a overview of greek history
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History of Greece
This article covers the Greek civilization as a whole. Forthe history of the modern nation-state, see History ofmodern Greece.
The history of Greece encompasses the history of theterritory of the modern state of Greece, as well as thatof the Greek people and the areas they ruled historically.The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied muchthrough the ages, and, as a result, the history of Greece issimilarly elastic in what it includes. Each era has its own
related sphere of interest.The first (proto-) Greek-speaking tribes, are generallythought to have arrived in the Greek mainland betweenthe late 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC– probably between 1900 and 1600 BC.[1] When theMycenaeans invaded, the area was inhabited by variousnon-Greek-speaking, indigenous pre-Greek people, whopracticed agriculture as they had done since the 7th mil-lennium BC.[2]
At its geographical peak, Greek civilization spread fromGreece to Egypt and to the Hindu Kush mountains in
Afghanistan. Since then, Greek minorities have remainedin former Greek territories (e.g., Turkey, Albania, Italy,and Libya, Levant, Armenia, Georgia, etc.), and Greekemigrants have assimilated into differing societies acrossthe globe (e.g., North America, Australia, Northern Eu-rope, South Africa, etc.). Today most Greeks live in themodern state of Greece (independent since 1832) andCyprus.
1 Prehistoric Greece
Main article: Prehistoric BalkansSee also: Dimini, Sesklo and Dispilio
1.1 Neolithic
Main article: Neolithic Europe
The Neolithic Revolution reached Europe by way ofGreece and the Balkans, beginning in the 7th millen-nium BC. Some Neolithic communities in southeastern
Europe, such as Sesklo in Greece, were living in heavilyfortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people. The GreekNeolithic era ended with the arrival of the Bronze Age
from Anatolia and the Near East, by the end of the 28thcentury BC (early Helladic period).
Inabout2100B.C,theProto-Indo-Europeansoverran theGreek peninsula from the north and east.[3] These Indo-Europeans, known as Mycenaeans, introduced the Greeklanguage to present-day Greece.[4]
1.2 Bronze Age
Main articles: Helladic period and Aegean Bronze Age
1.2.1 Cycladic and Minoan civilization
Main articles: Cycladic civilization and Minoan Civiliza-tionOne of the earliest civilizations to appear around Greece
Jug with bird, example of Cycladic art , about 1600 BC. National
Archaeological Museum of Athens .
was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted from
about 2700 (Early Minoan)BCto1450BC,andtheEarlyHelladic period on the Greek mainland fromca. 2800 BCto 2100 BC.
1
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2 1 PREHISTORIC GREECE
A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos , indicating a sport
or ritual of “bull leaping"; the red-skinned figure is a man and
the two light-skinned figures are women.
Little specific information is known about the Minoans(even the name is a modern appellation, from Minos, the
legendary king of Crete).
[4]
They have beencharacterizedas a pre-Indo-European people, apparently the linguisticancestors of the Eteo-Cretan speakers of Classical An-tiquity, their language being encoded in the undecipheredLinear A script. They were primarily a mercantile peopleengaged in overseas trade, taking advantage of their land’srich natural resources. Timber was then an abundant nat-ural resource that was commercially exploited and ex-ported to nearby lands such as Cyprus, Syria, Egypt andthe Aegean Islands.[4] During the Early Bronze Age (3300BC through 2100 BC), the Minoan Civilization on the is-land of Crete held great promise for the future. [5]
The Mycenaean Greeks invaded Crete and adopted muchof the Minoan culture theyfound on Crete.[6] The Minoancivilization which preceded the Mycenaean civilizationon Crete was revealed to the modern world by Sir ArthurEvans in 1900, when he purchased and then began exca-vating a site at Knossus.[5]
1.2.2 Mycenaean civilization
Main article: Mycenaean GreeceThe Proto-Greeks are assumed to have arrived in the
Greek peninsula during the late 3rd to early 2nd millen-
nium BC.[7] The migration ofthe Ionians and Aeolians re-sulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC.[8][9]
The transition from pre-Greek to Greek culture appearsto have been rather gradual. Some archaeologists havepointed to evidence that there was a significant amountof continuity of prehistoric economic, architectural, andsocial structures, suggesting that the transition betweenthe Neolithic, Helladic and early Greek cultures mayhavecontinued without major rifts in social texture.[10]
On Crete, however, the Mycenean invasion of around1400 BC spelled the end of the Minoan civilization.Mycenaean Greece is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civ-
ilization of Ancient Greece. It lasted from the arrival ofthe Greeks in the Aegean around 1600 BC to the col-lapse of their Bronze Age civilization around 1100 BC. It
Proto-Greek linguistic area according to linguist V. I. Georgiev.
The Lion Gate , Mycenae.
is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and of mostGreek mythology. The Mycenaean period takes its namefrom the archaeological site Mycenae in the northeasternArgolid,inthe Peloponnesos of southern Greece. Athens,Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns are also important Mycenaeansites.
Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior
aristocracy. Around 1400 BC the Mycenaeans extendedtheir control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization,and adopted a form of the Minoan script called Linear Ato write their early form of Greek. The Mycenaean erascript is called Linear B.
The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in beehive tombs(tholoi ), large circular burial chambers with a high vaultedroof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They of-ten buried daggers or some other form of military equip-ment with the deceased. The nobility were often buriedwith gold masks, tiaras, armor and jeweled weapons.Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some
of the nobility underwent mummification.Around 1100 BC the Mycenaean civilization collapsed.Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what
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2.1 Archaic Greece 3
historians see as a dark age. During this period Greeceexperienced a decline in population and literacy. TheGreeks themselves have traditionally blamed this declineon an invasion by another wave of Greek people, theDorians, although there is scant archaeological evidencefor this view.
1.3 Early Iron Age
Main article: Greek Dark AgesFurther information: Protogeometric art
The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100BC–800 BC)refers to theperiod of Greek history from the presumed Dorian inva-sion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11thcentury BC to the rise of the first Greek city-states in the9th century BC and the epics of Homer and earliest writ-
ings in alphabetic Greek in the 8th century BC.The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall ofseveral other large empires in the near east, most notablythe Hittite and the Egyptian. The cause may be attributedto an invasion of the sea people wielding iron weapons.When the Dorians came down into Greece they also wereequipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersingthe already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that fol-lows these events is collectively known as the Greek DarkAges.
Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they
were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in someareas, an aristocracy within an aristocracy—an elite of theelite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a greatemphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of productionand local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal ofchoice in the manufacturingof tools and weapons. Slowlyequality grew among the different sects of people, leadingto the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise ofthe family.
At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civiliza-tion was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greekworld as far as the Black Sea and Spain. Writing was re-
learned from the Phoenicians, eventually spreading northinto Italy and the Gauls.
2 Ancient Greece
Main article: Ancient GreeceAncient Greece was an ancient civilization belonging to
a period of Greek history that lasted from theArchaic pe-riod of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity(ca. 600 AD). In common usage it refers to all Greekhistory before the Roman Empire, but historians use the
term more precisely. Some writers include the periodsof the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, while othersargue that these civilizations were so different from later
The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is one of the best
known symbols of classical Greece.
Greek cultures that they should be classed separately.
Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to be-gin with the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC,but most historians now extend the term back to about1000 BC.
The traditional date for the end of the Classical AncientGreek period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323BC. The period that follows is classed as Hellenistic. Noteveryone treats the Classical Ancient and Hellenic periodsas distinct, however, and some writers treat the AncientGreek civilization as a continuum running until the adventof Christianity in the 3rd century AD.
Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be
the foundational culture of Western Civilization. Greekculture was a powerful influence in the Roman Empire,which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe.Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely influen-tial on the language, politics, educational systems, phi-losophy, art and architecture of the modern world, par-ticularly during the Renaissance in Western Europe andagain during various neo-Classical revivals in 18th- and19th-century Europe and the Americas.
2.1 Archaic Greece
Main article: Archaic GreeceFurther information: Orientalizing Period and GeometricArtIn the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from theDark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civi-lization. Literacy had beenlostand Mycenaean script for-gotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet,modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From aboutthe 9th century BC, written records begin to appear.[11]
Greece was divided into many small self-governing com-munities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography,
where every island, valley and plain is cut off from itsneighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.[12]
The Archaic period can be understood as the
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4 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period.
Orientalizing period, when Greece was at the fringe,but not under the sway, of the budding Neo-AssyrianEmpire. Greece adopted significant amounts of culturalelements from the Orient, in art as well as in religion andmythology. Archaeologically, Archaic Greece is marked
by Geometric pottery.
2.2 Classical Greece
Main article: Classical GreeceFurther information: Classical AthensThe basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the
Leonidas at Thermopylae by Jacques-Louis David .
polis, sometimes translated as city-state. “Politics” lit-erally means “the things of the polis”. Each city was in-dependent, at least in theory. Some cities might be sub-ordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to itsmother city), some might have had governments whollydependent upon others (the Thirty Tyrants in Athens wasimposed by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War),but the titularly supreme power in each city was locatedwithin that city. This meant that when Greece went towar (e.g., against the Persian Empire), it took the form ofan alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunityfor wars within Greece between different cities.
Two major wars shaped the Classical Greek world. ThePersian Wars (500–448 BC) arerecountedin Herodotus'sHistories . Ionian Greek cities revolted from the Persian
“The safest general characterisation of the European philosoph-
ical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.”
(Alfred North Whitehead , Process and Reality , 1929).
Empire and were supported by some of the mainlandcities, eventually led by Athens. The notable battles ofthis war include Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, andPlataea.)
To prosecute the war and then to defend Greece from fur-ther Persian attack, Athens founded the Delian Leaguein 477 BC. Initially, each city in the League would con-tribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in timeAthens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller citiesto contribute funds so that it could supply their quota ofships. Secession from the League could be punished. Fol-lowing military reversalsagainst the Persians, the treasury
was moved from Delos to Athens, further strengtheningthe latter’s control over the League. The Delian Leaguewas eventually referred to pejoratively as the AthenianEmpire.
In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongo-ing, war broke out between the Delian League and thePeloponnesian League, comprising Sparta and its allies.After some inconclusive fighting, the two sides signed apeace in 447 BC. That peace, it was stipulated, was tolast thirty years: instead it held only until 431 BC, withthe onset of the Peloponnesian War. Our main sourcesconcerning this war are Thucydides's History of the Pelo-
ponnesian War and Xenophon's
Hellenica.
The war began over a dispute between Corcyra andEpidamnus. Corinth intervened on the Epidamnian side.
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2.3 Hellenistic Greece 5
Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (secondonly to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It pre-vented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the Battle ofSybota, laid siege to Potidaea, and forbade all commercewith Corinth’sclosely situated ally, Megara (the Megariandecree).
There was disagreement among the Greeks as to whichparty violated the treaty between the Delian and Pelo-ponnesian Leagues, as Athens wastechnically defending anew ally. The Corinthians turned to Sparta for aid. Fear-ing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens’willingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargowould have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty tohave been violated and the Peloponnesian War began inearnest.
Map of the Delian League (Athenian Empire) at its height, 450
B.C.
Thefirst stage of the war (known as theArchidamian Warfor the Spartan king, Archidamus II) lasted until 421 BCwith the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The Atheniangeneral Pericles recommended that his city fight a defen-sive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forcesled by Sparta, and importing everything needful by main-taining its powerful navy. Athens would simply outlastSparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for
long lest the helots revolt.This strategy required that Athens endure regular sieges,and in 430 BC it was visited with an awful plague thatkilled about a quarter of its people, including Pericles.With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gainedpower in the city and Athens went on the offensive. Itcaptured 300–400 Spartan hoplites at the Battle of Py-los. This represented a significant fraction of the Spartanfighting force which the latter decided it could not affordto lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating de-feats at Delium and Amphipolis. The Peace of Niciasconcluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens
recovering the city of Amphipolis.Those who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC sworeto uphold it for fifty years. The second stage of the Pelo-
ponnesian War began in 415 BC when Athens embarkedon the Sicilian Expedition to support an ally (Segesta) at-tackedby Syracuse andto conquer Sicily. Initially, Spartawas reluctant, but Alcibiades, the Athenian general whohad argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to theSpartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts
and convinced them that they could not allow Athens tosubjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster forthe Athenians.
Athens’ Ionian possessions rebelled with the support ofSparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In 411 BC, an oli-garchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace,but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to thedemocracy, refused to accept the change and continuedfighting in Athens’ name. The navy recalled Alcibiades(who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause af-ter reputedly seducing the wife of Agis II, a Spartan king)and made himits head. Theoligarchy in Athens collapsed
and Alcibiades reconquered what had been lost.In 407 BC, Alcibiades was replaced following a minornaval defeat at the Battle of Notium. The Spartan gen-eral Lysander, having fortified his city’s naval power, wonvictory after victory. Following the Battle of Arginusae,which Athens won but was prevented by bad weatherfrom rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or ex-iled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander fol-lowed with a crushing blow at the Battle of Aegospotamiin 405 BC which almost destroyed the Athenian fleet.Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Pelopon-nesian War.
The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent withthe Spartan hegemony that followed (including the factthat it ceded Ionia and Cyprus to the Persian Empireat the conclusion of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC);see Treaty of Antalcidas) induced the Thebans to attack.Their general, Epaminondas, crushed Sparta at the Battleof Leuctra in 371 BC, inaugurating a period of Thebandominance in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in itsten-year war with Phocis, Thebes called upon Philip II ofMacedon for aid. Macedon quickly forced the city statesinto being united by the League of Corinth which led tothe conquering of the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic
Age had begun.
2.3 Hellenistic Greece
Main article: Hellenistic GreeceThe Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the
death of Alexander the Great in323BCandendswiththeannexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Romein 146 BC. Although theestablishment of Roman rule didnot break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture,which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of
Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political inde-pendence.
During the Hellenistic period the importance of “Greece
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6 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Coin showing Demetrius I Poliorcetes .
proper” (that is, the territory of modern Greece) withinthe Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The greatcentres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria andAntioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria.(See Hellenistic civilization for the history of Greek cul-ture outside Greece in this period.)
Athens and her allies revolted against Macedon uponhearing thatAlexander had died, but were defeated within
a year in the Lamian War. Meanwhile, a struggle forpower broke out among Alexander’s generals, which re-sulted in the break-up of his empire and the establish-ment of a number of new kingdoms (see the Wars of theDiadochi). Ptolemy was left with Egypt, Seleucus withthe Levant, Mesopotamia, and points east. Control ofGreece, Thrace, and Anatolia was contested, but by 298BC the Antigonid dynasty had supplanted the Antipatrid.
Macedonian control of the city-states was intermittent,with a number of revolts. Athens, Rhodes, Pergamumand other Greek states retained substantial independence,andjoined the Aetolian League as a means of defending it
and restoring democracy in their states, where as they sawMacedon as a tyrannical kingdom because of the fact theyhad not adopted democracy. The Achaean League, whilenominally subject to the Ptolemies was in effect indepen-dent, andcontrolledmost of southernGreece. Sparta alsoremained independent, but generally refused to join anyleague.
In 267 BC, Ptolemy II persuaded the Greek cities to re-volt against Macedon, in what became the ChremonideanWar, after the Athenian leader Chremonides. The citieswere defeated and Athens lost her independence and herdemocratic institutions. Thismarked the endof Athens as
a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealth-iest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 225 BC Mace-don defeated the Egyptian fleet at Cos and brought the
Aegean islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well.
Sparta remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BCinvaded Achaea and seized control of the League. Theremaining Acheans preferred distant Macedon to nearbySparta, and allied with the former. In 222 BC the Mace-
donian army defeated the Spartans and annexed theircity—the first time Sparta had ever been occupied by adifferent state.
The major Hellenistic realms included the Diadoch kingdoms : Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
Kingdom of Cassander
Kingdom of Lysimachus
Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
Epirus
Also shown on the map:
Greek colonies
Carthage (non-Greek)
Rome (non-Greek)
The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The
kingdom of Pergamon occupied some of this area. Not shown:
Indo-Greeks .
Philip V of Macedon was the last Greek ruler with boththe talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and pre-serve its independence against the ever-increasing powerof Rome. Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupactus(217 BC) brought conflict between Macedon and theGreek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlledall of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.
In 215 BC, however, Philip formed an alliance withRome’s enemy Carthage. Rome promptly lured theAchaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip,and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now
the strongest power in Asia Minor. The First Macedo-nian War broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusivelyin 205 BC, but Macedon was now marked as an enemyof Rome.
In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turnher attention eastwards. In 198 BC, the Second Mace-donian War broke out because Rome saw Macedon as apotential ally of the Seleucid Empire, the greatest powerin the east. Philip’s allies in Greece deserted him andin 197 BC he was decisively defeated at the Battle ofCynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus QuinctiusFlamininus.
Luckily for the Greeks, Flamininus was a moderate manand an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surren-der his fleet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise
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spared. At the Isthmian Games in 196 BC, Flamininusdeclared all the Greek cities free, although Roman gar-risons were placed at Corinth and Chalcis. But the free-dom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities ex-cept Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Romeultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were
favoured and actively promoted.
2.4 Roman Greece
Main article: Roman GreeceMilitarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the
The Roman Forum of Thessaloniki .
Romans conquered the land (168 BC onwards), thoughGreek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Al-
though the period of Roman rule in Greece is conven-tionally dated as starting from the sacking of Corinth bythe Roman Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, Macedonia hadalready come under Roman control with the defeat of itsking, Perseus, by the Roman Aemilius Paullus at Pydnain 168 BC.
The Romans divided the region into four smaller re-publics, and in 146 BC Macedonia officially became aprovince, with its capital at Thessalonica. The rest of theGreek city-states gradually and eventually paid homageto Rome ending their de jure autonomy as well. The Ro-mans left local administration to theGreeks without mak-
ing any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns.The agora in Athens continued to be the centre of civicand political life.
Caracalla's decree in AD 212, the Constitutio Antonini-ana, extended citizenship outside Italy to all free adultmen in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raisingprovincial populations to equal status with the city ofRome itself. The importance of this decree is histori-cal, not political. It set the basis for integration where theeconomic and judicial mechanisms of the state could beapplied throughout the Mediterranean as was once donefrom Latium into all Italy. In practice of course, inte-
gration did not take place uniformly. Societies alreadyintegrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored bythis decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor
or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt.
Caracalla’s decree did not set in motion the processes thatled to the transfer of power from Italy and the West toGreece and the East, but rather accelerated them, settingthe foundations for the millennium-long rise of Greece, in
the form of the Eastern Roman Empire, as a major powerin Europe and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages.
3 Byzantine Empire (4th century –
1453)
Main articles: Byzantine Empire and Byzantine GreeceThe history of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire is
Empress Theodora and her retinue (mosaic from Basilica of San
Vitale , Ravenna , 6th century).
Depiction of the Greek fire by John Skylitzes ' Chronicle (late 11th
century).
described by Byzantinist August Heisenberg as the his-tory of “the Christianized Roman empire of the Greeknation”.[13] The division of the empire into East andWest and the subsequent collapse of the Western Ro-man Empire were developments that constantly accentu-ated the position of the Greeks in the empire and even-tually allowed them to become identified with it alto-gether. The leading role of Constantinople began whenConstantine the Great turned Byzantium into the newcapital of the Roman Empire, from then on to be knownas Constantinople, placing the city at the center of Hel-lenism a beacon for the Greeks that lasted to the modern
era.The figures of Constantine the Great and Justinian dom-inated during 324–610. Assimilating the Roman tradi-
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8 3 BYZANTINE EMPIRE (4TH CENTURY – 1453)
tion, the emperors sought to offer the basis for later devel-opments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire.Efforts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restorethe Roman territories marked the early centuries. At thesame time, the definitive formation and establishment ofthe Orthodox doctrine, butalso a series of conflicts result-
ing from heresies that developed within the boundaries ofthe empire marked the early period of Byzantine history.
In the first period of the middle Byzantine era (610–867)the empire was attacked both by old enemies (Persians,Lombards, Avars and Slavs) as well as by new ones, ap-pearing for the first time in history (Arabs, Bulgars). Themain characteristic of this period was that the enemy at-tacks were not localized to the border areas of the statebut they were extended deep beyond, even threatening thecapital itself. At the same time, theseattacks lost their pe-riodical and temporary character and became permanentsettlements that transformed into new states, hostile to
Byzantium. Those states were referred by the Byzantinesas Sclavinias .
Changes were also observed in the internal structure ofthe empire which was dictated by both external and in-ternal conditions. The predominance of the small freefarmers, the expansion of the military estates and the de-velopment of the system of themes, brought to comple-tion developments that had started in the previous pe-riod. Changes were noted also in the sector of admin-istration: the administration and society had become im-miscibly Greek, while the restoration of Orthodoxy afterthe iconoclast movement, allowed the successful resump-
tion of missionary action among neighboring peoples andtheir placement within the sphere of Byzantine culturalinfluence. During this period the state was geographicallyreduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealth-producing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual,dogmatic and cultural homogeneity.
From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recoverfrom the devastating impact of successive invasions, andthe reconquest of Greece began. Greeks from Sicily andAsia Minor were brought in as settlers. The Slavs wereeither driven out or assimilated and the Sclavinias wereeliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece
was Greek again, and the cities began to recover due toimproved security and the restoration of effective centralcontrol.
3.1 Economic prosperity
When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a periodof crisis by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenoiemperors Alexios, John and Manuel in the 12th century,Greece prospered. Recent research has revealed that thisperiod was a time of significant growth in the rural econ-
omy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts ofnew agricultural land being brought into production. Thewidespread construction of new rural churches is a strong
The 11th-century monastery of Hosios Loukas in Greece is repre-
sentative of the Byzantine art during the rule of the Macedonian
dynasty.
indication that prosperity was being generated even in re-mote areas.
A steady increase in population led to a higher populationdensity, and there is good evidence that the demographicincrease was accompanied by the revival of towns. Ac-cording to Alan Harvey in his book ‘’Economic expansionin the Byzantine Empire 900–1200’’, towns expanded
significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological ev-idence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements,together with a ‘notable upsurge’ in new towns. Archaeo-logical evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns,including Athens, Thessaloniki, Thebes and Corinth, ex-perienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, start-ing in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the12th century.
The growth of the towns attracted the Venetians, and thisinterest in trade appears to have further increased eco-nomic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians andothers were active traders in the ports of the Holy Land,
and they made a living out of shipping goods between theCrusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West while alsotrading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt.
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3.3 The Fourth Crusade and after 9
3.2 Artistic revival
See also: Macedonian Renaissance and Macedonian art(Byzantine)The 11th and 12th centuries are said to be the Golden
Mosaic of the Theotokos Virgin Mary (11th century).
Age of Byzantine art in Greece. Many of the most im-portant Byzantine churches in and around Athens, for ex-ample, were built during these two centuries, and this re-flects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during thisperiod. There was also a revival in the mosaic art withartists showing great interest in depicting natural land-scapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mo-saics became more realistic and vivid, with an increasedemphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With itslove of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age
delighted in the production of masterpieces that spreadthe fame of Byzantium throughout the Christian world.
Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople alsoportrayed in dazzling color animals—lions, elephants, ea-gles, and griffins—confronting each other, or represent-ing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or en-gaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons wereattracted and the economy of Greece grew. In theprovinces, regional schools of Architecture began pro-ducing many distinctive styles that drew on a range ofcultural influences. All this suggests that there was an in-creased demand for art, with more people having access
to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for suchwork.
Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this
period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history ofthe empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the 12thcentury Byzantium was the main source of inspiration forthe West. By their style, arrangement, and iconographythe mosaics of St. Mark’s at Venice and of the cathedralat Torcello clearly show their Byzantine origin. Similarly
those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo,and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast dec-oration of the cathedral at Monreale, prove the influenceof Byzantium οn the Norman Court of Sicily in the 12thcentury.
Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived fromthe Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East,from which it borrowed not only its decorative formsbut the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved,for instance, by the domed churches of south-westernFrance. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots ofMonte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the Norman
kings of Sicily alllooked to Byzantium for artists or worksof art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the 12thcentury, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily allvirtually became provincial centers dedicated to its pro-duction.
3.3 The Fourth Crusade and after
Main articles: Fourth Crusade, Frankokratia and Stato daMàrThe year 1204 marks the beginning of the late Byzantine
Mystras Palace, remain of the Despotate of the Morea.
period, when probably the most important event for theEmpire occurred. Constantinople was lost for the Greekpeople for the first time, and the empire was conqueredby Latin crusaders and would be replaced by a new Latinone, for 57 years. In addition, the period of Latin occupa-tion decisively influenced the empire’s internal develop-ment, as elements of feudality entered aspects of Byzan-tine life.
In 1261 the Greek empire was divided between theformer Greek Byzantine Comnenos dynasty members(Despotate of Epirus) and Palaiologos dynasty (the last
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10 5 MODERN GREEK STATE (1821–)
Map of the Venetian colonies in Greece, part of Stato da Màr .
dynasty until the fall of Constantinople) ruling theDespotate of the Morea. After the gradual weakeningof the structures of the Byzantine state and the reduc-
tion of its land from Turkish invasions, came the fall ofthe Byzantine Empire at the hands of the Ottomans. TheFall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered the end ofthe Byzantine period.
Even after the Ottoman conquest, various areas remainedunder Venetian control, such as the Kingdom of Candia(until 1669), the Venetian Ionian islands, various Aegeanislands or short-lived occupied lands (Kingdom of theMorea, Preveza etc.).
4 Ottoman rule (15th century –
1821)
Main articles: Ottoman Greece and Greek War ofIndependence
When the Ottomans arrived, two Greek migrationsoccurred. The first migration entailed the Greekintelligentsia migrating to Western Europe and influenc-ing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migrationentailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsulaand resettling in the mountains.[14] The millet system con-
tributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks bysegregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Em-pire based on religion.
The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman domina-tion were either Christians who dealt with the burdens offoreign rule or crypto-Christians (Greeks who held them-selves out to the government as Muslims but were se-cret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). SomeGreeks became crypto-Christians to avoid heavy taxeswhile at the same time maintaining their identity by keep-ing their ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. Greeks whopulicly professed conversion to Islam and did not main-
tain a crypto-Christian identity were deemed Turks in theeyes of Orthodox Greeks even if they did not adopt theTurkish language.
The Battle of Navarino , on October 1827, marked the effective
end of Ottoman rule in Greece.
The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early 19th century.
5 Modern Greek state (1821–)
Main article: History of Modern Greece
In the early months of 1821, the Greeks declared their in-dependence but did not achieve it until 1829. The GreatPowers first shared the same view concerning the neces-sity of preserving the status quo of the Ottoman Empire,but soon changed their stance. Scores of non-Greeks vol-unteered to fight for the cause, including Lord Byron.
The territorial evolution of the Kingdom of Greece until 1947.
On 20 October 1827, a combined British, French andRussian naval force destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptianarmada. The Russian minister of foreign affairs, IoannisKapodistrias, himself a Greek, returned home as Presi-dentofthenew Republic. The first capitalof the indepen-dent Greece was Aigina (1828–1829) and the second wasNafplio (1828–1834). After his assassination the Euro-pean powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the firstKing, Otto, came from Bavaria and the second, George I,from Denmark. King Otto, in 1834 transferred the capi-
tal to Athens.During the 19th and early 20th centuries Greece soughtto enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek pop-
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5.2 World War I and Greco-Turkish War 11
ulation of the Ottoman Empire. Greece played a periph-eral role in the Crimean War. When Russia attacked theOttoman Empire in 1853 Greek leaders saw an opportu-nity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas thathad a Christian majority. However Greece did not co-ordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and
received no outside military or financial support. TheFrench and British seized its major port and effectivelyneutralized the Greek army. Greek efforts to cause in-surrections were failures that were easily crushed by theOttoman army. Greece was not invited to the peace con-ference and made no gains out of the war. The frustratedGreek leadership blamed the King for failing to take ad-vantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and hewas later forced to abdicate. The Ionian Islands were re-turned by Britain upon the arrival of the new King GeorgeI in 1863 and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans. Asa result of the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 Epirus, southern
Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean Islands were annexedinto the Kingdom of Greece. Another enlargement fol-lowed in 1947, when Greece annexed the Dodecanese Is-lands from Italy.
5.1 Modernization
In the late 19th century modernization transformed thesocial structure of Greece. The population grew rapidly,putting heavy pressure on the system of small farms withlow productivity. Overall the density of population morethan doubled from 41 persons per square mile in 1829to 114 in 1912. One response was emigration to theUnited States, with a quarter million people leaving be-tween 1906 and the start of the World War in 1914. En-trepreneurs found numerous business opportunitiesin theretail and restaurant sectors of American cities; somesentmoney back to their families, others returned with hun-dreds of dollars, enough to purchase a farm or a small
business in the old village. The urban population tripledfrom 8 percent in 1853 to 24 percent in 1907. Athensgrew from a village of 6000 people in 1834, when it be-came the capital, to 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896,and 167,000 in 1907.[15]
In Athens and other cities men arriving from rural ar-eas set up workshops and stores, creating a middle class.They joined with bankers, professional men, univer-sity students, and military officers, to demand reformand modernization of the political and economic system.Athens became the center of the merchant marine whichquadrupled in size from 250,000 tons in 1875 to more
than 1,000,000 tons in 1915. As the cities modernized,businessmen adopted the latest styles of West Europeanarchitecture.[16]
5.2 World War I and Greco-Turkish War
Main articles: Greece during World War I, NationalSchism and Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)The outbreak of World War I in 1914 produced a split
A map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Sèvres , when the
Megali Idea seemed close to fulfillment, featuring Eleftherios
Venizelos .
28 March &
11 July '21
Kutahya
Usak
Çanakkale
Adrianople
Çay Akşehir
Black Sea
Aegean
Sea
Sea of Marmara
Konya
Ankara
Maeander r .
Polatli
I t a l i a n Z o n e ( u n t i l 1 9 2 1 ) Antalya
Izmit
Sivrihisar
Zonguldag
25 June '20
Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)Borders and zones of control under the Treaty of Sevres
Greece
Zone of the Straits (British control)
Dodecannese (under Italy)
Smyrna Zone (Greek depedency)
Military Operations during the War
Area controlled by the Greek Army
Major battles (date) blue Greek/red Turkish Victory
Pre-war
June 1919 (Smyrna Zone) June 1920
August 1920 (E. Thrace & Prousa-Usak line)
July 1921 & Sept. 1921 - August 1922
August 1921 (Battle of Sakarya)
Isparta
Balikesir
Panormos (Bandırma)
S a k a
r y a r .
Aydin
2 July '20
30 June '20
8 July '20
Mudanya
Rhaedestos(Tekirdag)
Constantinople
Rhodes
22 June '20
Philadelphi a(Alaşehir)
Smyrna15 May '19
Ayvalik29 May '19
Prousa(Bursa)9 July '20
29 August '20
Eskisehir
Afyon Karahisar
19 July '21
17 July '21
Inonu
9-11 Jan. &
26-31 March '21
27 June -
4 July '21
Dumlupinar
26-30 August '22
Kale Grotto
Map of the military developments during the Greco-Turkish War
(1919–1922).
in Greek politics, with King Constantine I, an admirerof Germany, calling for neutrality, while Prime Minis-ter Eleftherios Venizelos pushed for Greece to join on
the side of the Allies aiming to the realization of theMegali Idea.[17] The conflict between monarchists and theVenizelists sometimes resulted into open warfare and be-came known as the National Schism. In 1916 the Al-lies forced Constantine to abdicate in favor of his sonAlexander, and Venizelos returned as premier. Follow-ing victory the war, the Great Powers agreed that the Ot-toman cities of Smyrna (Izmir) and its hinterland, bothof which had large Greek populations, be handed over toGreece.[17]
Greek troops occupied Smyrna in 1919, and in 1920the Treaty of Sevres was signed by the Ottoman govern-
ment, which stipulated that in five years time a plebiscitewould be held in Smyrna on whether the region wouldjoin Greece.[17] However, the Turkish nationalists, led
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12 5 MODERN GREEK STATE (1821–)
by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, overthrew the Ottoman gov-ernment and organised a military campaign against theGreek troops, resulting in the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922). A major Greek offensive ground to halt in 1921,and by 1922 the Greek troops were in retreat. The Turk-ish forces recaptured Smyrna on 9 September 1922, and
4 days afterwards a great fire broke out in the city, incin-erating the Greek and Armenian quarters.[17]
The war was concluded by the Treaty of Lausanne, ac-cording to which there was to be a population exchangebetween Greece and Turkey on the basis of religion.Over one million Orthodox Christians left Turkey in ex-change for 400,000 Muslims from Greece.[17] The eventsof 1919–1922 are regarded in Greece as a particularlycalamitous period of history. Between 1914 and 1923,and estimated 750,000[18] to 900,000[19] Greeks died atthe hands of the Ottoman Turks, in what many scholarshave termed a genocide.[20][21][22][23][24]
5.3 World War II
Main article: Greece during World War IIDespite the country’s numerically small and ill-equipped
German artillery shelling the Metaxas Line.
armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to theAllied efforts in World War II. At the start of the warGreece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to
Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albaniaon 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the in-vaders after a bitter struggle (see Greco-Italian War).This marked the first Allied victory in the war.
Primarily to secure his strategic southern flank, Germandictator Adolf Hitler reluctantly stepped in and launchedthe Battle of Greece. Axis units from Germany, Bul-garia, and Italy successfully invaded Greece, through Yu-goslavia, forcing out the Greek and defenders. On 20May 1941, the Germans attempted to seize Crete with alarge attack by paratroops—with the aim of reducing thethreat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in Egypt—
but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign mighthave delayed German military plans against SovietUnion,andit is arguedthat had the German invasion of theSoviet
Union started on 20 May 1941 instead of 22 June 1941,the Nazi assault against the Soviet Union might have suc-ceeded. The heavy losses of German paratroopers led theGermans to launch no further large-scale air-invasions.
During the years of Occupation of Greece by Nazi Ger-
many, thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in con-centration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers mur-dered the greater part of the Jewish community despiteefforts by Christian Greeks to shelter the Jews. The econ-omy of Greece was devastated.
When the Soviet Army began its drive across Romania inAugust 1944, the German Army in Greece began with-drawing north and northwestward from Greece to avoidbeing cut off in Greece. Hence, the German occupationof Greece ended in October 1944. The Resistance groupELAS seized control of Athens on 12 October 1944. Theinsurrection was defeated by British troops who entered
Athens at 14 October 1944.
[25]
Goulter (2014) summarizes the devastation done toGreece during the war:
Between 1941 in 1945, over 8% of the Greekpopulation had died; some 2000 villages andsmall towns had been razed to the ground; star-vation was widespread due to the destructionof crops and worsened in many parts of Greeceafter liberation when agricultural labourers mi-grated to urban centres to escape politically in-spired violence in the countryside; trade either
internally or externally had all but ceased; mostof Greece’s merchant marine lay at the bottomof the sea; and motorized transport had beenconfiscated by the axis occupiers.[26]
5.4 Greek Civil War (1944–49)
Main article: Greek Civil WarThe Greek Civil War (Greek: Eμφύλιος πόλεμος
Ε Λ Λ Α Σ
ΑΛΒΑΝΙΑ
ΓΙΟΥΚΟΣΛΑΒΙΑ
ΒΟΥΛΓΑΡΙΑ
Θεσσαλονίκη
Καβάλα Αλεξανδρούπολη
Βόλος
Λάρισα
ΙωάννιναΚέρκυρα
Τίρανα
Σκόπια
Σόφια
Οργάνωση και Βάσεις του ∆Σ
Συμμαχικές
χώρες
της
ΕΣΣΔ που
υποστήριξαν
τον
ΔΣΕ
(Γιουκοσλαβία μέχρι Ιούλιο 1949)
Δίοδοι εφοδιασμού
Στρατόπεδα εκπαίδευσης
Σταθμοί
εφοδιασμού
Σταθμοί
εκκένωσης-Α' βοηθειώ
Νοσοκομεία
Στρατ. συγκέντρωσης αιχμαλώ
↑
Ραδιοφωνικός
σταθμός
(Βελιγράδι)
Φιλιππούπολη
Organization and military bases of the " Demogratic Army", as
well as entry routes to Greece.
Emfílios pólemos ), was fought between 1944 and 1949in Greece between the Greek governmental and British
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5.6 Restoration of democracy 13
forces. Funding for the government came from Britainand the U.S.[27] The insurgents the military branch ofthe Greek communist party. According to some ana-lysts on the left, it represented the first example of apost-war West interference in the political situation of aforeign country.[28] The victory of the British—and later
US-supported government forces led to American fund-ing through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan]]and to Greece’s membership in NATO and helped to de-fine the ideological balance of power in the Aegean forthe entire Cold War.
The civil war consisted on one side of the armed forces ofthe postwar non-Marxist Greek administrations, and onthe other, communist-led forces, and key members of theformer resistance organization (ELAS), the leadership ofwhich was controlled by the Communist Party of Greece(KKE).
The first phase of the civil war occurred in 1942–1944.Marxist and non-Marxist resistance groups fought eachother in a fratricidal conflict to establish the leader-ship of the Greek resistance movement. In the secondphase (1944) the ascendant communists, in military con-trol of most of Greece, confronted the returning Greekgovernment in exile, which had been formed under West-ern Allied auspices in Cairo and originally included sixKKE-affiliated ministers. In the third phase (commonlycalled the “Third Round” by the Communists) (1946–1949), guerrilla forces controlled by KKE fought againstthe internationally recognized Greek Government whichwas formed after elections boycotted by KKE. Although
the involvement of KKE in the uprisings was univer-sally known, the party remained legal until 1948, con-tinuing to coordinate attacks from its Athens offices untilproscription.
The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polar-ization; as a result, Greece also entered into alliance withthe United States and joined NATO, while relationshipswith its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Sovietand neutral, became strained.
5.5 Postwar recovery and military junta
Main articles: Greek economic miracle, Greek militaryjunta of 1967–74 and 1974 Cypriot coup d'état
In the 1950s and 1960s, Greece developed rapidly, ini-tially with the help of the U.S. Marshall Plan's grantsand loans, and later through growth in the tourism sec-tor, leading to the Greek economic miracle. New atten-tion was given to women’s rights, and in 1952 suffrage forwomen was guaranteed in the Constitution, full Constitu-tional equality following, and Lina Tsaldari becoming the
first female minister that decade.In 1967, the Greek military seized power in a coup d'état,overthrew the centre right government of Panagiotis
Kanellopoulos.[29] It established the Greek military juntaof 1967-1974 which became known as the Régime of
the Colonels . In 1973, the régime abolished the Greekmonarchy. In 1974, dictator Papadopoulos denied help tothe U.S. After a second coup that year, Colonel Ioannideswas appointed as the new head-of-state.
Ioannides was responsible for the 1974 coup againstPres-ident Makarios of Cyprus.[30] The coup became the pre-text for the first wave of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in1974 (see Greco-Turkish relations). The Cyprus eventsand the outcry following a bloody suppression of AthensPolytechnic uprising in Athens led to the implosion of themilitary régime. An exiled politician, Konstantinos Kara-manlis, returned and became interim prime minister onJuly 23, 1974[31] and later gained re-election for two fur-ther terms at the head of the conservative New Democ-racy party. In August 1974, Greek forces withdrew fromthe integrated military structure of NATO in protest at
the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus.[32]
5.6 Restoration of democracy
In 1974, a referendum voted 69%–31% to confirm thedeposition of King Constantine II. A democratic repub-lican constitution came into force.[33] Another previ-ouslyexiled politician, Andreas Papandreou alsoreturnedand founded the socialist Panhellenic Socialist Movement(PASOK) party, which won the elections in 1981 anddominated the country’s political course for almost two
decades.[34]
Since the restoration of democracy, the stability andeconomic prosperity of Greece have grown remarkably.Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Greece joined theEuropean Union in 1981 and adopted the euro as itscurrency in 2001. New infrastructure, funds from theEU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, ser-vices, light industry and the telecommunications indus-try have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard ofliving. Tensions continue to exist between Greece andTurkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in theAegean Sea but relations have considerably thawed fol-
lowing successive earthquakes—first in Turkey and thenin Greece—and an outpouring of sympathy and generousassistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks (see EarthquakeDiplomacy).
5.7 Economic crisis of 2009–2014
Main article: Greek government-debt crisis
From late 2009, fears of a sovereign debt crisis devel-oped among investors concerning Greece’sability to meet
its debt obligations due to strong increase in governmentdebt levels.[35][36] This led to a crisis of confidence, in-dicated by a widening of bond yield spreads and risk in-
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14 8 REFERENCES
surance on credit default swaps compared to other coun-tries, most importantly Germany.[37][38] Downgrading ofGreek government debt to junk bonds created alarm in fi-nancial markets. On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countriesand the International Monetary Fund agreed on a €110billion loan for Greece, conditional on the implementa-
tion of harsh austerity measures.In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a pro-posal to write off 50% of Greek debt owed to privatecreditors, increasing the EFSF to about €1 trillion andrequiring European banks to achieve 9% capitalizationto reduce the risk of contagion to other countries. Theseausterity measures have proved extremely unpopular withthe Greek public, precipitating demonstrations and civilunrest.
6 See also
• History of Crete
• History of the Cyclades
• History of Thessaly
• History of Athens
• History of Thessaloniki
• History of the Greek language
• Timeline of Ancient Greece
• Timeline of modern Greek history
Lists:
• List of ancient Greeks
• List of ancient Greek cities
• List of Kings of Greece
• List of Presidents of Greece
• List of Prime Ministers of Greece
General:
• History of the Balkans
• Intermediate Region
• History of Europe
7 Further reading
• Boardman, John et al. (2002). The Oxford History
of Greece & the Hellenistic World .
• Brewer, David (2010). Greece: The Hidden Cen-
turies: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinopleto Greek Independence. I.B. Tauris. p. 308.
• Burn, A.R. (1966). The Penguin History of Greece.
• Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Cambridge Illustrated
History of Ancient Greece.
• Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World .Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.
• Demand, Nancy H. (2006). A History of Ancient
Greece in Its Mediterranean Context .
• Grant, Michael (1993). A Social History of Greece
and Rome.• Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2009).
Modern Greece: A History since 1821.
• Pomeroy, Sarah B. et al. (2009). A Brief History of
Ancient Greece: Politics, Society and Culture.
• Woodhouse, C. M. (2000). Modern Greece: A Short
History.
• [39]
8 References
• Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World .Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.
• Mountjoy, P.A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pot-
tery: A Guide to Identification. Studies in Mediter-ranean Archaeology 73. Göteborg: Paul ÅströmsForlag. ISBN 91-86098-32-2.
• Mylonas, George E. (1966). Mycenae and the Myce-
naean Age. Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-03523-7.
• Podzuweit, Christian (1982). “Die mykenischeWelt
und Troja". In Hänsel, B. Südosteuropa zwischen
1600 und 1000 v. Chr . pp. 65–88.
• Roebuck, Carl (1966). The World of Ancient Times .New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• Taylour, Lord William (1964). The Mycenaeans .Revised edition (1990). London: Thames & Hud-son. ISBN 0-500-27586-6.
• Latacz, Joachim (1994). “Between Troy andHomer. The so-called Dark Ages in Greece”. Sto-
ria, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Studi in
Onore di M. Gigante. Rome.
• Vacalopoulos, Apostolis (1976). The Greek Nation,
1453–1669. Rutgers University Press.
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15
9 Footnotes
[1] Roebuck 1966, p. 77 & 113.
[2] Roebuck 1966, p. 13.
[3] Roebuck 1966, p. 77.[4] Roebuck 1966, p. 101.
[5] Roebuck 1966, p. 108.
[6] Roebuck 1966, p. 107.
[7] Bryce 2006, p. 91; Cadogan & Langdon Caskey 1986, p.125
[8] “The Greeks”. Encyclopædia Britannica. US: Encyclopæ-dia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
[9] Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean world . Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.
[10] Runnels, Curtis Neil; Murray, Priscilla (2001). Greece
before history: an archaeological companion and guide.Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 64. ISBN0-8047-4050-X.
[11] Hall Jonathan M. (2007). A history of the archaic Greek
world, ca. 1200–479 BCE . Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.
[12] Sealey, Raphael (1976). A history of the Greek city states,
ca. 700–338 B.C. University of California Press. pp. 10–
11. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.
[13] Winnifrith, Tom; Murray, Penelope (1983). Greece Old
and New. Macmillan. p. 113. ISBN 0-333-27836-4..“For August Heisenberg the Byzantine empire was 'theChristianised Roman empire of the Greek nation'.”
[14] Vacalopoulos, p. 45. The Greeks never lost their desire
to escape from the heavy hand of the Turks, bad govern-
ment, the impressment of their children, the increasingly
heavy taxation, and the sundry caprices of the conqueror.
Indeed, anyone studying the last two centuries of Byzantine
rule cannot help being struckby thepropensity of theGreeks
to flee misfortune. The routes they chiefly took were: first,
to the predominantly Greek territories, which were either
still free or Frankish-controlled (that is to say, the Vene-
tian fortresses in the Despotate of Morea, as well as in the
Aegean and Ionian Islands) or else to Italy and the West
generally; second, to remote mountain districts in the inte-
rior where the conqueror’s yoke was not yet felt.
[15] Myrsiades, Linda S.; Myrsiades, Kostas (1992).Karagiozis: Culture & Comedy in Greek Puppet Theater .University Press of Kentucky. pp. 32–33.
[16] Birēs, Manos G.; Kardamitsē-Adamē, Marō (2004).Neoclassical Architecture in Greece. Getty Publications.p. 173.
[17] Clogg, Richard, A Concise History of Greece, (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1992) pages 86–98.
[18] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive In-
troduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 150–151. ISBN0415486181. By the beginning of the First World War,a majority of the region’s ethnic Greeks still lived inpresent-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remain-ing Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek
border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts.They would be targeted both prior to and alongsidethe Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatoliaand Mesopotamia...The major populations of “AnatolianGreeks” include those along the Aegean coast and in Cap-padocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of theThrace region west of the Bosphorus...A “Christian geno-cide” framing acknowledges the historic claims of As-syrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stir-ring for recognition and restitution among Greek and As-syrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite stag-gering cumulative death toll among the various Christiangroups targeted...of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor– Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians – approximately
750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontiandeaths alone totaled 353,000.
[19] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive In-
troduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 166. ISBN9780415486187. An estimate of the Pontian Greek deathtoll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm takentogether, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and mayapproach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchersfound in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greekswere expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous “popu-lation exchanges” that set the seal on a heavily “Turkified”state.
[20] Adam Jones (26 October 2010). Genocide: A Comprehen-
sive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171–172. ISBN978-0-415-48618-7. Retrieved 27 September 2012. Aresolution was placed before the IAGS membership torecognize the Greek and Assyrian components of the Ot-toman genocide against Christians, alongside the Arme-nian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has alreadyformally acknowledged). The result, passed emphaticallyin December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition,was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:...(IAGS resolution is on page 172)
[21] IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the OttomanEmpire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), Interna-tional Association of Genocide Scholars
[22] Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament —full text containing the IAGS resolution and the SwedishParliament resolution from news.am
[23] Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-
Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War
I . Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
[24] Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). “Late Ot-toman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
and Young Turkish population and extermination policies– introduction”. Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.
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16 10 EXTERNAL LINKS
[25] Churchill, S.W. (1953). The Second World War (Volume
6). p. 285.
[26] Christina J. M. Goulter, “The Greek Civil War: A Na-tional Army’s Counter-insurgency Triumph,” The Journal
of Military History (July 2014) 78#3 pp: 1017-55, quotepp 10234-25
[27] Nikos Marantzidis, and Giorgos Antoniou. “The axis oc-cupation and civil war: Changing trends in Greek histori-ography, 1941–2002.” Journal of Peace Research (2004)41#2 pp: 223-231.
[28] Chomsky, Noam (1994). World Orders, Old And New.Pluto Press London.
[29] Richard Clogg (2002). A ConciseHistory of Greece. Cam-bridge University Press. p. 159.
[30] Barry Bartmann (2003). De Facto States: The Quest For
Sovereignty. Psychology Press. p. 167.
[31] “NATO Update 1974”. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Or-ganization. 26 October 2001.
[32] Dr Fo Moustakis (2003). The Greek-Turkish Relationship
and NATO . Taylor & Francis. p. 33.
[33] Geoffrey Pridham (1990). Securing Democracy: Political
Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe.Psychology Press. p. 182.
[34] Harry Coccossis; Yannis Psycharis (2008). Regional
Analysis and Policy: The Greek Experience. Springer. p.45.
[35] George Matlock (16 February 2010). “Peripheral eurozone government bond spreads widen”. Reuters. Re-trieved 28 April 2010.
[36] “Acropolis now”. The Economist . 29 April 2010. Re-trieved 22 June 2011.
[37] “Greek/German bond yield spread more than 1,000 bps”.Financialmirror.com. 28 April 2010. Retrieved 5 May2010.
[38] “Gilt yields rise amid UK debt concerns”. Financial
Times . 18 February 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
[39] The Oxford illustrated history of Greece and the Hellenistic
world . Oxford. 2001. |first1= missing |last1= in Authorslist (help)
10 External links
• A visual illustrated timeline of the history of Greece
• Jeremy B. Rutter, “The Prehistoric Archaeology ofthe Aegean”: chronology, history, bibliography
• History of Greece: Primary Documents
• A short history of Greece
8/9/2019 A overview of Greek history
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/a-overview-of-greek-history 17/19
17
11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
11.1 Text
• History of Greece Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Greece?oldid=664445018Contributors: The Anome, SimonP, Heron,Edward, Infrogmation, D, Paul Barlow, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Jebba, Adam Bishop, Reddi, Andrewman327, SEWilco,Paul-L~enwiki, Adia~enwiki, Gakrivas, Adam Carr, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Chris 73, Benwing, Moondyne, Romanm, HaeB, Mattflaschen,Lambros40, Dave6, HangingCurve, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Naufana, Cam, Gadfium, Andycjp, Antandrus, Beland, Piotrus, Pman-derson, Joyous!, RevRagnarok, Mike Rosoft, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Aris Katsaris, Alistair1978, Arthur Holland, Dbach-mann, Paul August, Fenice, BACbKA, Vojta, Project2501a, Karmafist, El C, Bletch, QuartierLatin1968, Kross, Shanes, Triona, EmilJ,Deanos, Markussep, MPS, Bobo192, Vervin, NetBot, Robotje, Smalljim, Elipongo, 1locs, WikiLeon, Krellis, Willard, Merope, Zach-lipton, Alansohn, Foant, Andrewpmk, Darrelljon, Denniss, DreamGuy, Velella, Binabik80, Toytown Mafia, Grenavitar, Sciurinæ, Do-minic, Ephestion, Mattbrundage, Georgios, Rorschach, Woohookitty, Colossus, LOL, Vran, Pol098, Before My Ken, WadeSimMiser,Timrichardson, Eleassar777, Lapsed Pacifist, Bluemoose, SDC, Kralizec!, Wayward, Fxer, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, BD2412, DavidLevy, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Angusmclellan, P3Pp3r, Erebus555, Mike s, Gramaic, Oblivious, Ttwaring, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF,Titoxd, Miskin, Kiba, Ground Zero, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL, Common Man, Phoenix2~enwiki, King of Hearts, PKM, Metropoli-tan90, Jared Preston, DVdm, Damac, YurikBot, RussBot, Conscious, Splash, RJC, Kirill Lokshin, Ewx, Wimt, Megistias, SEWilcoBot,Wiki alf, Petrouchka, Bruxism, Aeusoes1, Welsh, Joel7687, Rjensen, Michalis Famelis, Nascigl, Mike Hollis, Bobbo, Jpbowen, Aldux,Moe Epsilon, E2mb0t~enwiki, Bucketsofg, Deucalionite, DeadEyeArrow, Kewp, Wolfling, Pelister, Whitejay251, Deville, K.Nevelsteen,GraemeL, Chrishmt0423, Robskin, Curpsbot-unicodify, SorryGuy, Argos’Dad, Kungfuadam, Jenda, Saltmarsh, Attilios, SmackBot, Matti-eTK, Mmernex, Schyler, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kimon, Pgk, Vald, Jagged 85, Davewild, Canthusus, Flamarande, Evanreyes, Keithb, Gilliam,Emj, Hmains, ERcheck, Anastasios~enwiki, Chris the speller, Kurykh, Bigdaddy1204, Keegan, MK8, Jprg1966, Akanemoto, DoctorW,
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