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From expression to genre:

A rhetorical approach to teaching writing

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Language in use has two poles. 1. The first is based on the language-user’s

communicative goals and the need to organize language with others in mind.

2. The second, (self-)expression, is self-oriented in terms of its organization. “Instead of considering the effect of our feelings and attitudes on others, we just let them loose. Instead of having to take care that everything’s clearly ordered, we can switch back and forward on impulse, to suit ourselves” (p. 133).

John Dixon (1975): Growth through English set in the perspective of the Seventies

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Theorist Focus on the writer Focus on the reader

John Dixon (1975) Self-expression Communication

Peter Elbow (1973) Free-writing  

Linda Flower (1979) Writer-based prose Reader-based prose

Sheridan Blau (1988) Developing fluency and conquering fears

A focus on audience and publication

From writer focus to reader focus

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Genre and Dancing with the pen: The learner as a writer (Learning Media: 1992)

Genre refers to the different literary types, classes, sets, or categories of writing, each featuring its own group of attributes—in content, style, and form...The attributes of each genre are conditioned by the purpose for the writing and, except in a limited number of genres, are not obligatory – there is no one way to write a novel, for example, but there are common expectations of what a novel will contain.

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Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, 1993:

Genres are social processes. Texts are patterned in reasonably predictable ways according to patterns of social interaction in a particular culture. Social patterning and textual patterning meet as genres. Genres are textual interventions in society; and society itself would be nothing without language in all its patterned predictability. It follows that genres are not simply created by individuals in the moment of their utterance; to have meaning, they must be social. Individual speakers and writers act within a cultural context and with a knowledge of the different social effects of different types of oral and written text (p. 7).

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Aviva Freedman and Peter Medway (1994)

Genres are not just text types, but “typical rhetorical engagements with recurring situations”

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The Australian Genre School in theory a reaction to “process writing,” a desire for social justice for the less

powerful in society the development of systemic functional

linguistics as a way of thinking about grammar

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Martin’s six “genres”: Report Explanation Procedure Discussion Recount Narrative

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The Australian Genre School in practice

begin with a broad definition identify their use (purpose and functions) describe their typical structure (in terms of sequence) identify a participant focus note typical lexico-grammatical features.

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A critique of the Australian Genre School

It often lead to a transmission model of teaching Stages that were identified suggested a lack of

flexibility Misleading descriptions of “genres” Confusion of “genre” and “function” Grammatical knowledge for its own sake

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Function “Language function is the work you want a

piece of language to do for you.” “Function” is a term that you need to

introduce into your literacy teaching before you introduce the term “genre.”

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Locating genre and function in a rhetorical frame

Rhetoric is the art of making language work for you.

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A rhetorical frame for writing People construct texts to achieve a desired result with

a particular audience Textual form follows function Texts are generated by contexts Texts assume a social complicity between maker and

reader The expectations of participants in such acts of

complicity become formalized in the conventions of genre

These conventions relate to such language features (at least in print texts) as layout, structure, punctuation, syntax and diction.

Knowledge about language (or grammatical knowledge) is justified as it supports the attainment of competence in relevant language features.

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Narrative is how a story is told. The how of story-telling involves techniques andconventions characteristic of narrative genres,e.g. short stories, anecdotes, news stories, parables, fables, novels, biographies.

NARRATIVE

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(i) Vantage Point: 

1. Who tells the story. (Narrator) 

2. Scope of the access. (Limited/omniscient) 

3. Perspective in time (Removed/retrospective or immediate – tense) (ii) Content: 

1. What are the significant settings? 

2. Who are the significant characters? 

3. What are the significant events and actions?

SELECTION

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1. The basis for sequence (plot).2. The basis for juxtaposition.

ORGANIZATION

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Predicament: A difficult choice, often early in a narrative, where a character is presented with a choice involving unpalatable options.

Conflict: A situation where the interests of characters or groups of characters are opposed.

Complication: An unexpected problem or misfortune that interrupts the smooth flow of action of a story.

Resolution: A choice or event which sorts out a complication, one way or another.

Rising Action: The suspenseful part of a story leading up to its climax.

Turning Point: A crucial choice or event which changes the course of a story in a radical way.

Climax: The decisive moment in a story towards which events appear to be heading.

Denouement: The process of unravelling or winding down that occurs in the aftermath of a story’s climax.

Plot elements