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A review of research of 1960–1967 to evaluate theconsideration of the use of hypnosis as a psychologicaltool in a college level reading and study skillslaboratoryLillian L. Gordon aa Community CollegePublished online: 05 Feb 2010.

To cite this article: Lillian L. Gordon (1968) A review of research of 1960–1967 to evaluate the consideration of the use ofhypnosis as a psychological tool in a college level reading and study skills laboratory, Journal of the Reading Specialist, 8:2,58-65, DOI: 10.1080/19388076809557037

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58 JOURNAL OF THE READING SPECIALIST

A REVIEW OF RESEARCH OF 1960-1967 TO EVALUATETHE CONSIDERATION OF THE USE OF HYPNOSIS AS APSYCHOLOGICAL TOOL IN A COLLEGE LEVEL READING

AND STUDY SKILLS LABORATORY

LILLIAN L. GORDON

Community College

The phenomenon known as "hypnosis" has been a controversialtechnique in the fields of psychotherapy, medicine, clinical psychology,and more recently learning. Actually, classroom teachers have used hyp-notic principles for a long time. When teachers attempt to relax theirpupils before starting a difficult assignment, they are using a hypnoticprinciple. When athletic coaches motivate their teams with a "pep talk",they are using a principle of hypnosis. College instructors have alsomade use of hypnotic techniques when they use visual aids and a descrip-tive vocabulary, Krippner says :

Because suggestion is frequent concomitant of the teachingprocess, it is likely that many educators have, without knowing

. it, used some form of hypnosis in many of their most success-ful pedogogical efforts.1

I. THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem. It is the purpose of this study to reviewthe research to evaluate the consideration of the use of hypnosis as apsychological tool in a college reading and study skills laboratory. It isthe belief of this writer that hypnosis is a psychological tool that canand should be used effectively in education. This writer feels that hyp-nosis is adaptable at this time to the college level, particularly in a col-lege reading and study skills laboratory.

II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND •

The origin of hypnosis is not known. Egyptian doctors wrote aboutit, Abyssinian fakirs made slaves with it, and Chinese magicians in theWest Borneo cured with it. Many religious sects have used hypnosis.The Montainists, a Christian sect, that lived two hundred years afterChrist used a form of hypnosis. During prayer they held their forefingerto the nose and after a period of time, a hypnotic trance occurred. TheHesychasts, a sect of the Greek Orthodox church, hypnotized themselvesby gazing at the umbilicus.

During the Middle Ages hypnosis was kept alive by the sorcerers andwizards. It flourished under the cloak of black magic and was considered

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to be an evil power. It was thought that the hypnotizer was an agent ofthe devil.

During the 18th century, a German physician by the name of Mes-mer introduced the modern world to hypnosis. He developed the theory ofanimal magnetism and finally constructed a large oak chest from whichprotruded iron rods for patients to touch. Most of Mesmer's theories werewrong, but he had many followers.

Braid, an Englishman, during the 19th century rejected the ideaof magnetic fluid. Braid's contribution to hypnosis was a hypnotic tech-nique of gazing at a bright object to strain the eyes. This was a means ofinduction to hypnosis.

In France around 1865 Leibeanult used hypnosis as a cure amongthe poor. He did not charge for his service. Berheim, a great French phy-sician investigated Liebeault and was so impressed with him that heacknowledged his ability and thus gave Leibeanult status. Bernheim wroteone of the greatest books on hypnosis. {Suggested Therapeutics whichcovers the field in detail.)

Until the middle of the 19th century, hypnosis has been used to al-leviate pain, but after the discovery of the narcotic drugs such as etherand chloroform, the use of hypnosis was thought to be superfluous.2

There were many reasons why hypnosis was abandoned by science.The clergy objected to hypnosis on the basis that it impaired man's freewill. The medical field objected on the basis that it appeared to infringeon their profession. Academic men did not continue work in this field be-cause of the fear of criticism. Laymen objected to hypnosis because ofthe lack of understanding of the nature of hypnosis.

For the most part hypnosis was left in the 20th century to enter-tainers on the stage. Hypnosis received little attention during the FirstWorld War, but during the Second World War hypnosis again was recog-nized.

During the last twenty-five years laboratory psychologists havequietly experimented and added to our knowledge of hypnosis. Hypnosisfound a place in the treatment of neurosis. Today research in hypnosisis sponsored by as reputable an institution as the Menninger Foundation.3

III. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

College Reading and Study Skills Laboratory. A college readingand study skills laboratory is a laboratory where college students mayreceive training in remedial and developmental reading, remedial spell-

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ing, and additional training in the skills needed for better study in college.Most four year colleges have a reading laboratory, and all of the twoyear colleges find a reading laboratory necessary. Various materials,equipment and machinery are available for student use. Reading labora-tories are run by a team of reading specialists in conjunction with thecounseling center. Sometimes a psychologist is part of the team.

Hypnosis. Hypnosis is generally defined as a state of consciousnesscharacterized.by a heightened responsiveness to a direct suggestion. Ern-est R. Hilgard says that there are seven characteristics which are recog-nizable in subjects who illustrate a high degree of susceptibility to hyp-nosis.3 They are as follows :

1. Subsidence of the planning function. The hypnotized subjectloses initiative and lacks the desire to make and carry out planson his own.

2. Redistribution of attention. The attention of the subject is se-lective and the subject does not attend equally to all aspects ofthe environment. The subjects attention focus appears to be onwhat the hypnotist tells him. Under hypnosis selective attentionand selective inattention of the subject goes beyond the usualrange.

3. Availability of visual memories from the past and heightenedability for fantasy-production. Hypnotic experiments common-ly make use of age-regression, in which the subject is asked toreturn to a scene experienced in the past.

4. Reduction in reality testing and a tolerance for persistent re-ality distortion. Reality testing in the unhypnotized individualis squirming, scratching, looking around, noting the time andetc. Reduction of reality testing in the hypnotized subject leadsto the acceptance of reality distortions.

5. Increased suggestibility.6. Role behavior. The subject will adopt a suggested role and

carry on complex activities that correspond to that role.7. Amnesia for what transpired with the hypnotic state. Posthyp-

notic amnesia has bean found to be of the most dependableconcomitants of hypnosis.

There are various states of hypnosis. Authorities do not agree onthe number of states. The following four states appear to be acceptableto most authorities :

1. Mild Hypnosis. This is the first stage the subject enters when hesubmits to hypnosis. He is awake and aware of what is going on. Herealizes that he is cooperating and responding. He obeys verbal com-

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mands and finds that he is unable to perform certain actions which heis told he cannot do. The subject has not lost contact with reality, andcan recall the incident. This state is readily terminated. Any distractingnoises may bring the experience to a sudden end.

2. Dream Hypnosis. This state follows the mild hypnosis and theindividual feels that he is daydreaming. He is in contact with reality,but acts as if he is in a daydream. He recalls his experience and knowsthat they were dreams rather than actual facts in time and space. Thedreams have all the color, limitations, and reality of dreams in sleep. Dis-agreeable suggestions may cause him to terminate the spell and awake.

3. Somnambulism. This state follows dream hypnosis and the subjecthas lost all contact with his surroundings, and can be hallucinated in anysense, such as visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. He believes his experiencesare real. He may display anesthesia, paralysis, and analgesia, and therigidity of limbs called catalepsy. He is usually amenable to therapeuticsuggestion and to post-hypnotic suggestion to be later executed.

4. Hypnotic Coma. This state follows the somnambulism. In this formof hypnosis the subject falls into a profound sleep and is not responsiveto suggestion. If the subject cannot be wakened by suggestion or force-ful means, he will fall into a heap if placed upright. He should be allowedto sleep out this coma.4

Autohypnosis. Autohypnosis is hypnosis produced by the self. Onecan produce autohypnosis by looking at objects or talking to oneself, butfor the most part only the light stages of hypnosis can be achieved. Onecan produce a numbness of limbs, halluncination, and post-hypnotic sug-gestions during autohypnosis.

Passes. Hypnosis can be induced by passes. This old method hasbeen abandoned for modern techniques. It is used chiefly for theatricalpurposes to impress audiences. Various movements of the hands calledpasses can be made at a short distance, or the hands can be used to touchthe body.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Much has been written about the use of hypnosis in the medicalfield. Most of the use of hypnosis in the educational field seems to belimited to college experiments on college students and adults. Perhapsthe explanation is that researchers are reluctant to work with hypnosison children. However, most specialists in the field of hypnosis feel thatone is most susceptible to hypnosis between the ages of seven and twelve.This study deals with mainly college students that were in need of moti-

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vation help and were agreeable to the experiments.

Krippner5 reports that after five years of work in his study of hyp-nosis and reading improvement among university students that ninetypercent of all the college population is abk to enter at least a light hyp-notic trance. He reports that improvement is likely to occur in such areasas the studying of course material, taking examinations, and committingoneself to long-range goals. He feels that hypnosis must be used in col-laboration with study methods and study techniques.

Erickson6 reports in his work in hypnosis and examination panicwhile working with high school students, physicians, lawyers and Ph.D.candidates that he is successful in the elimination of examination panic.He uses a trance induced from light to sonambulistic range. Erickson sug-gests that the student pass the examination with the lowest passing grade,and also suggests simple study skill techniques. He reports that he waseven successful working with a subject over the telephone, (long distancecall)

Eisele and Higgins7 report that in their work with examinationpanic, one college student was carried out of the examination room in astate of shock because of examination panic. With the aid of hypnosisand suggestion the results were startling in that patient who exhibited anincrease in relaxation. There was an increase in examination grade aver-age. Eisele and Higgins report success in working with students to helpthem concentrate and use better study habits.

Oetting8 reports that in his work with hypnosis and concentration instudy that a trance induction through the usual methods leaves the sub-ject in a relaxed, sleepy state and that state is not suitable for active andintense study. He suggests that an approach consisting of training thestudents is in the autohypnotic induction of an "alert" trance. He feelsthat it is important that the student does not visualize the training as re-lating to hypnosis, so he will not have any previous conceptions abouthypnosis.

Mellenbruch9 reports that in using hypnosis in student counseling formore than twenty years that the chief value of hypnosis is the ease withwhich "core" ideas can be established or changed. Core ideas are pointsof reference in our day-to-day living which represents objects, or prin-ciples or feelings or concepts which we are for or are against. He reportsthat in a case in which concentration was developed in a student, tenyears later almost nothing could get her attention while reading a bookor a newspaper.

Spiegel10 reports that in his study of imprinting that the use of

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hypnosis aids this process. (Imprinting is described as a learning processwhich, when activated during a specific time period, establishes relativelyirreversible "fixed action patterns". At critical time periods, an eventor effect occurs which establishes rigid, stereotyped modes of behaviorthat influences learning and development.

Kellog, Patent, Weitzenhoffer and Wels11 report post-hypnotic sug-gestions which remain effective for duration of three weeks to one yearwithout intervening practice and Erickson noted cases in which posthyp-notic suggestion was carried out following a five year delay period.

Gray12 reported in his investigation on learning to spell with the useof hypnosis as to learning to spell compared to the same done in thewaking state that he found only a small improvement in hypnosis. Heused subjects who were known to be weak in spelling.

Cooper and Erickson1* reported an instance in which hallucinatedviolin practice with temporal condensation was reported by the subjectedand a witness as having been remarkably effective.

SUMMARY

This paper has given a history of hypnosis by tracing the uses ofhypnosis. A definition of a college reading and study skills laboratoryas well as the basic states of the hypnotic trances has been stated. Thecharacteristics of a subject who illustrates a high degree of susceptibilityto hypnosis has been summarized. The available research of the use ofhypnosis with college level students as a study aid has been reviewedand reported.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper has shown that hypnotic techniques are used by educa-tors every day. In reviewing clinical studies where hypnosis is used inuniversity and college laboratories to aid students achieve objectives, ithas been found to be effective. A light trance where the student is awakeand aware of what is going on could be used for concentration and mo-tivation. As pointed out earlier in this paper, a light trance can be term-inated anytime the subject wishes. Somnambulism, a state where the sub-ject has lost all contact with his surroundings, could be used in studentcounseling where there is a need for a change in core ideas or where im-printing is considered. Auto-Hypnosis could be part of the college orien-tation program. Of course these methods would be used with the consentof the student and the student's parents.

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Who should use hypnosis as a psychological tooll Up to this timehypnosis has been used mainly by medical doctors and psychologists.However, it would seem that a reading specialist with a strong back-ground in psychology would be trained to use this tool. Krippner14 sug-gests that the reading specialist have a sound background in educationalpsychology, a solid background in hypnosis and an understanding of thepsychological and physiological concomitants of reading improvementand study habits. Krippner also suggests that this person should be amember of either the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis or the So-ciety of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis.

How should hypnosis be used? Hypnosis could be used on a one toone basis in an office or in a classroom with a classroom group. Oetting15

suggests a technique for concentration and gives a detailed word by worddescription. A novice might make a tape of this and try the method inthe classroom.

Where can a reading specialist get training in hypnosis? Mann16

reports that in 1962, training in hypnosis was included in the psychiatricresidencies at Johns Hopkins University, University of Cincinnati, Uni-versity of California, at Los Angeles, University of Oklahoma, LouisianaState University, University of Arkansas, Columbia University, EmoryUniversity and the University of Michigan. Graduate courses in hypnosiswere given at the Graduate School of Medicine, University of Pennsyl-vania and at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. Undergraduatelectures were made part of the psychiatric curriculum at Temple Univer-sity, University of Maryland, University of Virginia and Universityof Colorado. Perhaps many more institutions have added hypnosis to thecurriculum.

In the present day academic world where increasing demands andpressures take a toll from our students and where our students find theneed of benzedrene and pep pills to meet examinations, because somestudents look for escape in alcohol, sex, LSD and worse, because somestudents select suicide rather than face failure—perhaps it is time welooked at this gift from the ancients and considered it as possible psycho-logical tool to meet today's demands.

1. Stanley Krippner, Ph.D., "Hypnosis and Reading Improvement Among UniversityStudents," The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Volume 5, 1962-1963, pp. 187-193.

2. Leley Kuhn and Salavator Russo, Ph.D., "History of Hypnosis," Modern Hypnosis(California: Wilshire Book Company, 1963), pp. 1-3

3. Ernest R. Hilgard, Ph.D., Hypnotic Susceptibility New York: Harcourt, Brace &World, Inc., 1965.

4. Leley Kuhn and Salavator Russo, op. cit., pp. 20-215. Stanley Krippner, Ph. D., "Hypnosis and Reading Improvement Among University

Students", The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Volume 5, 1962-1963.

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6. Milton H. Erickson, "Hypnosis and Examination Panic", The American Journal ofClinical Hypnosis, Volume 7, 1965-1965

7. Vincent G. Eisele and Rev. J. J. Higgins, "Hypnosis in Education", The Journal ofClinical Hypnosis, July 1960-62

9. P. L. Mellenbruch, Ph.D., "Hypnosis In Student Counseling", The American Journalof Clinical Hypnosis, Volume VII, July 1964, pp. 60-63.

10. Herbert Spiegel, M.D. "Imprinting, Hypnotizability and Learning as Factors in thePsychotherapeutic Process", The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1964-1965,

pp. 221-22511. Kellogg, Patten, Weitzenhoffer and Wells, "Effects of Motivation on the Availability

and Retrieval of Memory Tracts", Psychological Bulletin, Volume 65, No. 1, Janu-ary, 1966.

12. W. H. Gray, "The Effect of Hypnosis on Learning to Spell", Journal of EducationalPsycholoay, 1934, Volume 25.

13. L. P. Cooper and M. H. Erickson, "Time Distortion in Hypnosis", Bulletin II, George-town, University Medical Center, 1950, pp. 50-68.

14. Krippner, op. cit., p.15. Oetting, op. cit.16. Herbert Mann, M.D., "Hypnosis Comes of Age", The Journal of Clinical Hypnosis,

Volume 5, 1962-1963, pp. 159-162

BIBLIOGRAPHYA. BOOKS

Arons, Harry, Master Course in Hypnotism. Irvington, N. J. Powers Publishers, Inc.,1948. 223 pp.

Bernheim, H. Hypnosis and Suggestion in Psychotherapy, New Hyde Park, New York,University Books, 1964.

Estabrooks, G. H. Hypootism, E. D. Dutton, & Co., Inc., 1943.Estabrooks, George H. Hypnotism, New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1957.Hilgard, Ernest R. Hypnotic Susceptibility. New York: Harcourt, Brace & "World, Inc.,

1965, 434 pp.Kuhn, Lesley and Russo, Salvatore. Modern Hypnosis. Hollywood, California, Wilshire

Book Company, 1958.Kline, Milton V. Freud and Hypnosis. New York: The Julian Press, Inc., 1958.Weitzenhoffer, Andre M. W. Hypnotism, An Objective Study in Suggestability, London:

Chapman and Hall, Limited, 1953.

B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNEDSOCIETIES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis in Educational and Moral Prob-lems." Vincent G. Eisele, Md. and Rev. J. J. Hlggins. M. A-, S.T.L.. July 1960-62,Volume III, TV, pp. 259-263.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis and Examination Panics." MiltonH. Erickson, M.D., Volume VII, 1964-1965. pp. 356-357.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis in Integrative Motivation." G. H.Estabrooks, Ph.D. and J. R. May Volume VII, April 1965. pp. 346-352.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Profiles in Hypnotic Ability. Ernest R.Hilgard, Ph.D., Volume VII, October 1964, pp. 136-138.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis and Reading Improvement AmongUniversity Students." Stanley Krippner, Ph.D. Volume 5, 1962-1963, pp. 187-193.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis Comes of Age." Herbert Mann,M. D. Volume 5. 1962-1963, pp. 159-162.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis in Student Counseling." P. L.Mellenbruch, Ph.D. Volume VII, July 1964, pp. 60-63.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Hypnosis and Concentration In Study." E.R. Oetting, Ph.D. Volume VII, 1964, pp. 148-151.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Imprinting, Hypnotizabillty and Learningas Factors in the Psychotherapeutic Process." Herbert Spiegel, M.D. Volume VII,1964-1965, pp. 221-225.

The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. "Time and Patience: Important Factors InSuccessful Hypnotic Induction and Response." Lawrence Milton Staples, D.M.D.Volume V, 1962-1963, pp. 200-204.

Psychological Bulletin, Volume 65, No. 1, January 1966, "Effects of Availability and Re-trieval of Memory Traces."

Psychological Abstracts, #7, Volume 41, Voprosy Psychological 1967, pp. 108-114, Relder,E. G. and Libikh, SS (Gertsen State Pedogogical Inst.,. Leningrad, USSR)

Psychological Reports. "Review of Recent Research on Hypnotic Learning." WilliamW. Treloar, June 1967, Part I, Southern Universities Press.D

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