷi adʒʷi 84 one izu (na) idʒe (na) 85 two epare (na) epare (na) 86 three etaʰ (na) etaʰ (na) 87 four ena (na) ena (na) 88 five itum (na) itum (na) 89 six ikɛri (na) ikɛri (na) 90 seven iːtumpa (na) iːtumpa (na) 91 eight inananu (na) inananu (na) 92 nine ibaŋuzu (na) ibaŋuzi (na) 93 ten osoʰ (na) osoʰ (na) 94 twelve osoʰniepare (na) osoʰniepare (na) 94.5 fifteen osoʰniːtum (na) osoʰniːtum (na) 95 twenty iʃiːpare (na) iʃiːpare (na) 96 hundred atadaⁱ (na) atadaⁱ (na) 97 woman anaʃe aʃe anaʃe aʃe 98 man ɛnɛki ɛki ɛnɛki ɛki 100 person ɛnozu ɛnɛke ɛnuzu ɛnɛke 102 wedding ulobale lulubale ulobale lulubale 102 father aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi 105 mother ije uʷje ije uʷje 106 child awũne awũne awũne awũne 107 brother awudʒe aːwudʒe awudʒe, anɛpa aːwudʒe, anɛpa 108 sister afogo afogo afŏgo afogo 111 chief agom agʷomo agom agʷom 112 friend ɛnisumi ɛnisumi ɛnisumi ɛnisumi 113 stranger ɛsʷoŋ asʷoŋ ɛsʷoŋ ɛsʷoŋ, isʷoŋ 114 God onum (none) onum (none) 115 name otuwə otuwə otuwə otuwə 116 animal et͡sã et͡sã et�ʃã et�ʃa

44

118 pig anade anade anɛde anɛde 119 tail ut�ʃĩ ɛtʃi ut�ʃĩ ɛtʃi 122 fly aⁱsuŋ aⁱsuŋ aⁱsuŋ ɛsisuŋ 123 spider uzɛle aⁱzɛle agɛre agɛgɛre 124 mosquito evo evo evo evo 129 honeybee eʃo eʃo eʃo eʃo 130 honey etʰũ atʰũ etʰũ atʰũ 131 goat aBu aBu abu abu 132 horn etumu atumu etuma atumu 133 cow ɛla ɛla ɛla ɛla 134 sheep abu abu atẽ atẽ 135 crocodile ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo 137 chicken ano ano ano ano 138 guinea fowl oʃo aʃo oʃo aʃo 139 bird ɛno ono ɛnu onu 140 claw aⁱju aⁱju igbɪlifa igbɪlifa 141 wing ufo əfo ufo əfo 142 feather osobo ɛno osobo ono inu inu 143 snake eʰwẽ eʰwẽ eʰwẽ eʰwẽ 144 tortoise aⁱkulu aⁱkulu aⁱkulu aⁱkulu 145 rat iki iki iki iki 146 scorpion ɛna ɛna ɛna ɛna 147 fish evo evo evo evo 148 toad aⁱjuɽə aⁱjuɽə aⁱjuɽə aⁱjuɽə 150 buffalo bohu ag�bohu ɛkowə ɛkowə 151 elephant eka eka eka ekeka 154 hyena ehʷoro ohʷoro ehʷoro ohʷoro 155 dog avaʰ avaʰ avaʰ avaʰ 156 house/hut aba aba aba aba 157 room ukʷoʰ əkʷoh ukʷoʰ əkʷoh 158 fence ivule aba ivule aba odʒɛna adʒɛna 159 road/path otʃã etʃã otʃã etʃã 160 pit ugʷoʰ əgʷoʰ ugʷoʰ əgʷoʰ 161 farm (field) ebe obe ebe obe 162 at oma.aba (na) goma.aba (na) 163 door ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo 164 chair/stool ocʷet�ʃa ocʷet�ʃa ocʷet�ʃit�ʃa ocʷet�ʃit�ʃa 165 salt olaga olaga olaga olaga 166 broom əzale əzale əzale əzale 167 mortar utʃ͡u ut�ʃu ut�ʃu ut�ʃu 168 pestle alale alale alale alale

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169 fire ola ela ola ela 170 smoke usuŋ (none) usuŋ (none) 171 ashes otu (none) otu (none) 172 stick abba abba abba abba 173 stone ɛtale otale ɛtale otale 174 cave udʒi ədʒi otɛh atɛh 175 mountain opa apa opa apa 176 earth, ground ebu (none) ebu (none) 177 mud onʲɪnʲæ (none) onʲɪnʲæ (none) 178 clay uʰsu uʰsu itum (none) 179 sand iɾiʃe (none) iɾiʃe (none) 180 dust ədʒʷi ədʒʷi ədʒʷi ədʒʷi 181 money ikɪli ikɪli ikɪli ikɪli 182 iron H H H H 184 market ohujize əhujize ize əhujize 185 wind uɾu eɾu uɾu eɾu 186 cloud umuni əmuni umuni əmuni 187 rain eva eva eva eva 188 rainy season əkʷulo okʷulo əkʷulo okʷulo 189 dry season awu owu awu owu 190 dew omʷoᵃ (none) omʷogo (none) 191 stream aɾewʰale awunowʰale aɾewʰale awunowʰale 192 river udʒĩ ɛdʒĩ udʒĩ ədʒĩ 193 canoe uɾʲutomenambale uɾʲutomenambale ohome ahome 194 bridge ɛːdale oːdale ɛːdale oːdale 195 water abale (none) abale (none) 196 lake udʒiolule ɛdʒiada.dege ɛna ɛna 197 sky apane (none) apɪlimani (none) 198 moon opane epane opane epane 199 star eɾikɛɾi iɾikiɾi eɾikɛ̆ɾi iɾikiɾi 200 sun onum (none) onum (none) 201 year amare amare amare amare 202 morning ɛtiŋabo (none) ɛtiŋabo ɛtiŋabu 203 afternoon aⁱwe (none) aⁱwe (none) 204.1 evening aːleʰ (none) aːleʰ (none) 205.1 night əcʰu (none) əcʰu əcʰu 206 yesterday ole (none) ole (none) 207 tomorrow ugbu (none) ugbu (none) 208 knife ekʷã okʷã ekʷã okʷã 208.1 my bow otame (na) otame (na) 208.2 your otaŋo (na) otaŋo (na)

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208.3 his otaŋa (na) otaŋa (na) 208.4 her (same as his) (na) (same as his) (na) 208.5 our etaŋʲi (na) etaŋʲi (na) 208.6 your (pl) etate (na) etaŋo (na) 208.7 their etama (na) etama (na) 209 bow ota ata ota eta 210 arrow et�ʃa at�ʃa et�ʃa at�ʃa 211 quiver ukumat�ʃa əkumat�ʃa ukumat�ʃa əkumat�ʃa 212 spear okʲohʷane okʲohʷane ohʷane ahʷane 213 war opɽadaɾa epuɽadaɾa ohʷane ehʷane 214 who? ɛŋːa? (de) ɛŋːa? aŋaʃeŋa 215 whose? ɛŋːaʃɪnuwo? ɛŋːaʃɪnuoBibledile? owɛŋa? ɛŋːaʃɪnuoBibledile? 216 what? use usewuledile? use usewuledile? 217 when? kalagʷaⁱ? alegbajeᵘgonasebago? agbatuula (de) 218 where? kuke? uʃikuke? aⁱke aⁱkegʷonoso 219 here ohʷẽ owegohʷẽ? ohʷẽ owegohʷẽ? 220 how? wãdunune wadununenotuna? nãnje otumaʃinãnje 221 why? usəgo? usəgobaunuɲwaguŋma? usəgo? usəgobaŋuːwo 222 ripe obã abã obã obɪŋːa 223 rotten aʃəŋa aʃəneŋa õʃa (na) 224 hungry oʃoː (na) oʃoː (na) 225 hot ope (na) ope (na) 226 cold/cool oɽan (na) oɽan (na) 227 cold atugoɽan (na) oɽaŋ (na) 228 smooth opopule (na) odɪdare (na) 229 white otute (na) otute (na) 230 black ususəli (na) ususəli (na) 231 dark itɪŋji (na) itɪŋji (na) 232 red ususoʰ (na) ususoʰ (na) 233 sharp ocʷeje (na) oje (na)

234 dull ocosɪne okasaŋoma (na) ukk� pom (na)

235 evil ikʲubibi (na) ikʲubibi (na) 236 good ukʲuʃe (na) uʃuʃɪni (na) 237 many ukʲuke (na) kuke (na) 238 wide ukʲupule (na) upupuli (na) 239 narrow oɟogila (na) omobo (na) 240 straight naⁱjɛte (na) otɛte (na) 241 crooked sogonaⁱkikuma (na) ogogunu (na) 243 long ulele (na) ulele (na) 244 short ugbubulu (na) ugbubulu (na) 246 thick ɛlebu (na) mumuge (na)

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247 thin momã (na) popʰɛne (na) 248 heavy ulebu (na) ulebu (na) 249 light ʃakure (na) oʃakure (na) 250 old okʷokulo (na) okʷokulo (na) 251 new opopale (na) opopale (na) 252 left iᵏpule (na) iᵏpule (na) 253 right ija (na) ija (na) 254 yes hakawo (na) aː (na) 255 no m̥ʔm̥ (na) kai (na) 256 hard uʃʷodɘge (na) odəge (na) 257 soft uʃinapekpele (na) onuŋ (na) 258 few gɛla (na) gɛla (na) 259 up apane (na) apane (na) 260 down ebuɾebu (na) ilŭbu (na) 261 wet okʲeunasominabale (na) uʃuo (na) 262 dry okʲeohowo (na) okʷa (na) 263 dirty okʲe eleluwe (na) iluwe (na) 264 all nɛdidu (na) nadidu (na) 265 I imi (na) imi (na) 266 you iŋ̥ʷũ (na) iŋ̥ʷũ (na) 267 he eŋa (na) eŋa (na) 268 she (same as he) (na) (same as he) (na) 269 we ɛni (na) ɛni (na) 271 you inu (na) inu (na) 272 they ema (na) ema (na) 274 blow pɘ apə ope apə 275 whistle piʃʷi, piçʷi apiʃʷi ɪʃʷi apiʃʷi 275.5 sing ataːte ataːte otaːte ataːte 276 eat ojaja ajaja oja aija 276.01 I ate majaje (na) maijə (na) 276.02 you ate ŭŋwajaje (na) wajə (na)

276.03 you (f) ate iŋʲajaje (na) (same as you ate) (na)

276.04 he ate iŋʲajaje (na) aijə (na) 276.05 she ate iŋʲajaje (na) aijə (na) 276.06 we ate ɛnijaja (na) ɛnːijə (na) 276.08 they ate imajɛjɛ (na) aijə (na) 276.10 you (pl) ate imajajada (na) onaijə (na) 276.11 he is eating asijaja (na) asɛjə (na) 276.12 he will eat asiwʰalejaja (na) asɛwʰalejə (na) 276.13 he usually eat agawʰaleja (na) agajɛri (na) 276.14 he didn't eat asunijaːma (na) aijamːə (na)

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276.5 do udu adu udu ədu 277 dance ota ata ota ata 278 play onɛne asenɛne onɛne anɛne 279 smell ũnũ asiũnũ õnjã əŋuru 280 see uʃĩ aʃĩ uʃĩ uʃi 281 laugh okoruʰ asekoruʰ okoruʰ akoro 282 say opɛɾe apɛɾe pɛre apɛɾe 283 ask ununu anunu uluwe aluwe 284 beg owã awã owã awã 285 listen aseqõma aseqoŋgo ɲaratu aɲaratu 286 hear oqʷõ aqʷõ qʷo aqʷõ 287 bark qʷalebɪnijə aqʷaleabɪijə ugbule agbule 288 shout ek� paʰ at͡sek� pa ek� paʰ atɛkpa 289 cry ucʷe at͡sicʷe ucʷe acʷe 290 fear ebata asiqu ebata ebata akʷebata 291 want uli alijo uli əli 292 think okʷʰoᵏgehale asikʷugehalenã opalɛnewʰale apalɛnewʰale 293 count pa asepawo pa apa 294 know oza azawo oza aza 295 teach ululo alulomi ululo alulo 296 show njɛnjimi amunjɛnjimi njɛnji anjɛnji 297 drink ʃʷa awʰaleʃʷago oʃʷa aʃʷa 298 suck m̩mugo amˈmugo m̩mugo amˈmugo 300 vomit kulo akulo uhulo ohulo 301 spit takpe atakpe akpe atak� pe 302 sneeze idɪʃa atidɪʃa idɪʃa atidɪʃa 303 bite numːə aˈnumːə unumːə aˈnumːə 304 sweep puna apunawo, apunago ozəre azare 305 sit tʃɛtʃa aitʃa tʃɛtʃa atʃɛtʃa 306 stand njinə ainjə njinə ainjə 307 fight hwane ahwane hwane ahwane 308 lie down naᵘ aŋana onɪŋa anɪŋa 309 yawn ŋãŋu aseneŋaŋu ŋãŋu ãŋaŋũ 310 rest tulumu asetulumu tulumu atulumu 311 sleep noŋaᵘ anoŋa ona anona 312 wash ukoʰ asiːkulo ukoʰ akulʊkonu 313 wash-clothes ukulo asiːkuloke ukulo əkɪloke 314 bathe tʃam asɛtʃam tʃam at�ʃam 315 steal udʒe adʒe udʒe adʒe 316 give maŋːa aˈmaŋːa õmã ãmã 317 hide jiɾi ajiɾi jiɾi ajiɾi

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318 take ŋãŋe aŋaŋe ŋãŋe aŋaŋe 319 hold kʊʰ akʊʰ ukoh akoh 320.1 buy ola ala ola ala 321.1 sell ukuʷo akuʷo ukuʷo akuʷo 322 give birth ubɘʰ abɘʰ ubɘʰ abɘʰ 323 marry ova.naʃe ava.naʃe obale ava 324 die ukpo ɘkpo ukpo ɘkpo 325 kill palewo apalewo opale apale 326 fall tuwe ɘtuwe okpa akpa 327 fall over pʊwo uvowu okk� pagape akk� pagape 328 walk usoŋ asoŋ usoŋ asoŋ 329 run utoʰ atitoʰ utoʰ atoʰ 330 fly tamfo atamfoː ufuʷŏ afuʷŏ 331 jump sɛɾe asɛɾe tamfodosɛre atamfodosɛre 332 swim owo awo owo awo 333 come ba aba ba aba 334 enter njinə anjinə njinə anjinə 335 exit ɾowu aɾowŋa ɾu aɾuwuʰ 336 go sokum asokum sokum atum 337 follow tʃame atʃame t�ʃa at�ʃe 338 send tumame atumame tŭma atumːa 339 cut ⁿwa awa ⁿwa awa 340 break wʊɾaio awʊɾaⁱo wʊɾe awʊɾe 341 split sʊɾawo asʊɾawo kabo akabo 342 scratch okɪla akɪla okɪla akɪla 343 cook kɪnːa akɪnːawo kɪnːa akɪna 343.5 boil ofunu ufunowu funu asonufunu 343.6 fry okãː akãwo okãŋ akãŋ 344 hunt igbʊri atigɛbiɾi igbʊri adigbɛɾi 344.5 hunter ogbʊɾi (de) ogbʊɾi (de) 345 hit labo alabo labo alabo 346 tie lʊ alʊ lo alo 347 sew otũwə atũwə otũwə atũwə 348 forge ojɪrə (de) ojɪrə (de) 348.5 blacksmith atʃuˈma (de) aᵗkima (de) 349 burn otula (de) ufo (de) 350 throw doŋ (de) doŋ (de) 351 pour ʃeŋa (de) uʃe (de) 352 pour out ŋũnaᵘ (de) ŋũnaᵘ (de) 354 fill kumaᵘ (de) kuma (de) 355 push zɛɾi (de) zɛɾi (de)

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356 pull uwo (de) uwo (de) 357 squeeze k� eɾa (de) t�ʃuno (de) 358 dig tum (de) tum (de) 359 plant utʃo (de) utʃo (de) 361 harvest otʊm (de) ut�ʃunaijə (de) Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my...

(na)=not applicable aso=present tense (de)=didn't elicit ako=past tense

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Appendix D: Eneje of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Eneje Barga Eneje MaiidaRafi,Ivlo

Date 08March2011 09March2011

Givenlanguagename Eneje Eneje‐Check

Givenvillagename Barga MaiidaRafi,Ivlo

LGA Kachia Kachia

State Kaduna Kaduna

Informant OJ BAS

Age 13 20

Sex M M

Reliability: good good

Elicitedby: CM CM

OtherInformanʦ: RB,13,M; RJ 32,F; MA,15,M MAS,21,M

Language (village) Eneje (Barga) Eneje (Maiida Rafi, Ivlo)No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg.1 hair əsaɾɛcʷe onsaɾɛcʷe əsaɾɛcʷe onsaɾɛcʷe

2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe

3 forehead ɪmbɛke umbɛke ɪmbɛke umbɛke

4 ear otoʰ atoʰ otoʰ atoʰ

5 mouth oɲu oɲu onju o:nju

6 tooth idʒi ɛdʒi idʒi ɛdʒi

7 tongue inu inu ino ino

8 saliva ekpe none ekpe none

9 sweat ondo none ondo none

10 chin otʃo otu otʃo otʃu

11 beard ɨnfoto unfotɾo ɨnfotɾo unfotɾo

12 nose ewɘ ewɘ ewɘ ewɘ

13 eye iɾidʒɾe iɾɛdʒɾe iɾidʒɾe iɾɛdʒɾe

15 teardrop ɛdʒɾi none ɛdʒɾi none

16 neck ontoʰ antoʰ ontoʰ antoʰ

17 shoulder utʃe ɛtɾe utʃe ɛtɾe

19 belly etĭjofo etijafo ɛtofo ɛto.ofo

20 navel ikʷo uŋku ikʷo uŋku

21 stomach umoːfo omaːfo umoːfo none

22 intestines ona ana ona ana

23 back etɾi etɾi etɾi etɾi

24 knee uŋbuŋ əŋbuŋu uŋbɪn ɛŋbɪŋo

25 leg ofɾe afɾe ofɾe afɾe

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26 foot ompʰafɾe ampʰafɾe ompʰafɾe ɛɾɛmpfɾe 27 shoes okpulə akpulə okpulə akpulə 28 thigh oːkɾo aːkɾo oːkɾo aːkɾo 29 arm õnʲe ãnʲe õnʲe ãnʲe 31 finger ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe 32 fingernail efa oŋbɛfa ɛŋbɛfa oŋbɛfa 33 skin eta eta eta eta 34 bone ukʷo okʷo uhʷo ohʷo 35 blood edʒi (none) edʒi (none) 36 heart ɛcʷɛikukulu ɛcʷɛkukulu icʷikulu ɛcʷɛkukulu 38 liver ecʷe ecʷe ecʷe ecʷe 38.5 body ɛgbɛnam ɛgbɛnam ɛgbɛnam agbɛnam 40 tree eki eki eki eki 41 firewood oko eko oko eko 42 bush onum umonum onum onum 43 forest ungɾi ŭmungɾi ɛngɾi ɛngɾi 44 bark uŋbɾaki aŋbɾaki uŋbaĭki aŋbaĭki 46 root ona ana aⁱjuroko aⁱjuroko 47 branch ɨnu ɵnu ɨnu ɵnu 48 medicine oka eka oka eka 49 thorn okɛn akɛn okɛn akɛn 50 rope iwe iwe iwe iwe 51 basket ɛnze onze ɛnze onze 52 clothing uke eke uke eke 53 seed eɻa eɻa eɻa eɻa 54 ax ɛ̃nfo õnfo ɛ̃nfo õnfo 55 cutlass H H ocʷogbombo aŋcʷogbombo 56 hoe akăla akăla akăla akăla

57 and akăla ka adda (na) akăla ko oŋcʷogbombo (na)

58 leaf ozaʰ azaʰ ozaʰ azaʰ 59 ground nut ecɾetɾa etɾa (none) etɾa 60 bambura nut ɛtɾase (none) ɛtɾase (none) 61 guinea corn ɛɾaⁱjə aⁱjə (none) aⁱjə 62 locust bean tree eɾʷe (none) eɾecʷe (none) 64 millet ɛndoʰ (none) ɛndoʰ erɛndoʰ 65 zobo leaf ugbuwo (none) ugbuwo (none) 68 shea butter ilɪge ilɪge ilɪge ilɪge 69 mohogany ako ako ako ako 70 grass ombo ambo ombo ambo 71 grass, dry ombohoho ambohoho amboho (none) 72 weed otota (none) (none) (none)

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73 flower ifugo umfugo ifuwo umfuwo 74 fruit ekɾaki ɛkɾaki ekɾaki ɛkɾaki 75 meat enəm enəm enəm enəm 76 fat epoʰ (none) epoʰ ompoʰ 77 egg ekpa oŋkpa ekpa akpa 78 bean ɨɾido ido ido iɾido 79 fufu ɛʃije oʃije ɛʃe oŋʃe 80 soup untʳi (none) untʳi (none) 81 cough ikulo (none) ikulo uŋkulo 82 pain olo (none) olo (none) 82.5 corpse okoʰ (none) okʷo ɛkʷo 83 grave itu (none) itu (none) 84 one izu (none) izu (none) 85 two epa (none) ɛmpa (none) 86 three eta (none) ɛnta (none) 87 four ɛne (none) ɛne (none) 88 five itoʰ (none) itoʰ (none) 89 six ike (none) ike (none) 90 seven odupaʰ (none) tumpaʰ (none) 91 eight anane (none) anane (none) 92 nine odune (none) odune (none) 93 ten okʷoʰ (none) okʷoʰ (none) 94 twelve okʷoʰ lepa (none) okʷoʰ lepa (none) 94.5 fifteen okʷoh litoʰ (none) okʷoh litoʰ (none) 95 twenty ekepah (none) ɛkʷepah (none) 96 hundred ɛdɛɾi (none) ɛdɛɾi (none) 97 woman anaʃe aʃe anaʃe aʃe 98 man ɛnɛnki eki ɛnɛnki eki 100 person anda ada anda ada 102 wedding ulobɾa (none) obɾa ebɾa 102 father ekije ekijenji ekije ekije 105 mother eja ejɪnji eja eje 106 child awɛn awɛn awɛn awɛn 107 brother açe açe ewɛdʒi ewɛdʒi 108 sister afugo afugom afuwo afuwo 111 chief ago agom ago agom 112 friend ɛnuse onusɛ ɛnuse onusɛ 113 stranger osoː osoː osoː osoː 114 God onum (none) onum (none) 115 name ontua antua ontua (none) 116 animal enum (none) enum enum

54

118 pig alede (H) elede (H) busuɾum (none) 119 tail utʃi ɛtʃi utʃi ɛtʃi 122 fly ɛnso osunso ɛnso ɛsunso 123 spider agje agje agje agje 124 mosquito ɛvo ɛvo ɛvo ɛvo 129 honeybee ɛɸo ɛɸo ɛɸo ɛɾɛɸo 130 honey ɛtoʰ (none) ɛtoʰ (none) 131 goat abo abo abo abo 132 horn ɛtuwa antuwa ɛtuwa antuwa 133 cow ɛlːa ɛlːa ɛlːa ɛlːa 134 sheep atɛʰ atɛʰ atɛʰ atɛʰ 135 crocodile ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo 137 chicken ano ano ano ano 138 guinea fowl oɸio aɸo oɸio aɸo 139 bird eno arono eno arono 140 claw oju (eagle) oju (eagles) ɛfaɸu ɛfaɸu 141 wing ufŭɾu ofŭɾu ufŭɾu ofŭɾu 142 feather ifũ ũfũ ifũ ũfũ 143 snake ewe ewe ewe ewe 144 tortoise eːkɾu (none) eːkɾu ekɾikɾu 145 rat iki iki iki iki 146 scorpion ena ɛna ena ɛna 147 fish evo evo evo evo 148 toad aⁱbɪɾa, aⁱvɪɾa aⁱbɪɾa aⁱjuɾə aⁱjuɾə 150 buffalo ɛkuwa ɛkuɾwa ɛkuwa ɛkuɾwa 151 elephant ɛnka (none) ɛnka oŋka 154 hyena ekɾo okɾo ekɾo okɾo 155 dog ava ava ava ava 156 house/hut abɛh abɛh abɛh abɛh 157 room uŋkoʰ oŋkoʰ uŋkoʰ oŋkoʰ 158 fence ucʷi acʷi ucʷi acʷi 159 road/path ontɾe atɾe ontɾe ɛntɾe 160 pit ugo ogo uk� po ok� po 161 farm (field) untɛʰ ɛntɛʰ untɛʰ ɛntɛʰ 162 at ɪnkomeʃa (na) keʃa (na) 163 door ʊnjunko onjonko ihʳuŋko ohʳuŋko 164 chair/stool iŋkpokpu uŋkpokpu iŋkpokpu uŋkpokpu 165 salt atoʰ (none) atoʰ (none) 166 broom ɛndʒe ondʒe ɛndɾe ondɾe 167 mortar otʃo otʃo otʃo otʃo 168 pestle aɾa aɾa aɾa aɾa

55

169 fire ola ela ola ela 170 smoke usoʰ (none) unsoh (none) 171 ashes õnto (none) õnto (none) 172 stick abba abba abba abba 173 stone ɛtɾɪntɾa otɾɪntɾa ɛntra otɾɪntɾa 174 cave otɛh atɛh otɛh atɛh 175 mountain oŋko aŋko oŋko aŋko 176 earth, ground ebo (none) ebo (none) 177 mud (de) (de) itom (none)

178 clay (same as ground) (none) itom (none)

179 sand ɨɾiʃe ɨɾiʃe ɛresa ɛresa 180 dust oɾe (none) ore, uncʷi (none) 181 money ikɪli (none) ikɪli (none) 182 iron oŋkeɪɾə (none) oŋkeɪɾə oŋkeɪɾə 184 market ize (none) ize ize 185 wind uɾu (none) uɾu (none) 186 cloud umɛn (none) umɛn amɛn 187 rain evɾa (none) evɾa (none) 188 rainy season ɛkulo (none) ɛkulo oŋkulo 189 dry season ewoʰ (none) ewoʰ õwo 190 dew omoʷoh (none) omoʷoh (none) 191 stream ank̩ʷᶦɛʰ ank̩ʷᶦɛʰ aʰʷʳɛ aʰʷʳɛ 192 river udʒʷi ɛdʒʷi udʒʷi ɛdʒʷi 193 canoe utok� poʰ otok� poʰ (none) (none) 194 bridge eʈa (none) edɾa ondɾa 195 water ambɾe (none) ambɾe (none) 196 lake umk� po oŋk� po umk� po oŋk� po 197 sky umɛn amɛn imɛn.apɛn umɛn.apɛn 198 moon opɾe ɛpɾe opɾe (none) 199 star ɪnkɛn ɨɾɪnkɛn ɪnkɛn ɨɾɪnkɛn 200 sun onum (none) onum (none) 201 year ame ame ame ame 202 morning otuɾumbu (none) otuɾumbu (none) 203 afternoon aⁱʝe (none) aⁱʝe (none) 204.1 evening anle (none) anle (none) 205.1 night otu otu otu otu 206 yesterday oⁿle (none) oⁿle (none) 207 tomorrow ombu (none) ombu (none) 208 knife ɛnʷe oncʷe ɛnʷe oncʷe 208.1 my bow otam (na) otam (na) 208.2 your otaʰ (na) otaŋ (na)

56

208.3 his otaga (na) otaŋ (na) 208.4 her (na) otaŋ (na) 208.5 our otanjiə (na) otanjiə (na) 208.6 your (pl) otajowaⁱə (na) ɛtaŋji (na) 208.7 their otajandaⁱja (na) ɛtawa (na) 209 bow ota eta ota eta 210 arrow ɛcɾa acɾa ɛcɾa acɾa 211 quiver ukum okum ukum okum 212 spear (de) (de) ohʷʳr ohʷʳe 213 war one ɛne one ɛne 214 who? ɛŋn̩a? ɛŋn̩ɪnja? ɛŋn̩a? ɛŋn̩ɪnja? 215 whose? wɛŋa? ɛʃeɪnaakɛn? ɪnakɛnow? ɛʃeɪnaakɛn? 216 what? unsʷa? unsʷamɛn? unse? unsemi? 217 when? ulubo? abauululbo? ituɾu? ilitur? 218 where? ɛkʲia? ɛkʲiaᵘso? ɛkʲia? ɛkj�iausoːle? 219 here ohwɛn? ohwɛnuso? ohwɛn? õhwɛnkowʰɛn 220 how? ja? jaᵘotuwaᵘ? ja? jaᵘotuwaᵘ? 221 why? dom? domunsoɪmba? unsuwa? unsuwasoɪmoba? 222 ripe ovɾo (na) obɾɛ (na) 223 rotten oŋʃa (na) oŋʃa (na) 224 hungry ewo (na) ewo (na) 225 hot ocʷe (na) ola (na) 226 cold/cool ambɾo.aŋ (na) oɾaŋ (na) 227 cold oraŋ (na) oraŋ (na) 228 smooth lɛdɛɾ (na) lɛdɛɾ (na) 229 white uçuki (na) ikiki (na) 230 black utʃutʃe (na) utʃutʃe (na) 231 dark lobop̚ (na) itum (na) 232 red ususo (na) isisu (na) 233 sharp onɛh (na) ɛnɛh (na) 234 dull undʒisogasɛhwo (na) ɛsawunewə (na) 235 evil unhɾo (na) ɛcʳeɸiɸᵛi (na) 236 good uʃuʃi (na) uʃuʃi (na) 237 many ukukɾe (na) ɘkʳe (na) 238 wide upɾupɾe (na) upɾupɾe (na) 239 narrow omam (na) omam (na) 240 straight laⁱɛte (na) laⁱɛte (na) 241 crooked upaⁱjo (na) ugum (na) 243 long ogbogbɾe (na) ogbogbɾe (na) 244 short ugbubulu (na) ugbubulu (na) 246 thick loŋkpom (na) muⁱ (na)

57

247 thin arare (na) lɛpuᵉ (na) 248 heavy ululo (na) ululo (na) 249 light ofɛɾere (na) usulahaᵘ (na) 250 old aɾacbe (na) okŏlo (na) 251 new opɾopɾa (na) opɾa (na) 252 left ipɾe (na) ipɾe (na) 253 right eja (na) eja (na) 254 yes eː (na) eː (na) 255 no oʔo (na) kaⁱ (na) 256 hard uso.odo (na) leŋbo (na) 257 soft ok� pekpəle (na) ekpəle (na) 258 few k� paʃɛɾe (na) lacʷe (na) 259 up apɛn (na) apɛn (na) 260 down iːlu (na) iːlu (na) 261 wet olola (na) ola (na) 262 dry ohɾombɾa (na) ohɾokɾo (na) 263 dirty iluwe (na) iluwe (na) 264 all ididu (na) ididu (na) 265 I oŋŋo (na) imi (na) 266 you imi (na) iŋi (na) 267 he ɛŋŋa (na) ɛŋŋa (na) 268 she aŋuŋʃe (na) aŋuŋʃe (na) 269 we ɪnji (na) ɪnji (na) 271 you onu, unu (na) unu (na) 272 they ema (na) ema (na) 274 blow opʰe apʰe opo apʰe 275 whistle iɸu apiɸu iɸu apiɸu 275.5 sing otante atante ante atante 276 eat oja aⁱjə oja aⁱjə 276.01 I ate mijə (na) ɛ̃ja (na) 276.02 you ate aⁱjə (na) õⁱjə (na)

276.03 you (f) ate (same as you ate) (na)

(same as you ate) (na)

276.04 he ate (same as you ate) (na) aⁱjə (na)

276.05 she ate (same as you ate) (na) (same as he ate) (na)

276.06 we ate ɛnnʲə (na) ɛnnʲə (na)

276.08 they ate (same as you ate) (na) (same as he ate) (na)

276.10 you (pl) ate unujə (na) ɛmːaijə (na) 276.11 he is eating akᶢojə (na) akᶢojə (na)

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276.12 he will eat asoⁱjə (na) asaⁱjə (na) 276.13 he usually eat akaⁱjə (na) aⁱjəkebitɾu (na) 276.14 he didn't eat asojawə (na) asojawə (na) 276.5 do okudu odu odu adu 277 dance ota ata ota ata 278 play onɛh anɛh onɛh anɛh 279 smell onjã akonjã unjun anjun 280 see uʃi ɛʃi uʃi aʃi 281 laugh õkɾõ akɾõ õkɾõ akɾõ 282 say utoʰ otoʰ toʰ atoʰ 283 ask uluwe eluwe uluwe aluwe 284 beg owɛn awɛn owɛn awɛn 285 listen njɛnato aŋnjɛnato ɛnkʷo aŋnjɛnato 286 hear ko onko ɛ̃ko ãko 287 bark ana akana ugbe ogbe 288 shout ɛkpa atɛkpa ɛkpa atɛkpa 289 cry ocʷe ecʷe ocʷe ecʷe 290 fear okibu akibu okibu akibu 291 want uni eni uni eni 292 think oɾɛ(ʳʷfɾe) aɾɛ luɛphɾe aluɛphɾe 293 count opaʰ akopaʰ opaʰ apaʰ 294 know oza aza oza aza 295 teach ulɛn elɪn ulɛl alɛ 296 show unjɪn enjɪn unjɪn enjɪn 297 drink oʃʷa aʃʷa oʃʷa aʃʷa 298 suck oʃom aʃom oʃom aʃom 300 vomit uhʷon ohʷon uhʷon ahʷon 301 spit otakpe atakpe ekpɛ atakpe 302 sneeze adiʃa atadiʃa adiʃa atadiʃa 303 bite nŭwa anŭwa nŭwa anŭwa 304 sweep oze aze oze aze 305 sit cʳitɾa acʳitɾa ʃɪʃɾa aʃɪʃɾa 306 stand tăga atɪga okʲe akʲe 307 fight owɛn awʰɛn owɛn awʰɛn 308 lie down nɛnaʲ anɛnaʲ nɛnaʲ anɛnaʲ 309 yawn onjanʲu anjanʲu onjanʲu anjanʲu 310 rest utuɾum otuɾum utuɾum atuɾum 311 sleep nona anona nɛne anɛne 312 wash ukɾo okɾo ukɾo okɾo 313 wash-clothes kɾonkje okɾonkje kɾonkje akɾonkejə 314 bathe otʃɔm atʃɔm otʃɔm atʃɔm

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315 steal utuwo edʒe utuwo edʒe 316 give ma amma oma amma 317 hide da ada oda ada 318 take gbo agba gbo agba 319 hold go ogo ugo ogo 320.1 buy lə alo lə alo 321.1 sell ukɾo okɾo ukɾo akɾo 322 give birth udʒʝo odʒʝo udʒʝo adʒjo 323 marry obɾa akobɾa ok� paʃe ak� paʃe 324 die uk� po okpu uk� po ak� pu 325 kill opɾe apɾe opɾe apɾe 326 fall tɪːge etɪːge ok� pom ak� pa 327 fall over ok� pa ak� pa ok� pa.apɾe ak� pa.apɾe 328 walk usoŋ osoŋ usoŋ asoŋ 329 run utoh otoh utu atu 330 fly fɾo ofɾo fɾo ofɾo 331 jump otamfɾo atamfɾo fɪ̆ɾu afɪ̆ɾu 332 swim udom odom owo awo 333 come ba abːa ba abːa 334 enter njɪre anjɪre njɪre anjɪre 335 exit ɾo oɾo oɾu aɾu 336 go sokaŋ ok� poka kaŋ aːka 337 follow re ɛre re ɛre 338 send otuwa atuwa otuwa atuwa 339 cut wa awa wa awa 340 break we awe we awe 341 split osaʰ asaʰ osaʰ asaʰ 342 scratch okɪla akɪla kɪla akɪla 343 cook okɪre akɪre kɛre akɪre 343.5 boil ufɪn ukufɪn cʷa acʷa 343.6 fry okʳe akʳe okʳe akʳe 344 hunt igbe odigbe igbe atigbe 344.5 hunter eŋgbe (na) eŋgbe (na) 345 hit la aːla la aːla 346 tie lo olo lo alo 347 sew otuwə atuwə otuwə atuwə 348 forge ojɪ̆rə (de) ojɪ̆rə (de) 348.5 blacksmith akⁱᵘə (na) akⁱᵘə (na) 349 burn ufo (de) afu (de) 350 throw ota (de) ta (de) 351 pour ʃe (de) ʃe (de)

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352 pour out ʃebo (de) ʃekŭbo (de) 354 fill agwa (de) ogʷa (de) 355 push zeː (de) zeː (de) 356 pull woʰ (de) woʰ (de) 357 squeeze utun (gather) (de) ke (de) 358 dig utu (de) utu (de) 359 plant utʃuwo (de) utʃuwo (de) 361 harvest aɾa (de) ora (de) Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my...

(na)=not applicable aso=present tense (de)=didn't elicit ako=past tense

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Appendix E: Adja of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Adja TuduIburu

Date 15March2011

Givenlanguagename Adja

Givenvillagename TuduIburu

LGA Kajuru

State Kaduna

Informant EM

Age 51

Sex M

Reliability: good,butelicitorwasvoiceless

Elicitedby: CM OtherInformanʦ: JMM,32,M; LDA,45,M

Language (village) Adja (Tudu Iburu)No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair efaɾɛkwi ufaɾɛkwi

2 head aⁱɾɪkwe acʷe

3 forehead ibɛte ubɛte

4 ear oto ato

5 mouth ə̃nu ə̃nu

6 tooth ɪɾijɪri əjɪri

7 tongue ɛɾɛɖɛme aɖɛme

8 saliva akpʷe none

9 sweat odo none

10 chin udoŋu none

11 beard odoŋu none

12 nose ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ

13 eye iça aça

15 teardrop aⁱjɪri none

16 neck omo ɛɾemo

17 shoulder ovoʰ avoʰ

19 belly atɪrafu none

20 navel ɪriku none

21 stomach idəfo none

22 intestines ɪrinuŋ none

23 back əbu əbu

24 knee ubulŭgo əbulŭgo

25 leg ifʷifʷijə ufʷifʷijə

26 foot epɪfijə none

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27 shoes ak� po ak� po 28 thigh okk� pe akk� pe 29 arm aʃijavo aʃijavo 31 finger anijɛvo anːoɾovo 32 fingernail ofo afo 33 skin idɛɾ idɛɾ 34 bone ugbohu agbohu 35 blood aji (none) 36 heart ibɪcʷi ibɪcʷi 38 liver imɪdəfo umɪdəfo 38.5 body ɛɾənumə anumə 40 tree oʃe aʃe 41 firewood anɪʃe ɪʃe 42 bush əgɾumu əgɾumu 43 forest utɪ̆ri atɪ̆ri 44 bark owijəoʃi awijanaʃi 46 root okuŋ akuŋaʃi 47 branch anaga anarăganăʃi 48 medicine okaŋ ikaŋ 49 thorn ikŭra ikŭra 50 rope unːi iɾɪnːi 51 basket ikwo okwo 52 clothing igba ogba 53 seed eɾoʰ eroʰ 54 ax akːpɛ̆ri irikːpɛ̆ri 55 cutlass imolɛɾobu omolɛɾobu 56 hoe ihʷurə ohʷorə 57 and ihʷurə kɪnə imolɛrobu (na) 58 leaf oⁱjə aⁱjə 59 ground nut iᵗ�ʃi (none) 60 bambura nut isadʒijə (none) 61 guinea corn iɾigu əgu 62 locust bean tree ikiwʰijə ikiwʰijə 64 millet iɾɪt�ʃe at�ʃe 65 zobo leaf aⁱkʲo aⁱjikʲo 68 shea butter ikiɹo ikiɹo 69 mohogany oho aho 70 grass abolɛlo obololo 71 grass, dry ɛbo ɛhweho obo ohoho 72 weed (none) (none) 73 flower ifŭru ufŭru

63

74 fruit ikulo ikulonaʃi 75 meat enumə enumə 76 fat asɛra (none) 77 egg aⁱrɛkk ͡pa akpa 78 bean ɪrige age 79 fufu ɪrike ake 80 soup ɛrɪne ane 81 cough ukk� po əkk� pu 82 pain olo (none) 82.5 corpse oko iko 83 grave alːo alːo 84 one i̟rije (na) 85 two ɛrəpaⁱ (na) 86 three ɛɾətaⁱ (na) 87 four ɛrənaɾi (na) 88 five ɛɾəto (na) 89 six ɛritɪn (na) 90 seven ɛritɪnsɛla (na) 91 eight ɛrinanːare (na) 92 nine ɛriloso (na) 93 ten osonaⁱki (na) 94 twelve osonɛrɪkpaⁱ (na) 94.5 fifteen osomɛrɪto (na) 95 twenty iʃepaⁱ (na) 96 hundred aradʒi (na) 97 woman aⁱji aⁱji 98 man aɬɪmi aɬɪmi 100 person adʒijə adʒijə 102 wedding ulubijə uluwibijə 102 father ate ate 105 mother əju əju 106 child anõ anõ 107 brother anəju anəju 108 sister afo afo 111 chief agom agumu 112 friend aⁱcᵘ aⁱcᵘ 113 stranger aⁱke əke 114 God õnõ (none) 115 name ot�ʃa (none) 116 animal ikɪnːə ikɪnːə 118 pig H H

64

119 tail apŏro apŏro 122 fly aⁱge aⁱge 123 spider ototĭɾi aⁱjətɪr̆i 124 mosquito avo avo 129 honeybee ɪʃi ɪʃi 130 honey ɛɾɪtoʰ atoʰ 131 goat anɪmə anɪɾənəmə 132 horn ɛɾɪtimə atɪmə 133 cow iːna iːna 134 sheep anatɛmi anaratɛmi 135 crocodile ojo aⁱjo 137 chicken anənu anaranu 138 guinea fowl oso aso 139 bird aninu anuɾunu 140 claw ofʷoninu afornurinu 141 wing oso aso 142 feather iʃi iʃɪnŭrŭnu 143 snake ijo ijo 144 tortoise ik� pi ik� pi 145 rat itʷi itʷi 146 scorpion ɛna ɛnot�ʃɪ̆ru 147 fish iːtəgbu iːtəgbu 148 toad ihʷe uhʷe 150 buffalo ikuwə ikuwə 151 elephant ekə ikə 154 hyena iwʰijə owʰijə 155 dog anavə anaravə 156 house/hut ona ɛraⁱnə 157 room odobo idabolo 158 fence owijə awijə 159 road/path otijə itijə 160 pit ohwo əhwo 161 farm (field) idʒə odʒə 162 at asikat�ʃa (na) 163 door ənʲubo ənʲuabo 164 chair/stool iːgʷo oːgʷo 165 salt oŋjo (none) 166 broom ejaɾe ɪrijare 167 mortar usoh ɪrisoh 168 pestle anusoh anɪrisoh 169 fire oɻijə ɪɻijə

65

170 smoke uke (none) 171 ashes agat�ʃurijə (none) 172 stick anoʃe anaɾaʃe 173 stone oti ati 174 cave ofopa afapa 175 mountain opa apa 176 earth, ground ɛrɛbo abo 177 mud irɛɬaᵘ ariɬaᵘ 178 clay ɛrɪtoŋ atoŋ 179 sand ikje (none) 180 dust at͡ʃo (none) 181 money ofe (none) 182 iron impoʰ omopoʰ 184 market okobɛrə.omə okobɛrə.omə 185 wind uʷu (none) 186 cloud aⁱjirimoʰ (none) 187 rain avijə (none) 188 rainy season ɛɾɛkpɛɾe akpɛre 189 dry season ɛɾɛwo awo 190 dew omo amo 191 stream anavo anaɾavo 192 river avo avo 193 canoe ogbŭlo agbŭlo 194 bridge idoʰ odoʰ 195 water ənisum (none) 196 lake obijə abijə 197 sky aⁱjɛrimu (none) 198 moon opi (none) 199 star ejɛre ejɛre 200 sun õnõ ẽnõ 201 year anji anji 202 morning itʷɛti (none) 203 afternoon atono (none) 204.1 evening ojɾɛ (none) 205.1 night əti (none) 206 yesterday amuʃɛ (none) 207 tomorrow ecʷa (none) 208 knife ekːumə okːɪmə 208.1 my bow otami (na) 208.2 your otãŋa (na) 208.3 his otango (na)

66

208.4 her otango (na) 208.5 our otabaⁱjo (na) 208.6 your (pl) otanako (na) 208.7 their otabako (na) 209 bow ota eta 210 arrow ɛɾɛɮa aɮa 211 quiver ufʷo ifʷo 212 spear okə̆ro akə̆ro 213 war okə̆ro ɛkə̆ro 214 who? ɪŋo.udu? ɪŋo.udurən? 215 whose? oŋɪŋawɛn (na) 216 what? ɪkʲumbo ɪkʲumbɛrɛ 217 when? kagbawe abakabawe 218 where? kubi kiɲaᵘ 219 here okawe owekoke 220 how? ɲuɲji ĭjotinane 221 why? ikjumbo ikumbosana.oba 222 ripe obijə (na) 223 rotten uvŭru (na) 224 hungry idŭfo (na) 225 hot ot�ʃe (na) 226 cold/cool iɾiwʰe (na) 227 cold oɽije (na) 228 smooth odɛdɛɾi (na) 229 white ɪfifu (na) 230 black isisu (na) 231 dark iti (na) 232 red isiːse (na) 233 sharp ɛrɛla (na) 234 dull isɪnəkpe (na) 235 evil aɾoloʃe̠ (na) 236 good ododomə (na) 237 many opam (na) 238 wide ojojə (na) 239 narrow osəname (na) 240 straight odəm (na) 241 crooked əgəgəɾ (na) 243 long ogbo.ɪbaŋ (na) 244 short ububulu (na) 246 thick ukk� pum (na) 247 thin ozoze (na)

67

248 heavy opotoro (na) 249 light osɪnafʷo (na) 250 old anakpe (na) 251 new esiəsa (na) 252 left epuma (na) 253 right ela (na) 254 yes eː (na) 255 no kaⁱ (na) 256 hard ɛɾɛt�ʃo (na) 257 soft okpɛpɛle (na) 258 few naze (na) 259 up aⁱjaⁱjə (na) 260 down atata (na) 261 wet ole (na) 262 dry ohoho (na) 263 dirty iɾile (na) 264 all naⁱdidu (na) 265 I ɛmɛ (na) 266 you oŋʷo (na) 267 he aŋa (na) 268 she aŋa (na) 269 we aⁱjo (na) 271 you unu (na) 272 they abo (na) 274 blow opɛn apɛni 275 whistle iwəli atewəli 275.5 sing ate atate 276 eat ola ala 276.01 I ate mela (na) 276.02 you ate oŋ̩ŋola (na) 276.03 you (f) ate oŋ̩ŋola (na) 276.04 he ate iŋala (na) 276.05 she ate ala (na) 276.06 we ate aⁱjolə (na) 276.08 they ate ala (na) 276.10 you (pl) ate aⁱjolə (na) 276.11 he is eating asola (na) 276.12 he will eat akila (na) 276.13 he usually eat akila (na) 276.14 he didn't eat atalabə (na) 276.5 do ud� ʒu əd� ʒu

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277 dance oⁱjə aⁱjə 278 play okk� pelə akk� pelə 279 smell anjə akuŋju 280 see unu anu 281 laugh osɛrə akasɛrə 282 say atɪ̆rə aŋatɪrə 283 ask uvulu əvulu 284 beg osŏro asə̆ro 285 listen ako ako 286 hear ko ako 287 bark ugbɛli agbɛli 288 shout takpa atakpa 289 cry ut�ʃi ət�ʃi 290 fear ɛɾɛbata akatɛɾɛbata 291 want awaŋ awaŋgo 292 think aⁱʃˡanɛkwɛri akpase 293 count opɪ̆lə apɪlə̆ 294 know uje aje 295 teach ome ame 296 show ujɛni ajɛni 297 drink osa asa 298 suck əmu akəmu 300 vomit ukuʷu akəku 301 spit atukpo akatukpo 302 sneeze idiʃə akatidiʃə 303 bite oɻʷa akɻʷa 304 sweep ojɛrɛ akajɛroka 305 sit aʃɬe aⁱʃɬa 306 stand otaj aⁱsuŋ 307 fight akŏro akakŏro 308 lie down oɲiɲe aɲiɲe 309 yawn ojumŏ akajumŏ 310 rest uʷuː akaʷu 311 sleep umo amo 312 wash uɸuɾu akaɸuɾu 313 wash-clothes (same as wash) (de) 314 bathe osəmo akasəmo 315 steal uji aⁱji 316 give ama akama 317 hide aso akaso 318 take ijɪ̆ɾə aⁱjɪɾə

69

319 hold ukoʰ akoʰ 320.1 buy oɬe aɬe 321.1 sell og�bɪrə ag�bɪɾə 322 give birth əd� ʒi akadʒɪɹi 323 marry ogbijə akjog�bijə 324 die ukk� po əkk� po 325 kill api akapɪli 326 fall okpa akpa 327 fall over ovijaᵘ ovijəkpaᵘ 328 walk uke akəke 329 run ote akate 330 fly ofunu akafunu 331 jump agəna akagəna 332 swim udom akadom 333 come m̩ba aba 334 enter ɣɛlə aɣɛlə 335 exit ukunu akakunu 336 go kikʲəŋ asəŋŋə 337 follow kiji akiji 338 send tʊma atʊma 339 cut owa awa 340 break oʷɾa awoɾaᵘ 341 split osɨjə asɨjə 342 scratch ugəru akəguru 343 cook ot�ʃo akat�ʃo 343.5 boil opa akapa 343.6 fry oka akaka 344 hunt ɪrɪgbe asʊɪrɪgbe 344.5 hunter agbe (na) 345 hit ədʒo akata 346 tie ulo əlo 347 sew uwe akəwe 348 forge opoʰ akapoʰ 348.5 blacksmith akʲɪmə (na) 349 burn ufuru (de) 350 throw ofɛni (de) 351 pour uʃi (de) 352 pour out anawo (de) 354 fill otijo (de) 355 push okəma (de) 356 pull awa (de)

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357 squeeze uɾujiə (de) 358 dig utumu (de) 359 plant opɪlə (de) 361 harvest okpa (de) Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my...

(na)=not applicable aso=present tense (de)=didn't elicit ako=past tense

71

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