a path forward
TRANSCRIPT
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A Path Forward
Game-Changing Reforms in Higher Education and
the Implications for Business and Financing Models
By David A. Bergeron December 2013
WWW.AMERICANPROGRESS.O
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A Path ForwardGame-Changing Reforms in Higher Education and
the Implications for Business and Financing Models
By David A. Bergeron December 2013
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1 Introduction and summary
3 Urgent need for change versus slow pace of change
7 Innovative reform models
14 Implications for business and financing models
18 Policy recommendations
22 Conclusion
23 About the author
24 Endnotes
Contents
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Introduction and summary
A a recen convening o he Alliance o Saes, Complee College America, a
naional nonprofi dedicaed o growing he pool o American college graduaes,
advocaed or he adopion o five o wha i calls game-changer sraegies ha
could dramaically increase he number o sudens who successully complee
college.1Well-reasoned and arully explained, one is lef o wonder why any
insiuion or sae sysem would no immediaely adop all five sraegies. Indeed,
i is clear rom he evidence presened by Complee College America ha imple-
mening hese game changers would resul in more degrees and oher educa-ional credenials being awarded while closing atainmen gaps or radiionally
underrepresened populaions. Also, significanly, no changes in ederal policy are
necessary o drive orward wih he reorms, alhough some ederal policy changes
could undoubedly help quicken he pace o adopion.
One o he game changersGuided Pahways o Success, or GPSaddresses
wha is perhaps he mos longsanding problem plaguing he American possec-
ondary educaion sysem: he lack o clear pahways or sudens o ake hem
hrough possecondary educaion o a career. Under he GPS model, sudens
sar in a limied number o mea-majorsa se o courses o mee academic
requiremens across a range o disciplines and programsand ulimaely com-
plee a specific major hrough a highly srucured degree plan. Under hese degree
plans, every semeser o he program would be ighly srucured o assure ha
sudens have access o key milesone courses when hey need hem. echnology
would be in place o warn advisors when sudens all behind so ha hey can
offer imely and effecive inervenion.2One quesion lef unanswered, however, is
wheher he degree atained a he end o he GPS process will mee he workorce
needs o employers.
In his repor, we describe ways ha reorm models such as hose idenified as
game changers by Complee College America, along wih sackable credenials
and compeency-based credenials, ha i aken o scale, can dramaically change
he oucomes o possecondary educaion in he Unied Saes. As used in higher
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educaion in he Unied Saes oday, sackable credenials are a sequence o
credenials ha accumulae over ime o build up an individuals qualificaions
and help hem move along a career pahway or up a career ladder o differen and
poenially higher-paying jobs.3
We discuss how he curren echnological and human sysems along wih busi-ness and financing models in possecondary educaion impede he developmen
o needed reorms and how he adopion o he mos promising reorms could
significanly increase he produciviy o he naions possecondary educaion
sysem. oday, ar oo ew sudens complee cerificaes and degrees, having
aken on oo much deb. Furhermore, when sudens do complee a cerificae
or a degree program, hey hear employers say hey do no have he righ skills
or he jobs ha are available.
We also propose policy soluions ha do no require congressional acion ha
could accelerae he pace and accepance o reorms wih clear and significanimplicaions or sudens, employers, and ulimaely, axpayers. Specifically, we
call on he U.S. secreary o educaion o design and implemen experimens
auhorized under ederal suden-aid programs and urge he adopion o qual-
iy merics agains which innovaive sraegies can be assessed. Finally, we urge
greaer sakeholderorganized labor, employers, and philanhropic organiza-
ionsinvolvemen in higher-educaion innovaion.
Now, les examine in greaer deail some o he more promising reorms ha seek
o improve and srenghen he connecion beween higher-educaion sysems and
employers, and have he poenial o solve many o he mos pressing problems
plaguing boh.
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Urgent need for change versus
slow pace of change
Higher educaion in he Unied Saes is slow o change. Our higher-educaion
sysem is deeply rooed in he 19h cenury, wih rigid norms and inrasrucure.
U.S. colleges and universiieswih heir ivy-covered buildings, 30-week aca-
demic year, and courses nealy arranged in hree- or our-credi incremens or
easy division ino he 120 credis needed o earn a bachelors degreeconinue o
deliver educaion beyond high school much as hey did in he lae 1800s.
Federal, sae, and academic policies reinorce he exising norms and srucures oU.S. higher educaion. ake, or insance, he Higher Educaion Ac o 1965, which,
as amended, enshrines he 30-week academic year, he general educaion diploma,
or GED, as an alernaive o a regular high school diploma, and he raioning o
college financial aid based on a ull-ime academic workload o 12 credis. 4Indeed,
suden financial aid policies were largely writen o accommodae radiional modes
o educaional delivery wih sudens siting in college classrooms or an hour and a
hal o an hour, wo or hree days per week. Wheher or no sudens were learning,
or graduaing or ha mater, has largely been irrelevan.
Among he policies ha are mos seeped in he 19h cenury is accrediaion
he process by which higher-educaion insiuions are deemed o be o sufficien
qualiy o gain public rus and have heir degrees valued. Accrediaion, which
is a process o peer review, despie some recen effors a reorm, remains largely
unchanged wih sandards addressing he qualiy o he insiuion or program
by key inpus such as curricula, aculy, aciliies, equipmen, and supplies.
Accrediors also assess each insiuion based on he record o suden complains
received by he accrediing agency and compliance wih program responsibili-
ies under he ederal suden-aid programs. Noably, in only one area are rue
oucomes assessed, ha area being success wih respec o suden achievemenin relaion o an insiuions mission. Such an assessmen o suden-learning
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oucomes may include consideraion o course compleion, sae licensing exami-
naion resuls, and job-placemen raes. By law, however, differen insiuions or
programs can have differen sandards, and hese sandards, alhough subjec o
review by he accrediing agency, are esablished by he individual insiuions.
Te resul o his ype o qualiy-assurance sysem is poor oucomes, as evidenced,
or example, by on-ime graduaion raes, which are unaccepably low a manyinsiuions o higher learning.
Despie he long reliance in he Unied Saes on accrediaion
as he mechanism or assuring qualiy in higher educaion, a
recen repor by he Organisaion or Economic Co-operaion
and Developmen, or OECD, serves as a reminder ha we need
o be looking o he uure raher han he pas. In is repor,
ime or he U.S. o Reskill? Wha he Survey o Adul Skills
Says, he OECD recommends ha he Unied Saes ake seps
o srenghen he qualiy-assurance sysem in higher educaion,paricularly because o accrediaions link o he primary orm
o financial suppor o higher-educaion insiuions: ederal aid
o sudens.5Tis recommendaion is consisen wih Presiden
Barack Obamas call or Congress o consider adding value,
affordabiliy, and suden oucomes o wha accrediors consider
when deermining which colleges and universiies have access o
ederal suden aid.6
Enhancing he value, affordabiliy, and suden oucomes o our higher-educaion
sysem ulimaely requires srenghening connecions beween higher educaion
and employers. An essay published by Inside Higher Ed, penned by he auhor
o his repor, describes how srenghening hose connecions could be accom-
plished wihin he curren accrediaion sysem.7
As poorly aligned as he qualiy-assurance sysem in higher educaion is o our
workorce needs, he pah o possecondary educaion and careers is even less
clearly marked. In he 19h cenury, higher educaion prepared sudens or a lim-
ied number o proessions. As a resul, he limied range o degrees awarded me
he expecaions and demands o sociey a ha ime.
Public two-year college Public four-year colle
FIGURE 1
Median on-time graduation rates fo
students enrolling at public college
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2
0
Source: CAP analysis of the Integrated Postsecondary Education DatSystem, or IPEDS, data from the National Center for EducationStatistics, IPEDS Data Center, available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/
datacenter/ (last accessed November 2013).
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oday, employers recognize ha hey need workers wih specific knowledge, skills,
and abiliies ha can be obained hrough higher educaion. Moreover, employers
primarily look or graduaes wih a specific major ha reflecs he subjec-mater
area bes aligned wih he required work as evidenced by he differences in saring
salaries by college major.8Bu employers also consisenly ideniy a se o key
skills or compeencies such as criical hinking, complex problem solving, writenand oral communicaion, and applied knowledge in real-world setings ha do
no necessarily align wih a specific major.9By limiing consideraion o poen-
ial employees o only hose wih a degree in a specific major, employers may be
excluding rom consideraion poenial employees who may acually have beter
skills han hose hey ulimaely employ. Psychology majors, or example, are ofen
among he mos in-demand social science majors because a degree in psychology
is seeped in he sudy o how people inerac wih ohers, which is a he core o
he criical skills ha employers are seeking.10
Employers are ofen unsure abou he compeencies an employee possesses andhave litle clue o how well a new employee will acually perorm in he job. Tis
realiy has given rise o he pracice o employers providing inernships, ofen
unpaid, o es-drive poenial employees.11Providing employers wih inormaion
abou a graduaes demonsraed knowledge, skills, and abiliies hrough a poro-
lio or compeency-based ranscrip could make he human-capial sysem operae
more efficienly.
While he benefis o employers are apparen, he benefis o axpayers o a more
effecive human-capial sysem are also significan. Firs, governmens a every
level are employers, and as such, will see he same benefis as oher employ-
ersspecifically, greaer success in hiring highly producive employees. Second, a
more effecive human-capial sysem could generae higher levels o produciviy
and poenial earnings similar o hose achieved wih increased levels o educa-
ional atainmen. Increases in earnings or profis ulimaely would ranslae ino
increased ax revenue.12Finally, ederal and sae invesmen in higher educaion
would have greaer impac by producing graduaes who are career ready.
Recen developmens in possecondary educaion such as guided pahways,
sackable credenials, and compeency-based learning hold significan promise orimproving he naions human-capial sysem. Ofenimes, hese innovaions are
viewed separaely bu hese developmens, aken ogeher, show promise in improv-
ing he alignmen beween a sudens program o sudy and heir evenual career.
1. Strengthen quality asurance in postseconda
education and its link to
IV student aid
2. Establish a quality st
for industry credentials
3. Develop workplace t
ing as a standard eleme
postsecondary career an
technical programs
4. Develop and suppor
learning assessments
5. Ensure that postseco
ary students have suffic
information and guidan
Source: Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development, Ti
U.S. to Reskill? What the Survey of Ad
Says (2013), available at http://skillsSurvey_of_Adult_Skills_US.pdf.
Key OECD recomme
tions on postsecond
career and technica
education
http://skills.oecd.org/Survey_of_Adult_Skills_US.pdfhttp://skills.oecd.org/Survey_of_Adult_Skills_US.pdfhttp://skills.oecd.org/Survey_of_Adult_Skills_US.pdfhttp://skills.oecd.org/Survey_of_Adult_Skills_US.pdf -
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Over he pas several years, we have seen higher-educaion insiuions beginning
o embrace reorms. Wesern Governors Universiy, or WGU, or insance, along
wih oher insiuions ha paricipaed in he Deparmen o Educaions disance
educaion demonsraion program, showed ha echnology could be employed
o make higher educaion more accessible. WGU, Capella Universiy, and more
recenly, Souhern New Hampshire Universiys College or America haveembraced compeency-based mehods or access learning. Bu, given he magni-
ude o he changes ha are necessary, he pace o change is oo slow.
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Innovative reform models
Guided Pathways to Success
For mos young people, he pah o possecondary educaion and a career begins
during heir junior year o high school. Unless hese young people are served
by one o he ederal RIO or GEAR UP programs, or a similar sae, local, or
privae program ha are designed o moivae and suppor disadvanaged sudens
seeking higher-educaion opporuniies, sudens are offered litle assisance in
deciding on a choice o career, higher-educaion insiuion, or program o sudy.According o a College Board repor, each secondary school counselor in he
Unied Saes was responsible or helping 454 sudens on average in 2010.13In
programs such as alen Search and Upward Bound, wo o he ederal RIO pro-
grams, paricipans receive suppor in career exploraion and apiude assessmens
as well as assisance in applying o colleges and choosing high school and college
courses. By conras, sudens in Canadas Quebec province finish high school
afer compleion o he 11h grade and begin heir pos-high school program a an
insiuion where hey receive assisance in choosing beween a vocaional or aca-
demic program o sudy. Afer compleing a year a a general or vocaional college,
some sudens go on o pursue a bachelors degree. Bu as a resul o enering he
pos-high school program, bachelors degree candidaes are required o sudy or
only hree years insead o he cusomary our years while oher sudens complee
a vocaional degree in an even shorer period o ime.14
In he absence o a significan increase in secondary school counselors suppored
by ederal programs such as alen Search, Upward Bound, or GEAR UP, or a rev-
oluion in he way ha American sudens ransiion rom high school o college,
sraegies ha move sudens ino a broad se o mea-majorsa se o courses o
mee academic requiremens across a range o disciplines and programshavesignifican promise. Similar o he model used in Quebec, U.S. sudens could
begin possecondary educaion wih he broades se o possibiliies in mind.
Tose possibiliies could be refined and narrowed over ime as he suden pro-
gresses hrough his or her educaion wih he goal o compleing a degree on ime.
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Under he GPS approach, sudens are provided a limied se o broad mea-
majors in science, echnology, engineering, and mahemaics, or SEM, healh
sciences, social sciences, educaion, business, and he liberal ars. A sudens
perormance in high school and oher measures is used o recommend broad
academic pahways. Wihin each mea-major, sudens are given wha are ermed
deaul choices ha are aligned o his or her educaional goals wih a semeser-by-semeser academic map o sequenial and prescripive schedule o classes.
Sudens are provided inormaion abou career opions and assised in narrowing
heir sudy o a paricular major.
Among he insiuions ha have adoped he GPS model is Georgia Sae
Universiy, or GSU, which has implemened degreeor academicmaps and
inrusive advising, where advisors use heir knowledge and experience o anici-
pae suden needs and connec hem o appropriae resources as early as possible
in heir possecondary educaion experience, as sraegies o improve he univer-
siys on-ime graduaion rae. Tese approaches have yielded significan improve-mens or he universiy, including increasing is graduaion rae by 20 percen
over he pas 10 years and he awarding o more bachelors degrees o Arican
Americans han any oher public or privae nonprofi U.S. universiy.15GSU con-
erred 1,389 bachelors degrees o Arican Americans during he 2011-12 school
year.16GSUs graduaion rae or low-income sudens receiving a Pell Gran53
percenwas higher han he insiuions overall graduaion rae.17Likewise, he
universiys graduaion rae or Arican American sudens57 percenand
or Hispanic sudens66 percenwere equally impressive.18Anoher insiu-
ion ha has successully implemened he Guided Pahways o Success model is
Florida Sae Universiy, or FSU, which has cu he number o sudens graduaing
wih excess credis in hal while raising is overall graduaion rae o 74 percen.
Arican American sudens a FSU graduae a a rae o 77 percen while Hispanic
sudens graduae a a rae o more han 70 percen.19
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Stackable credentials
Anoher innovaion ha has been adoped principally by communiy colleges
and sae workorce developmen and welare agencies, which have been working
o find ways o move aduls rom he basic educaion sysem o he workorce, is
somehing known as sackable credenials. Creaing a clear pah rom remedialprograms o cerificaes and, ulimaely, degrees, a sackable credenial is a cerifi-
cae, degree, or oher ormal educaion award ha is one o a sequence o creden-
ials. Te benefi o sackable credenials is ha hey can be accumulaed over ime
o build up an individuals qualificaions and help him or her move along a career
pah o differen and poenially higher-paying jobs.
Sackable credenials carve educaion up ino small incremens ha are more man-
ageable or an adul learner. Any necessary remediaion or basic adul educaion
is he botom o he sack. A one-year, specialized possecondary cerificae is
added o he sacko provide he working adul wih specific job skills. I desired,an applied associaes degree can be added o he sack.
Nursing is an example o how sackable credenials work concep-
ually because he field is srucured in a way ha would allow or
academic and career progression.
o develop a clear se o sackable credenials requires common
agreemen among employers abou wha is required a each level
o responsibiliy or perormance wihin an occupaion. In some
occupaions, his common agreemen does exis. In nursing, or
example, here are clear ses o expecaions or nursing assisans,
licensed pracical nurses, or LPNs, and regisered nurses, or RNs.
Te pah a person akes ino nursing ollows several discree
racks ha may or may no build upon each oher. A suden can
enroll in a shor, narrowly defined nursing assisan program and
ge a job as a nursing assisan. A nursing assisan has a relaively
low level o responsibiliy and is subjec o considerable oversigh
and supervision.
Applied associate's degree
Postsecondary certificate
Adult basic education or
remedial coursework
FIGURE 2
Stackable credential
Master's degree in nursing
RN certificate
(often combined with a
bachelor's degree in nursing)
LPN certificate
(often combined with
an associate's degree
in nursing)
Nursing
assistant
certificate
FIGURE 3
An example: Nursing
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Afer several years on he job, a nursing assisan who wishes o have increased
responsibiliyand earn more moneyshould be able o ranser he knowledge
and skills gained in pracice or in school o an LPN program or an RN program.
Bu because o academic residency and oher requiremens a many higher-educa-
ion insiuions, hese sudens mus repea some o he raining hey previously
received in order o become a nursing assisan, which can be a significan barrieror many working aduls. Te same is rue or an LPN who wishes o become an
RN. Sackable credenial models are specifically designed o address his issue
because i makes i possible o develop an inegraed se o nursing credenials ha
build upon he ones a suden has already atained. Tereore, a suden wishing o
become an RN would no need o reake he maerial learned o become an LPN.
o some exen, his sysem already exiss a some nursing educaion insiu-
ions, bu he sysem is largely dependen on he confidence ha one educaion
provider has in anoher when a suden changes providers beween programs.
Tis confidence can be enhanced i he provider and he programs are accrediedby he same accredior. In nursing, bu in ew oher disciplines, he sysem is also
reinorced by proessional licensing requiremens a he sae level. Regardless, he
curren sysem is ar rom perec.
Since he lae 2000s, he Ohio Board o Regens has been working o esablish a
saewide sysem o sackable cerificaes. Te goal o his sysem is o provide sack-
able cerificaes ha can be earned hrough adul career ceners, higher-educaion
insiuions, and employers. Such a sysem mus be well ariculaed o ensure he
mos effecive inerconnecion o compeencies offered in specialized raining
programs. Te Universiy Sysem o Ohio, he saes public universiy sysem, will
esablish sandards or he awarding o college credi or sackable cerificaes. I is
noable ha under he Ohio model, he sackable cerificaes are no awarded based
on sea ime bu raher hrough he demonsraion o compeencies.20
While here are clear benefis o sackable credenials, here are some significan
problems wih he approach as i has been implemened. Ofenimes, sackable
credenials are viewed as a way o help aduls who have paricular gaps in heir aca-
demic preparaion, which resuls in hem needing significan remediaion. For he
sudens who need addiional preparaion, sackable credenials help by meeingsudens where hey are academically. Bu sackable credenials may no work as
well or hose who are well prepared because hey ollow a well-defined pah ha
does no easily adap o a suden saring a a more advanced level ha migh, or
example, be halway hrough a radiional course or course sequence.
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o he exen ha a sysem o sackable credenials is developed by higher-educa-
ion insiuions, he sysem ends o be more academically oriened. Ta is o say
ha hey do no give adequae consideraion and academic credi or wha a su-
den may have learned hrough work experience. Furhermore, sackable creden-
ials ha are developed by communiy colleges or adul basic educaion providers
end o lead o an applied associaes degree, which can be a dead end becausehese credenials are no easily ranserable o a bachelors degree or higher.
Despie he limiaions, sackable credenials can provide a clear pah rom he
sudens curren siuaion o a beter siuaion. As such, sackable credenials
are paricularly helpul o he chronically unemployed and underemployed as
hey seek o successully move ino more producive roles in he workorce and
ino he middle class.
Competency-based learning models
As sackable credenials have developed o address he needs o working adul
learners as hey move in and ou o educaional programs, compeency-based
approaches have developed o ensure ha graduaes are well prepared or he
jobs o oday by making sure ha he educaional credenial hey obain is well
conneced o he expecaion o employers. As highlighed in he CAP repor,
Meeing Sudens Where Tey Are: Profiles o Sudens in Compeency-Based
Degree Programs,21compeency-based learning is suden cenric. I is abou
wha a suden knows and can do, and less abou eaching and how he suden
learns. Under he compeency-based approach, he pace o learning can be linked
o on a sudens readiness and level o confidence when he or she begins heir
educaion, and can build rom wha he or she already knows, which means ha
some sudens will finish more quickly han ohers. Meeing sudens where hey
are means ha i migh ake some much longer han ohers, bu unlike curren
models o educaion delivery, sudens would no have o ail.
Compeency-based learning is an approach o eaching and learning where he
applicaion o knowledge is assessed in he process o awarding a credenial. Te
radiional approach o learning places he eacher or proessor a he cener o helearning process. Te compeency-based approach flips he model by placing he
suden a he cener insead. Tis reorienaion allows a suden o acquire a com-
peency hrough any number o learning aciviiessome aciviies can be guided
by an insrucor or proessor, while ohers can be sel-direced using exernal
resources such as online courses and oher ree web-based resources.
Competency-based app
es have the unique abili
blurring the lines betwe
different levels of educa
There is no reason that
school students cannot
working toward the dev
ment of competencies t
could permit them to re
a certificate or associate
degree at the same time
receive their high schoo
diploma, based solely o
demonstration of comp
cies. This would significa
reduce the time and cos
associated with comple
undergraduate credent
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A major reason why any o a number o learning aciviies can be used in a compe-
ency-based seting is because here is a shared undersanding among he aculy,
sudens, and oher sakeholders such as employers and policymakers abou he
specific skills and knowledge ha sudens should maser as a resul o heir learn-
ing experiences. When he insiuion is clear abou wha is expeced o sudens
in a paricular compeency-based program, i becomes possible o demonsraeproficiency in each compeency in a wide variey o setings.
Tis concep is no new. Some disciplines such as medicine and nursing have
long hisories o using compeency-based learning. Te Naional Cener or
Educaion Saisics firs wroe abou he hen-emerging approach o possecond-
ary educaion 13 years ago. A ha ime, he Naional Possecondary Educaion
Cooperaive Working Group on Compeency-Based Iniiaives in Possecondary
Educaion described compeencies as he bridge beween radiional credi hour
measures o suden achievemen and he learning revoluion.22
Ou o concern or poenial abuse ha could wase axpayer unds while sad-
dling sudens and amilies wih excessive deb, ederal suden-aid policies,
along wih accrediing agency hesiance, have salled he movemen. Bu recen
acions, including he approval o Souhern New Hampshire Universiys College
or America compeency-based, online associaes degree23as well as a policy
saemen by he Deparmen o Educaion24have acceleraed movemen o
embrace new ways o hinking abou learning. wo regional accrediors have
recenly embraced change: he New England Associaion o Schools and Colleges,
or NEASC, in he case o Souhern New Hampshire Universiys College
or America,25and he Higher Learning Commission, or HLC, in he case o
Universiy o Wisconsin, Madison and Milwaukee.26Te Universiy o Wisconsin
has recenly announced a urher expansion o hese effors.27
In recen years, a ew higher-educaion insiuions have developed new mod-
els ocused on sudens acquiring knowledge and skills a heir own pace and
demonsraing achievemen o specific compeencies. Tese insiuions award
a degree or oher credenial based on he sudens demonsraed compeencies.
Te Higher Educaion Ac o 1965 was amended in 2005 o permi he eligibil-
iy o direc assessmen programs in he ederal suden-aid programs.28
Teseprograms use he assessmen o suden learning or recognize he direc assess-
men by ohers o suden learning in lieu o measuring learning in credi hours
or clock hours. Unil lae las year, no higher-educaion insiuion had applied
o use his auhoriy.29Examples o he kinds o measures ha can be used in
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direc assessmen programs include projecs, papers, examinaions, presenaions,
perormances, and porolios. When applying o have a program deemed eligible
or direc assessmen, an insiuion is required o explain is mehodology or
deermining hese equivalenciesmeaning how i deermined he equivalen
number o credi hours or clock hours or he program. In addiion, he insiu-
ion mus demonsrae ha is insiuional accrediing agency has reviewed andapproved is offering o he direc assessmen program. I mus also demonsrae
ha is insiuional accrediing agency or sae licensing body has agreed wih he
insiuions assessmen o is credi- or clock-hour equivalencies.30Significanly,
he direc assessmen program may use learning resourcescourses or porions
o courses, or exampleha are provided by eniies oher han he insiuion
providing he direc assessmen program, bu he learning aciviies mus be pro-
vided or overseen by he insiuion.31
Te firs example o a program using direc assessmen o esablish eligibiliy or
ederal suden aid is Souhern New Hampshire Universiys College or Americaassociaes degree, which is buil around 120 compeencies.32In approving his
degree program early his year, he Deparmen o Educaion explicily provided
insiuions wih flexibiliy o demonsrae alernaive mehods o measuring
suden learning, so long as hey resuled in insiuional equivalencies ha reason-
ably approximae he definiion o a credi hour.33College or America sared
wih a simple idea: connecing wih employers and finding ou wha hey need
rom heir enry-level employees.
Anoher early adoper o compeency-based learning is Capella Universiy. Unil
recenly, Capellas approach has been o inegrae compeency-based approaches
ino very radiional, insrucor-direced online courses. However, he universiy
was recenly approved o offer bachelors and masers degree programs using
direc assessmen. Te universiy has also begun o use compeency maps ha,
similar o he GPS model, help adul sudens visually rack career-relevan com-
peencies ha hey have demonsraed hrough each course. Tese compeency-
based maps give sudens deailed repors ha hey can share wih curren and
uure employers so hey can documen exacly wha hey masered in heir degree
programs as i relaes o heir proessions. radiional grading sysems, on he
oher hand, provide sudens and employers wih a limied undersanding o whaa suden has acually learned and wheher hey can apply ha learning.
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Implications for business and
financing models
Higher educaion in he Unied Saes is a massive enerprise. Possecondary
educaion insiuions repored enrollmens oaling abou 29 million sudens
in 2011-12.34O hese, roughly 25.2 million were undergraduaes and approxi-
maely 3.8 million were graduae sudens.35In fiscal year 2011, possecondary
educaion insiuions generaed more han $556 billion in revenues and spen
$468 billion, including $149 bil lion on direc insrucion,36and employed 3.8
million people, including 1.5 million aculy members.37An enerprise o his
magniude does no change rapidly.
In par, he lack o change
reflecs he ac ha higher
educaion is a complex sysem
and complex sysems do no
change rapidly. wo ypes o
sysemsechnological and
humaninhibi ransorma-
ive change.
Firs, echnology sysems in
higher educaion are spe-
cifically designed o award
degrees based on compleion
o a sequence o courses wih
progress measured in credis.
Te echnological sysems,
wheher home grown or buil, and suppored by vendors, were developed specifi-
cally o manage sudens, aculy, and aciliies scheduling ha delivered educa-ion in physical or virual classrooms in courses ha were ypically held wo or
hree imes a week or 12 o 15 weeks. Tese sysems will need o be modified
significanly o record credis earned no in classrooms bu hrough any number
o learning aciviies, wih credi ulimaely awarded based on an assessmen.
Revenues Tuition revenues Expenses Instructional expenses
FIGURE 4
Revenues and expenses of postsecondary education institutionsin 2011 (in billions of dollars)
$600
$500
$400$314 $288
$208$300
$200
Public Private For-profit Total
0
Source: Laura G. Knapp, Janice E. Kelly-Reid, and Scott A. Ginder, National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in
Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2011; Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2011; and Graduation Rates, Selected Cohorts, 20032008(Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2012), available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012174rev.pdf.
$100 $58$92
$60 $50 $34 $30 $27 $7
$153
$556
$468
$149$148
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More significanly, he learning sysems o possecondary educaion insiu-
ions will need o be compleely revised o capure compeencies atemped and
demonsraed, mos likely in he orm o compeency-based ranscrips. Tis is no
easy ask and clearly will no occur wihou significan pressure rom ouside he
educaion communiy.38
Te more significan barrier, however, is he need o modiy he human sys-
ems in higher educaion. Higher-educaion insiuions have been organized
verically or cenuries wih specific roles and responsibiliies or he aculy
in conducing research, developing curriculum, designing courses, delivering
insrucion, and assessing summaive learning and learning in each course.39
radiionally, once a decision was made o offer a specific program o sudy,
he curriculum became he sole responsibiliy o he aculy. Wih he ongoing
reorms in higher educaion, his will change dramaically. In developing guided
pahways, he curriculum needs o be srucured o efficienly move sudens
hrough a se o courses wih a minimum amoun o unnecessary courseakingha could delay or derail a suden. Under compeency-based and sackable cre-
denial models, he curriculum needs o be developed wih close relaionships
wih employers o ensure ha graduaes have he skills and knowledge neces-
sary or enry ino he workorce. As such, he role o aculy will change rom
creaors o he curriculum o, a bes, co-creaors wih learning, curriculum,
and assessmen specialiss and employers. Similar adjusmens will be needed
o show how research is conduced, courses are designed and augh, and how
learningincremenal and summaiveis assessed.
Ulimaely, his will resul in a wholesale reorganizaion and renegoiaion o
he role o aculy as well as adminisraors. We have already seen some aculy,
paricularly a wholly online colleges, become specialiss in using echnology o
deliver educaional conen. Some aculy, or example, will also become special-
iss in assessmen wih no responsibiliy or eaching while oher aculy members
will become learning coaches who help sudens sruggling wih difficul learn-
ing aciviies. Undoubedly, he reorganizaion and renegoiaion o aculy roles
will no be easy. Te limied experience hus ar suggess ha some aculy will
embrace heir new role while ohers will resis, making srong change-manage-
men skills a premium in higher educaion in he years ahead.
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Te reason ha he Carnegie Uni, more commonly called he
credi hour, is he coin o he realm in higher educaion oday
and is so difficul o move away rom is because i was developed
o simpliy decisions abou how much o pay each aculy mem-
ber based on he number and level o he unis each was assigned
o each.40
Ulimaely, he academyhow higher educaion reerso iselwill need o come up wih a sandardized approach o
defining roles and a mehod o assign a value o hose roles. Te
insiuions ha quickly figure ou how o compensae aculy in
newly defined roles, which are aligned oward effecively deliver-
ing learning aciviies and assessing learning, will have a signifi-
can compeiive advanage.
Similarly, wha will sudens pay or under hese new models? oday, sudens
ypically pay per coursea specific dollar amoun per uni or credior erm and
sudens could sill pay or insrucion delivered in very radiional courses. Tahas been he suden experience wih nearly all o he compeency-based models
available o his poin, bu his approach ails o ake any significan advanage o
he benefis o his model.
o address his concern, insiuions could adop an approach o charging jus or
he educaional resources used by each suden. Essenially, his would unbundle
he cos o educaion so ha each suden pays jus or he services, maerials,
or suppors ha hey need. Tis approach would be undoubedly difficul or
insiuions o adop, bu i would be similar o how hospials and oher medical
providers have unbundled services o more accuraely and efficienly assign coss
o procedures and reamens. So yes, i would be challenging, bu i is doable.
Some insiuions, including Wesern Governors Universiy and he College or
America, have adoped subscripion models where he suden pays or he ime
he or she is enrolled in six-monh or year-long incremens. Wesern Governors
Universiy charges a basic uiion o $2,890 per six-monh erm41and College or
America charges jus $2,500 per year.42Such an approach would no likely be eco-
nomically viable i mos sudens came prepared o immediaely ake he assess-
mens necessary o earn a degree or cerificae.
Knowledge creation
Curriculum development
Teaching
Testing
Summative assessment
FIGURE 5
Higher-education knowledge creatio
transmission, assessment, and
credentialing
Research
Assessment
Knowledge
transmission
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Anoher alernaive migh be o charge only or he incremenal or summaive
assessmens. Under his model, a suden migh no need o enroll or regiser
unil he or she is ready o ake an assessmen. Such an approach, however, would
make i difficul or low-income sudens who ofen need suppor o mee living
expenses while in school.
Ulimaely, how sudens pay or and experience possecondary educaion will
likely drive changes in he organizaional srucure o he insiuions as well. I
sudens are buying a bundle o educaional services, i is unlikely ha hey will
develop loyaly o a brand as he experience o atending college could look and
eel very differen han i does oday. Combined wih he ac ha many sudens
will no be physically on campus or our or more years, i will likely have signifi-
can implicaions or boh public and privae nonprofi colleges and universiies
ha rely on brand idenificaion or long-erm alumni suppor. (Noe: Efficiency
is no everyhing.)
Changes o he magniude suggesed by a move oward compeency-based
programs, sackable credenials, and Guided Pahways o Success will ulimaely
cause a reconsideraion o he quesion o how o effecively assess learning
oucomes. oday, he higher-educaion sysem relies on a ew imperec measures
o perormance: cohor deaul (a measure o a sudens abiliy o repay heir
ederal suden loan), reenion, and graduaion raes. Wih wide-scale adopion
o income-based repaymen likely o render ineffecive cohor deaul raes as an
oucome measure in he coming years, reenion and graduaion raes will likely
become he predominan measures, and hose oo will become o less uiliy as
alernaive modes o delivery are implemened. Consider or a momen he uiliy
o an on-ime measure or 150 percen o normal ime o degree when a suden
does no need o announce heir inenion o obain a degree unil hey are pre-
pared o si or an assessmen. And wha does reenion mean in his conex?
Innovation in higher ed
tion often occurs in silos
a result, an institution th
implements an innovatunaware that others hav
are trying to implement
same or similar innovat
To facilitate learning fro
innovators, the secreta
education should provi
opportunities for institu
and states to enhance e
tional opportunities. On
to accomplish this wouto re-establish the Dista
Education Demonstrati
Program as a mechanis
to encourage collabora
among institutions offe
ing educational progra
through massive open
courses, or MOOCs, com
tency-based models, an
other innovative mode
Such a demonstration
program would create a
place for institutions to
information about what
are learning through inn
tive efforts.
Demonstration prog
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Policy recommendations
Given he difficuly in effecing change in higher educaion, jus permiting change
is no sufficien. On December 5, 2013, he Deparmen o Educaion announced
plans o conduc experimens under he secreary o educaions auhoriy o
waive regulaory and sauory provisions o he ederal suden-loan programs43
and asked or recommendaions o poenial experimens.44o oser posiive and
ransormaive change, i is criical o use his ool o provide srong and powerul
incenives or change, enlis workorce sakeholders o define compeencies, and
esablish qualiy sandards or compeency-based educaion programs.
Experiments
We recommend ha he secreary o educaion use he waiver auhoriy o
encourage reorms such as Guided Pahways o Success, sackable credenials, and
compeency-based programs.
Te ederal suden-aid sysem has long served o suppor a second chance a
qualiy educaion by permiting sudens wihou a high school diploma he
abiliy o pursue a possecondary program o sudy. Congress limied his abiliy
by eliminaing he auhoriy or prospecive sudens o ake a es or complee
six credis and hen receive ederal suden aid.45Resoring his auhoriy in
a limied way would ensure access o possecondary educaion or low- and
middle-income sudens who did no complee high school. Tus, o encour-
age he adopion and greaer use o Guided Pahways o Success, he secreary
should expand eligibiliy or aid o individuals who have been denied access o
possecondary educaion by resricing he abiliy o benefi by using his experi-
menal sie auhoriy o make ederal suden aid available o sudens who areno high school graduaes by reinsaing aid o sudens who earned six credis
or he equivalen coursework oward a degree.
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o encourage expansion o he use o sackable credenials, he secreary o
educaion should consider approving addiional experimens or programs ha
are shorer han normally permited o be eligible or aid i delivered as par o a
comprehensive and coordinaed sysem o sackable credenials. Te secreary
has already approved an experimen involving shor-erm raining programs
ha prepare sudens or quick enry ino he labor marke.46
In general, onlyacademic programs ha are a leas 15 weeks in duraion and provide 600 clock
hours, 16 semeser or rimeser hours, or 24 quarer hours o academic credi
are eligible programs or purposes o he ederal Pell Gran program.47Te
secreary approved his experimen o allow shorer-erm vocaional raining
programs o be Pell Gran eligible, which would enable unemployed and under-
employed persons o obain he shor-erm raining required or employmen by
local or regional employers. A modes exension would permi sudens o con-
inue heir educaion in an inegraed manner hrough appropriaely designed
sackable credenial programs.
Anoher poenial experimen would decouple financial aid programs rom
he credi-hour sandard. Such an experimen could be conduced o suppor
he expansion o compeency-based programs in a conrolled manner and es
differen ways o measure and rack suden progress, as his will likely be a
criical issue in he nex reauhorizaion o he Higher Educaion Ac. Given
he sae o developmen o compeency-based models, exploraion o differen
approaches is criical. I would be helpul o ideniy and es alernaive means
o appropriaely measuring suden progress oher han by he credi hour ha
would al low equivalen levels o aid o be disbursed. A number o oher possible
experimens could be conduced o deermine wheher i is possible o provide
incenives or adoping compeency-based models ha are less draconian han
moving away rom he credi hour compleely. One possible ex perimen could
expand wha is considered insrucion or he purposes o deermining wheher
a week is couned in he definiion o an academic year. Anoher experimen
migh es how bes o monior and assess academic progress in a compeency-
based educaional environmen. Given he sel-paced naure o learning in many
compeency-based models, he curren definiion wih is ocus on radiional
insrucion limis is limiing. Te curren largely ime-based approach limis he
poenial o compeency-based programs o beter-serve sudens wih disabili-ies, paricularly inellecual disabiliies, because aid can only be provided or
150 percen o he normal ime o degree.
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Quality measures and standards
In order or people o gain confidence in new mehods o delivering educaion,
i is criically imporan o esablish early-on qualiy measures and objecive
sandards o effeciveness. In he case o guided pahways, radiional measures
o educaional progressreenion, graduaion, and ime-o-degreewill likelyconinue o be useul measures and, as noed above, he resul agains hose
measures has been very posiive or insiuions ha have implemened guided
pahway models.
I is unlikely, however, ha hese measures will be useul in assessing compeency-
based programs and will likely have limied uiliy in assessing sackable creden-
ials. In he case o sackable credenials, he mos imporan merics will likely be
measured in labor marke oucomes: job placemen, earning above a hreshold,
and, perhaps mos imporanly, earning gains a each level o exi. Tese measures
will likely be useul in assessing he effeciveness o compeency-based educa-ion programs. In keeping wih he radiions o higher educaion in he Unied
Saes, accrediing agencies should develop a common se o qualiy sandards or
compeency-based programs and assessmens. Such sandards would define good
qualiy in he esablishmen o compeency rameworks and he developmen o
valid and reliable assessmens, suden suppor, and oher program componens.
Alernaively, he measure o he relaive effeciveness o radiional and emerging
mehods, a se o assessmens could be developed o assess wheher program com-
pleers are career ready. Such an approach would permi graduaes o be cerified
as career ready and receive a credenial above and beyond a radiional associaes
degree or bachelors degree. Te resuls o his assessmen could be used o judge
he relaive effecives o educaional delivery.
Importance of stakeholder engagement
One criical elemen in each o hese reorms is he imporan role ha employers
mus play in defining educaional program resuls. Tus, i is criical o find ways
o enlis workorce sakeholders o define wha success looks like, including whacompeencies are valued. Tis is necessary o ensure greaer alignmen beween
possecondary educaion and he workplace, and business and indusry sakehold-
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ers. Formalized roles or employers, labor unions, and proessional associaions
should be developed so ha hey help define he compeencies required or enry-
level posiions as well as or oher job opporuniies hroughou an individuals
career pahway. An approach o srenghening needs connecions is adding
employers, labor unions, and proessional associaions o he decision-making
bodies o accrediing agencies so ha hey have a ormal and significan role insaying wha qualiy looks like.
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Conclusion
Dramaically improving he perormance o our naions higher-educaion sysem
will require an all-o-he-above approach o addressing he problem. Jus as
Complee College America has called or he adopion by saes and insiuions
o he five game changers ha i has idenified, i is now apparen ha we will
need o adop a number o reorms and measure heir effeciveness over ime.
Implemening compeency-based sackable credenials ha use compeency maps
o keep learners moving oward heir educaional and career goals likely would
achieve beter resuls han simply adoping one o he reorms.
Careul assessmen o reormed sysems, however, will be criical. Te assess-
mens should include evidence o wheher i is easier or employers o engage wih
he higher-educaion sysem and hire graduaes wih confidence. Ta is o say,
employers will know ha graduaes possess he skills and knowledge o do wha
is needed as enry-level employees o move seamlessly and direcly ino he paid
workorce. Te cos o he educaion delivered, including ime spen in unproduc-
ive aciviy, should also be assessed in order o deermine i i is possible o deliver
higher-qualiy programs a a lower cos.
In his repor, we have atemped o ideniy insances where he modes appli-
caion o policy levers could yield significan benefi. I is likely, however, ha
more wholesale reorms will be necessary in he reauhorizaion o he Higher
Educaion Ac, which is expeced o begin in earnes in 2014. Bu beginning now
o adop incremenal reorms could help inorm he reauhorizaion process.
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About the author
David A. Bergeronis he Vice Presiden or Possecondary Educaion a he
Cener or American Progress. He came o CAP afer serving as he acing assis-
an secreary or possecondary educaion a he U.S. Deparmen o Educaion.
In his posiion, David aced as he educaion secrearys chie advisor on higher-educaion issues and adminisered more han 60 gran and loan programs ha
provide nearly $3 billion annually o insiuions o higher educaion and commu-
niy-based organizaions.
Prior o becoming acing assisan secreary, David served as he depuy assisan
secreary or policy, planning, and innovaion or he Office o Possecondary
Educaion. In his capaciy, he was responsible or he program budge or
he ederal possecondary educaion programs adminisered by he Office o
Possecondary Educaion and Federal Suden Aid, which generae more han
$160 billion in financial aid o more han 25 million sudens enrolled a publicand privae possecondary insiuions. David was also responsible or legislaive,
regulaory, and oher policies affecing he deparmens possecondary educa-
ion programs, including Federal Suden Aid. His career a he Deparmen o
Educaion included leading key policy groups working on he reauhorizaion o
he Higher Educaion Ac, researching marke-based approaches o loan subsidies
under he guaraneed loan programs, and developing program regulaions and
oher policy guidelines.
David received his bachelor o ars in poliical science and sociology rom he
Universiy o Rhode Island.
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Endnotes
1 Complete College America, Guided Pathways toSuccess, available at http://www.completecollege.org/gameChangers.html#clickBoxTeal(last accessedNovember 2013).
2 Ibid.
3 Letter from Jane Oates to state workforce agencies
and others, December 15, 2010, available athttp://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdf.
4 Higher Education Act of 1965, Public Law 89-329, 89thCong. 1 sess. (Government Printing Office, 1965).
5 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment, Time for the U.S. to Reskill?: What the Survey ofAdult Skills Says (2013).
6 The White House, The Presidents Plan for A StrongMiddle Class & A Strong America(2013), available athttp://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/up-loads/sotu_2013_blueprint_embargo.pdf.
7 David A. Bergeron and Steven Klinsky, Debt-FreeDegrees, Inside Higher Ed, October 28, 2013, availableat http://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/10/28/essay-need-new-innovation-focused-accreditor.
8 National Association of Colleges and Employers, SalarySurvey: Starting Salaries for New College Graduates(2013), available athttp://www.naceweb.org/upload-edFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdf.
9 Hart Research Associates, It Takes More Than A Major:Employer Priorities for College Learning and StudentSuccess(2013), available at http://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdf.
10 Anthony P. Carnevale, Ban Cheah, and Jeff Strohl, HardTimes: College Majors, Unemployment and Earnings(Washington: Georgetown University Center onEducation and the Workforce, 2012), available athttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Un-employment.Final.update1.pdf.
11 National Association of Colleges and Employers, Classof 2013: Paid Interns Outpace Unpaid Peers in JobOffers, Salaries, May 29, 2013, available at http://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspx.
12 Jaison R. Abel and Todd M. Gabe,Human Capitaland Economic Activity in Urban America(New York:Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2010), available athttp://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr332.pdf.This paper shows thata 1 percentage pointincrease in the proportion of residents with a collegedegree is associated with about a 2 percent increase inmetropolitan-area gross domestic product, or GDP, percapita.
13 College Board, Recommendation Two: Improve middleschool and high school college counseling, available athttp://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/recom-
mendations/two (last accessed November 2013).
14 Gouvernement du Qubec, The Qubec educationsystem, available athttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.html(last accessed November 2013).
15 CAP analysis of the Integrated Postsecondary Educa-tion Data System, or IPEDS, data from the NationalCenter for Education Statistics, IPEDS Data Center,available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter/(lastaccessed November 2013)..
16 Ibid.
17 Complete College America, Guided Pathways toSuccess (PowerPoint),available at http://www.completecollege.org/resources.html#tabMaterials(lastaccessed November 2013).
18 Ibid.
19 Complete College America, Guided Pathways to Suc-cess.
20 Michael E. Wonacott, Stackable Certificates (Colum-bus, OH: Ohio Department of Job and Family Serivces,2008).
21 Rebecca Klein-Collins and Elizabeth Baylor, MeetingStudents Where They Are: Profiles of Students in Com-petency-Based Degree Programs (Washington: Centerfor American Progress, 2013), available athttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/
CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdf.
22 Elizabeth A Jones, Richard A. Voorhees, and KarenPaulson, Defining and Assessing Learning: ExploringCompetency-Based Initiatives (Washington: U.S. De -partment of Education, 2002), available athttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002159.pdf.
23 Marc Parry, Competency-Based Education AdvancesWith U.S. Approval of Program, The Chronicle of HigherEducation Wired Campus blog, April 18, 2013, availableat http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-educa-tion-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439.
24 Letter from David A. Bergeron to institutions, March19, 2013, available at http://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1310.html.
25 New England Association of Schools and Colleges,Recent Commission Actions, available at http://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commis-ion_actions(last accessed November 2013).
26 Higher Learning Commission, Actions: Academic Year2012-2013, available at http://ncahlc.org/Decision-Making-Bodies/recent-actions.html(last accessedNovember 2013).
27 University of Wisconsin System, Four more UW Institu-tions to participate in Flexible Option, Press release,December 6, 2013, available athttp://www.wisconsin.edu/news/2013/r131206.htm.
28 Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, Public Law 109-171, 109thCong. 1 sess. (Government Printing Office, 2006),available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ171/pdf/PLAW-109publ171.pdf.
29 College for America, A Milestone for Competency-Based Higher Ed, Press release, April 18, 2013, availableat http://collegeforamerica.org/latest/entry/a-mile-stone-for-competency-based-higher-ed.
http://www.completecollege.org/gameChangers.html#clickBoxTealhttp://www.completecollege.org/gameChangers.html#clickBoxTealhttp://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdfhttp://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdfhttp://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/sotu_2013_blueprint_embargo.pdfhttp://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/sotu_2013_blueprint_embargo.pdfhttp://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/10/28/essay-need-new-innovation-focused-accreditorhttp://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/10/28/essay-need-new-innovation-focused-accreditorhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdfhttp://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdfhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr332.pdfhttp://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr332.pdfhttp://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/recommendations/twohttp://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/recommendations/twohttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter/http://www.completecollege.org/resources.html#tabMaterialshttp://www.completecollege.org/resources.html#tabMaterialshttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002159.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002159.pdfhttp://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/author/mparryhttp://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1310.htmlhttp://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1310.htmlhttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://ncahlc.org/Decision-Making-Bodies/recent-actions.htmlhttp://ncahlc.org/Decision-Making-Bodies/recent-actions.htmlhttp://www.wisconsin.edu/news/2013/r131206.htmhttp://www.wisconsin.edu/news/2013/r131206.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ171/pdf/PLAW-109publ171.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ171/pdf/PLAW-109publ171.pdfhttp://collegeforamerica.org/latest/entry/a-milestone-for-competency-based-higher-edhttp://collegeforamerica.org/latest/entry/a-milestone-for-competency-based-higher-edhttp://collegeforamerica.org/latest/entry/a-milestone-for-competency-based-higher-edhttp://collegeforamerica.org/latest/entry/a-milestone-for-competency-based-higher-edhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ171/pdf/PLAW-109publ171.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ171/pdf/PLAW-109publ171.pdfhttp://www.wisconsin.edu/news/2013/r131206.htmhttp://www.wisconsin.edu/news/2013/r131206.htmhttp://ncahlc.org/Decision-Making-Bodies/recent-actions.htmlhttp://ncahlc.org/Decision-Making-Bodies/recent-actions.htmlhttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://cihe.neasc.org/about_our_institutions/recent_commision_actionshttp://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1310.htmlhttp://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1310.htmlhttp://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/u-s-education-department-gives-a-boost-to-competency-based-education/43439http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/author/mparryhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002159.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002159.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/CAEL-student-report-corrected.pdfhttp://www.completecollege.org/resources.html#tabMaterialshttp://www.completecollege.org/resources.html#tabMaterialshttp://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter/http://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/education/comparative-evaluation/education-system.htmlhttp://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/recommendations/twohttp://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/recommendations/twohttp://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr332.pdfhttp://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr332.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www.naceweb.org/s05292013/paid-unpaid-interns-job-offer.aspxhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/Unemployment.Final.update1.pdfhttp://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdfhttp://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.naceweb.org/uploadedFiles/NACEWeb/Research/Salary_Survey/Reports/salary-survey-april-2013-executive-summary.pdfhttp://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/10/28/essay-need-new-innovation-focused-accreditorhttp://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/10/28/essay-need-new-innovation-focused-accreditorhttp://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/sotu_2013_blueprint_embargo.pdfhttp://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/sotu_2013_blueprint_embargo.pdfhttp://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdfhttp://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdfhttp://www.completecollege.org/gameChangers.html#clickBoxTealhttp://www.completecollege.org/gameChangers.html#clickBoxTeal 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25 Center for American Progress | A Path Forward
30 U.S. Department of Education, Federal Student AidPrograms; Final Rule, Federal Register 71 (211) (2006) ,available at http://ifap.ed.gov/fregisters/FR11012006Fi-nalRuleHERA.html.
31 For policy reasons, several types of programs andcoursework that would otherwise be eligible are noteligible for federal student aid if direct assessmentincluding programs at foreign schools; preparatorycoursework required for entry into an eligible program;courses necessary for an elementary or secondaryschool teaching credential or certificate; and remedial
coursework measured through direct assessment.
32 David A. Bergeron, Moving Away from Credit Hours inHigher Education, Center for American Progress, April18, 2013, available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/higher-education/news/2013/04/18/60847/moving-away-from-credit-hours-in-higher-education/.
33 Letter from Eduardo Ochoa to institutions, March18, 2011, available at http://ifap.ed.gov/dpcletters/GEN1106.html.
34 Scott A. Ginder and Janice E. Kelly-Reid, Postsecond-ary Institutions and Cost of Attendance in 2012-13;Degrees and Other Awards Conferred, 2011-12; and12-Month Enrollment, 2011-12 (Washington: NationalCenter for Education Statistics, 2013), available athttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013289rev.pdf.
35 Ibid.
36 Laura G. Knapp, Janice E. Kelly-Reid, and Scott A.Ginder, National Center for Education Statistics,Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2011;Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2011; and GraduationRates, Selected Cohorts, 20032008 (Washington:National Center for Education Statistics, 2012) , availableat http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012174rev.pdf.
37 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 284:Employees in degree-granting institutions, by sex,employment status, control and level of institution, andprimary occupation: Selected years, fall 1991 throughfall 2011, available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/di-gest/d12/tables/dt12_284.asp(last accessed November2013).
38 Paul Fain, Competenc y-Based Transcripts, InsideHigher Ed, August 9, 2 013, available at http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/08/09/northern-arizona-universitys-new-competency-based-degrees-and-transcripts.
39 Joseph E. Aoun, From Vertical to Horizontal: TheRestructuring of Higher Education, NortheasternUniversity, Keynote address to the National ChineseLanguage Conference of the College Board and theAsia Society, April 2013.
40 Jessica Shedd, The History of the Student Credit Hour,New Directions for Higher Education122 (2003).
41 Western Governors University, Tuition & Financial Aid,available at http://www.wgu.edu/tuition_financial_aid/overview(last accessed November 2013).
42 College for America, Enroll As A Working Student,available at http://collegeforamerica.org/students(lastaccessed November 2013).
43 Section 487A(b)of the Higher Education Act of 1965, asamended.
44 Brenda Dann-Messier, Notice Inviting Suggestionsfor New Experiments for the Experimental Sites Initia-tive; Federal Student Financial Assistance Programsunder Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965, asAmended,Federal Register78 (235) (2013), available at
http://www2.ed.gov/documents/college-affordability/notice-experimental-sites-initiative.pdf.
45 Libby A. Nelson, No Diploma, No GED, No Aid, InsideHigher Ed, March 20, 2012, available at http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2012/03/20/colleges-worry-about-end-federal-aid-based-ability-benefit.
46 Eduard Ochoa, Postsecondary Educational InstitutionsInvited To Participate in Experiments Under the Experi-mental Sites Initiative, FederalRegister76 (208) (2011),available at http://ifap.ed.gov/fregisters/attachments/FR102711ExperimentalSitesInitiative.pdf.
47 Section 481(b)(A) of the Higher Education Act of 1965, asamended.
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The Center for American Progress is a nonpartisan research and educational institute
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