› issue10.pdfnew energy technologies, issue #1 january february 20035 ph.m. kanarev the kuban...

NEW ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES #10

1. Testatika. Review of well-known electrostatic system. 2. Cold Fusion by Plasma Electrolysis of Water. Ph.M. Kanarev, T. Mizuno 3. Cold Fusion: What is it and what does it mean to science and society? E. Storms 4. Technical Introduction to LENR-CANR (Low Energy Nuclear Reactions). E. Storms 5. It started in 1989… (History of Cold Fusion Development). P. Hagelstein 6. A Science Tutorial (Cold fusion). T. Chubb 7. LENR (Low Energy Nuclear Reactions) Experiments. 8. On Electrogravitation. A.V. Lemeshko 9. Avalanchedrive Propulsion Device. M.L. Filho 10. Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles. P. Behr, G. Schneider 11. Unusual Permanent Magnet Motors. T. Valone 12. Hydrogen Energetics. A. Pashova 13. On the Longitudinal Electromagnetic Waves. A.V. Frolov 14. Space and Terrestrial Transportation and Energy Technologies. T.C. Loder 15. Commercialising the “Searl Effect”. 16. Interesting Publications of the Last Year. 17. “Lifter” Project 18. New Electric Fire Technology. V.D. Dudyshev 19. New Effect of “Cold” Evaporation. V.D. Dudyshev 20. Conceptual Hurdles to New Millennium Physics. D. Reed 21. Resonant Phenomena Occurring in Alternating Current Circuit. A.V. Frolov 22. Books Review

3New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January - February 2003

Editor comments by Alexander V. FrolovGeneral Director, Faraday Lab Ltd

A running “free energy” machine coming fromSwitzerland, Europe. It was developed over a 20 yearsResearch period by a religious group called Methernitha.This group lives in Linden, Switzerland. The headengineer of this superb machine, Mr. Paul Baumanndiscovered its principles while observing nature. Heclaims its running principle was found by studying thelightning effects from nature. The documents beingoffered here shed light on this energy marvel.

These documents are the result of work of people whohave witnessed this wonder machine over the years...And here are the facts:

· The Testatika is a rotary-type machine that runson it’s own, once started by revolving it’s two discsby hand!· The machine not only runs on it’s own energy,but produces also a huge amount of excess power,at least 3 KWtt of power! This is almost enough tosupply a small house with one machine!· The machine is about 70cm wide, by 40cm deepand is about 60cm in height!· It delivers from 250 volts to about 320 volts directcurrent, depending on the humidity in the air! Atthis voltage it can supply at least 10 Amperes ofpulsating direct current!· Testatika is not a perpetual motion device, butan energy machine that collects it’s huge amountof energy from the ions contained in air. However,there are some technological secrets implementedto overcome the normal drag-resistance ofconventional generators. This is but one of it’ssecrets held by the Methernitha group.

There are many different sized Testatika machines,some of the smaller units deliver only about 200 to300 watts, none of which are mass-produced. Thesedevices are still laboratory prototype units.

Methernitha is a spiritual community (ChristianAlliance) http://www.methernitha.com. They wrote:“We are fortunate in gaining the experience thatparadoxically the most beautiful and useful results canbe achieved by just using the most simple means.Never did we use any borrowed capital because wewant to stay free Swiss citizens and do not want to behindered or even bound in any way in the pursuanceof our aims.”

The two contrary-rotating discs generate an electrostaticcharge. One disc represents the earth, the other thecloud. Using grid electrodes the charges are bound. Afterthat they are collected by non-contacting so-calledantenna keys and then sorted.

After being initially turned on by hand, the discs rotateby themselves according to the electrostatic laws aboutattraction and repulsion. A rectifying diode keeps thecycles in steady state. Otherwise the impulses ofattraction and repulsion would accumulate and causethe discs to run faster and faster. The correct speed isof great importance and for optimal power generationthe discs have to run quite steady and slow.

By means of grid condensers the energy is stored andthen uniformly discharged, at the same time reducingthe high voltage and building up power withadditional devices. Finally the machine supplies auniform direct current, which varies according tothe size of the model. The machine furnishes about3-4 kWt permanent output, depending on humidity,whereby the electric potential ranges from 270 to320 Volt. High humidity of the atmosphere preventsthe build-up of electric potential. The drier the airis, the better.

TESTATIKAReview of well-known electrostatic system

4 New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January - February 2003

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(Editor: It is necessary to note that the analogues methodwas used by Russian inventor Pavel N. Yablochkov whoin 1877 take out a patent #120684 “The system ofdistribution and amplification of electrical currents bymeans of atmosphere electricity...” As it was shown byYablochkov devices, power doubled in lamps, thoughcurrent of consumption did not increse.)

No doubt, through the so far achieved results one mainobjective has been reached, namely to prove that it ispossible to use Free Energy. Nevertheless the researchwork is not yet completed.

To the educated physicist many things of this machinemay seem impossible, maybe even crazy. Maybe he isalso offended by the conceptions used to explain thewhole. Only partly we could use the concepts ofconventional physical terminology to explain and defineonly approximately the functions and properties of thevarious parts of the machine.

After all it will be necessary to create some more newconcepts like the one we have already used before,when we termed the non-contacting collectors ofelectric charges as antenna keys.

This machine puts experts, which are just trained inconventional physics to a very hard test, because its mode

of action is not explainable with the state of the art ofofficially accepted physical knowledge, or at the mostonly partially explainable. However also a trainedspecialist should remain free and independent in histhinking, and should avoid to be limited by the temporalframework of publicly admitted knowledge in any science.

It has to be noted that the established science was alreadymany times forced to change or give up some of its veryfundamental concepts. Think about Galilee, to name onlyone example. Our human society almost condemned thisman as a sorcerer and magician, just because heinvestigated and discovered a truth that seemedunacceptable by the established science of the days.

The book knowledge of any times is not wrong, but it isincomplete, and therefore allows to draw wrong conclusions.

There was used information from the official web site:http://www.methernitha.com

Official adress of Methernitha: MethernithaGenossenschaft Administration, Moosbuehlweg 2,3517, Linden, SWITZERLAND

Official E-mail of Methernitha: [email protected]

5New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January � February 2003

Ph.M. KanarevThe Kuban State Agrarian University,Department of Theoretical Mechanics

13, Kalinin Street, 350044 Krasnodar, RussiaE-mail: [email protected]

Tadahiko MizunoFaculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University,

Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo 060-8628, Japan

Abstract: It has been disclosed that transmutation ofthe atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomicnuclei of the cathode material takes place duringplasma electrolysis of water.

Key words: atom, nucleus, proton, neutron, electron,cathode, low-current.

INTRODUCTION

Cold nuclear fusion is the first hypothesis of a sourceof additional energy in heavy water electrolysis.Fleischmann and Pons, the American electrochemists,are the authors of this hypothesis [1]. They reportedabout it in 1989. Since that time a large number ofexperiments has been carried out in order to obtainadditional energy from water [2], [3], [4], [5], [7], [8],[9], [10], [11], [12]. We continue to discuss this problem.

THE FIRST EXPERIMENTAL PART

In order to check this hypothesis, the followingexperiments were performed. Two cathodes weremade of iron with mass of 18.10 g and 18.15 g. Thefirst cathode operated during 10 hours in KOHsolution; the second cathode operated during thesame period in NaOH solution. Mass of the firstcathode remained unchanged; mass of the second onewas reduced by 0.02 g. The voltage byplasmaelectrolysis process was 220 V and the current(0.5-1.0) A (Fig.1). The indices of the consumption ofthe solution and the gases being generated were asfollows (Table 1).

Fig. 1.Diagram of gas generator. Patent # 2175027:

1 - lid of the reactor; 3 - body of the reactor; 6 - the cathode;9 - the anode; 11 - solution dosing unit; 16 - cooler; 20 - pipe for

gas release; 23 – anemometer

Table 1Experimental results

Indices Water Volume Energy expenses,consumption, kg of gases,m3 kWh/m3

KOH 0.272 8.75 0.28NaOH 0.445 12.66 0.21

In order to increase safety of experimental results, thevolume of the gases introduced with the help ofanemometer is reduced twofold.

It is known that from one litre of water it is possibleto produce 1220 litres of hydrogen and 622 litres ofoxygen. Quantity of the gases generated by theplasma electrolytic process is much greater than it ispossible to get from consumed water (Table 1) [6]. Itgives the reason to think that not only watermolecules, but also the nuclei of alkaline metals andthe atomic nuclei of the cathode material serve as asource of these gases. The analysing experiment hasbeen performed in order to check this fact.

Tadahiko Mizuno, the famous Japanese scientist (theco-author of this article), who works at the Divisionof Quantum Energy Engineering Research group ofNuclear System Engineering, laboratory of NuclearMaterial System, Faculty of Engineering, HokkaidoUniversity, Japan, kindly agreed to perform chemicalanalysis of the cathode samples with the help of thenuclear spectroscopy method (EDX). Here are theresults of his analysis. The content of chemicalelements on the surface of non-operating cathode isas follows (Table 2).

Table 2Chemical composition of the cathode surface prior

its operation in the solution

Element Fe% 99.90

The new chemical elements have appeared on theworking surface of the cathode, which works in KOHsolution (Table 3).

Table 3Chemical composition of the surface of thecathode, which operates in KOH solution

Element Si K Cr Fe Cu% 0.94 4.50 1.90 93.00 0.45

The chemical composition of the surface of the cathode,which operates in NaOH has proved to be different(Table 4).

Table 4Chemical composition of the surface of thecathode, which operates in NaOH solution

Element Al Si Cl K Ca Cr Fe Cu% 1.10 0.55 0.20 0.60 0.40 1.60 94.00 0.65

6 New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January � February 2003

Thus, the hypothesis concerning the participation ofthe nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei ofthe cathode material in the formation of gases duringplasma electrolysis of water has experimentalconfirmation. Let us carry out the preliminary analysisof the data being obtained (Tables 2, 3, 4).

THE FIRST THEORETICAL PART

In any of these cases, the atoms and the molecules ofhydrogen are formed. The part of it is burned and theother goes out with the steam. We have already shownthat the processes of fusion of the atoms and themolecules of hydrogen and its isotopes result inoccurrence of additional thermal energy [6]. Numerousexperiments show that up to 50% of additional thermalenergy are generated during the plasma electrolysis ofwater, it is less than the results of the calculationsoriginating from the existing cold fusion theories [6].That’s why it is necessary to analyse energetics of theparticle creation process during the atomic nucleustransmutation.

Having considered the model of the electron we havefound out that it can exist in a free state only whenit has a definite electromagnetic mass [6]. Beingcombined with the atomic nucleus it emits a part ofenergy in the form of the photons, and itselectromagnetic mass is reduced. But stability of itscondition does not become worse, because theenergy carried away by the photons is compensatedby binding energy of the electron in the atomicnucleus [6].

If the ambient temperature is increased, the electronbegins to absorb the thermal photons and to pass tohigher energy levels of the atom reducing binding withit. When the electron becomes free, it interacts withthe atom only if the ambient temperature is reduced.As this temperature is reduced, it will emit thephotons and sink to lower energy levels [6].

If the electron is in a free state due to an accidentalexternal influence on the atom and the environmenthas no photons, which are necessary for it to restoreits mass, it begins to absorb the ether from theenvironment and to restore its constants in such away: mass, charge, magnetic moment, spin and radiusof rotation. The electron acquires the stable free stateonly after it has restored its all constants [6].

Thus, if an interchange of the free state and bindingstate with the atom takes place due to the accidentalinfluences on the atom, the electron restores its

electromagnetic mass every time due to absorbingthe ether. It means that actually it plays the role of aconverter of the ether energy into the thermal photonenergy.

The Japanese investigators Ohmori and Mizuno [4]registered neutron radiation during plasma electrolysisof water and reported that not only the nuclear process,but also the process of the electron capture by the freeprotons can be the source of this radiation.

As hydrogen plasma is generated during the plasmaelectrolytic process of water electrolysis, there existsa tendency of the capture of the free electrons by them.

It is known that rest mass of the electron isme = 9.109534 x 10

-31 kg, rest mass of the proton ismp=1.6726485 x 10

-27 kg, and rest mass of the neutron ismn=1.6749543 x 10

-27 kg. The difference between the massof the neutron and the mass of the proton is equal to∆mnp=23.058 x 10

-31 kg. It is 23.058 x 10-31 / 9.109 x 10-31 ==2.531 of the mass of the electron. Thus, the protonshould capture 2.531 electrons in order to become theneutron. The question arises at once: what will happento the remained of electron mass(3.0-2.531)me=0.469me? The disturbed balance ofmasses in this process is explained by modern physicsin a simple way: a neutrino is created [6].

As the neutrino has no charge, it is very difficult toregister it. If the neutrino takes the excess massaway or replenish the lacking one, can theelementary particles execute this process bythemselves?

As the photons are emitted and absorbed only by theelectrons, the proton, which absorbs the electrons,cannot convert the remainder of mass of the thirdelectron into the photon. If the electron is absorbed bythe third one and gives more than a half of its mass tothe proton in order to convert it into the neutron, theremaining part of mass (0.469me) of the electron, whichhas no possibility to become the photon, is convertedinto a portion of the ether, which “is dissolved” andmixed with the ether in the space. The fact that plasmahas no photons with the mass corresponding to thepart of mass of the third electron, which has not beenabsorbed by the proton during its conversion into theneutron, can serve as a proof of such affirmation. Letus calculate energy of such photon [6].

The difference the mass of the neutron and theproton is equal to ∆mnp=23.058 x 10

-31 kg. If wesubtract this value from the mass of three electrons,we’ll get mass mF, from which the photon should beformed [6]

mF=3me-∆mnp= 3 x 9.109534 x 10-31 - 23.05810-31 = 4.270602x10-31 kg (1)

Eph=mF x C2 = =23.956126 x 104 eV (2)

4.270602 x 10-31 x (2.997924 x 108)2

1.602189 x 10-19

If the photon is formed from this remainder of mass mF, its energy will be [6]:


This value of energy corresponds to roentgen spectrum,that’s why the creation of each free neutron should beaccompanied by the creation of one roentgen photon. If itdoes not take place, we have two opportunities: the firstone – we should think that in the case when the neutronis created, the neutrino was formed from massmF=4.270602 x 10-31 kg and flew away in the unknowndirection; the second one – there were no conditions forthe formation of the photons in the process beingconsidered, and mass, which failed to be formed as aparticle, “was dissolved” in the ether. Which variant iscloser to the truth [6]? There is no exact answer, but it isknown that the Japanese scientists registered only

neutron radiation with intensity of 50,000 neutrons persecond, and they failed to register roentgen radiation [4].

If in this process the roentgen photons were created, theywould not exceed heat efficacy of the plasma electrolyticprocess, because they would not be the thermal photons.The thermal photons are radiated and absorbed whenthe electrons make the energy transitions to the energylevels, which are the most remote from the atomic nuclei,where the infrared photons and neighbouring ones fromthe optical range of the spectrum with energies of≈(0.001-3.3) eV are generated (Table 5) [6].

Table 5Electromagnetic spectrum bands

Bands Wave-length, m Energy, eV1. Low- frequency band λ ≈ (107...104) E ≈ 10-15...10-112. Broadcast band λ ≈ (104...10-1) E ≈ 10-11...10-63. Microwave band λ ≈(10-1...10-4) E ≈ 10-6...10-34. Relic band (maximum) λ ≈1 x 10-3 E ≈ 1.2 x 10-35. Infrared band λ ≈ (10-4...7.7 x 10-7) E ≈ 10-3...1.6 x 10-26. Light band λ ≈ (7.7 x 10-7...3.8 x 10-7) E ≈ 1.6 x 10-2...3.277. Ultraviolet band λ ≈ (3.8 x 10-7...10-9) E ≈ 3.27...1 x 1028. Roentgen band λ ≈ (10-9...10-12) E ≈ 102...1059. Gamma band λ ≈ (10-12...10-18) E ≈ 105...109

Thus, the neutron fusion processes in plasma electrolysis of water will not generate additional thermal energy. Butthe appearance of the neutrons in plasma will promote the formation of the nuclei of deuterium and, possibly, oftritium. As the balance of masses remains almost unchanged, we have no reason to expect that additional energywill take place when deuterium and tritium are formed. But it is sure to appear during fusion of the atoms ofdeuterium and tritium, i.e. the hydrogen atoms [6].

In order to become a proton, the neutron should radiate something, which mass is ∆mnp=23.058 x 10-31 kg. Let us

convert this mass into energy [6].

Eph= ∆mnp x C2 = = 1.294 x 106 eV (3)

This energy corresponds to the gamma range photons, i.e. not to the thermal photons, and this process does not giveadditional energy. Thus, if the process of the formation of the helium atoms takes place during plasma electrolysis ofwater, it should be accompanied by gamma radiation. If there is no such radiation, but the helium atoms are formed,the neutrino takes away the above-mentioned portion of mass ∆mnp or this mass, which has no opportunity to be formedas the photon, “is dissolved” in the environment, i.e. it is transferred into the state of the ether [6]. As the roentgenphotons and the gamma photons are not the thermal ones, this process gives no excessive thermal energy [6].

Another variant is possible. When the atoms of alkali metal bombard the cathode atoms, they are destroyed completelyand destroy the atoms of the cathode materials. Under the notion “completely” we’ll understand such state when boththe atom and the nucleus are destroyed. In this case, the protons of the destroyed nuclei begin to form the hydrogenatoms. The process of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen generate additional thermal energy [6]. Butone should bear in mind that if plasma disintegrates water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen and if these gasescontact plasma, hydrogen is combined with oxygen, and water is formed. Noise generated by plasma is hydrogenmicroexplosions. Taking into consideration the above-mentioned fact the larger the volume of hydrogen burnt in plasma,the smaller its volume in the gas-vapour mixture. It means that such reactor operation modes are required whenquantity of burnt hydrogen is minimal one. Our theory allows us to have such results.

As iron is the cathode material, the nuclei of its atoms are the targets of the atomic nuclei of potassium, alkaline metal.During the transmutation of the iron nuclei (Fig. 2 b), the atomic nuclei of chromium (Fig. 2 a) and the atomic nuclei ofcopper (Fig. 2 c) are formed [6].

23.058 x 10-31 x (2.998 x 108)2

1.602 x 10-19

8 New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January � February 2003

a) Cr (24,28) b) Fe (26,28) c) Cu (29,34)

Fig. 2.Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) chromium, b) iron, c) copper

When the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 2 b) pass into theatomic nucleus of chromium (Fig. 2 a), two protons andtwo neutrons are released; two atoms of deuterium orone atom of helium can be formed from them. If theneutrons pass into the protons, four atoms of hydrogenare formed.

It is easy to see (Fig. 2) that the atomic nucleus of iron(Fig. 2 b) should lose two upper protons and twoneutrons in order to pass into the atomic nucleus ofchromium (Fig. 2 a).

Three additional protons and six neutrons (total 9nucleons) are required for the formation of the atomicnucleus of copper (Fig. 2 c) from the atomic nucleusof iron. As on the cathode surface (Table 3) the numberof chromium atoms, which probably are formed fromthe atomic nuclei of iron, four times more than thenumber of atoms of copper, then the solution is sureto have superfluous protons and neutrons of thedestroyed atomic nuclei of iron, and we candetermined their approximate relative quantity.

Let us suppose that four nuclei of the iron atoms passinto the nuclei of the chromium atom. The total quantityof free protons and neutrons (nucleons) is equal to 16.As one atom of copper falls on each four atoms ofchromium, 9 nucleons are spent for the formation of onenucleus of the copper atom, and 7 nucleons remain free.

a) K (19,20) b) O (8,8) c) Si (14,14)

Fig. 3. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of:a) potassium, b) oxygen, c) silicon

Let us see what is formed when the nucleus of thepotassium atom is destroyed. Potassium is situated in thefirst group of the fourth period of the periodic law. Itsnucleus contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons (Fig. 3 a) [6].

In Fig. 3 a, we can see a weak link of the nucleus ofthe potassium atom [6]. It is situated in the middleof its axis neutrons. When the transmutation of thenuclei of the potassium atoms takes place, the nucleiof the oxygen atoms can be formed (Fig. 3 b) as wellas its isotopes and the nuclei of the silicon atoms(Fig. 3 c).

The analysis of the structure of the nuclei of thepotassium atom (Fig. 3 a) shows that it is the mostprobable source of the nucleus of the silicon atom(Fig. 3 c), which atoms appear on the cathode (Table 3).

It is easy to count that during the destruction of onenucleus of the potassium atom and the creation ofone nucleus of the silicon atom 5 free protons and 6free neutrons, i.e. 11 nucleons, are formed.

Thus, the transmutation of the nuclei of the ironatoms and the potassium atoms results in theformation of free protons and neutrons. As theprotons cannot exist in free state, the hydrogen atomsare created from them. If the protons are connectedwith the neutrons after the destruction of the nucleiof the iron atoms and the potassium atoms, theformation of deuterium, tritium and helium ispossible.

Let us pay attention to the main fact – absence of thesodium atoms in the cathode material. It is naturalthat the potassium atoms have appeared on thecathode, which operated in KOH solution (Table 3).Why are no sodium atoms on the cathode, whichoperated in NaOH solution? The answer is as follows:the nuclei of the sodium (Fig. 4,a) atoms arecompletely destroyed during the plasma electrolyticprocess. The presence of potassium on the surface ofthe cathode, which operated in NaOH solution (Table 4),can be explained by insufficient ablution of the reactorafter the operation with KOH solution.

As free protons and neutrons appear during thedestruction of the nucleus of the sodium atom(Fig. 4,a), some nuclei of this element begin to formthe atomic nuclei of aluminium (Fig. 4, b), chlorine(Fig. 4, c) and calcium (Fig. 5).

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent forthe construction of the atomic nuclei of aluminium,chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for thehydrogen atom formation.

If we knew the total quantity of transmutatingatomic nuclei of iron, potassium and sodium as wellas the exact composition of the gases generatedduring the plasma electrolytic process, it would bepossible to determine the atomic nuclei beingformed from additional nucleons. Now we can onlysuppose that the majority of new nuclei are theprotons, i.e. the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. Theincreased volume of the gases generated during theplasma electrolytic process is explained by it [6].


a) Na (11,12) b) Al (13,14) c) Cl (17,18)

Fig. 4. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of:

a) sodium, b) aluminium, c) chlorine

Ca (20,20)

Fig. 5.Diagram of the nucleus of the calcium atom

The analysis of these Tables shows that transmutationof the nuclei of iron, of which the cathodes are made,results in the formation of chromium and copper inboth cases. Apparently, aluminium, chlorine andcalcium are formed from the destroyed sodium nuclei.In any case, free protons and neutrons are formed.

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent for theformation of the atomic nuclei of copper, aluminium,chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for theformation of the hydrogen atoms. In any case, theatoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed. Theanalysis has shown that plasma electrolytic processextracts not more than 0.005 kg of alkaline metal fromone litre of the solution. It appears from this that if allneutrons of the atomic nuclei of the molecules of waterand alkali metals are transferred into the protons andthe atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed,the formed volume of gas will be considerably lessthan the one registered during the experiment (Table 1).A question arises: where do additional gases comefrom? In order to get the answer on this question wemade the next experiment.

THE SECOND EXPERIMENTAL PART

First of all we take into account, that high temperatureof plasma forms the conditions when a set of variousprocesses takes place at the cathode. First of all, wateris boiled and evaporated. At the same time, one partof water molecules is disintegrated with a release ofthe atomic hydrogen; another part of the moleculesforms the orthohydrogen molecules. A part of watermolecules is disintegrated completely and is releasedat the cathode together with hydrogen and oxygen.A part of hydrogen is combined with oxygen againgenerating microexplosions (noise) and forming water.

During plasma electrolysis of water, water vapor,hydrogen and oxygen are released simultaneously. Ifvapor is condensed, gas mixture is released. In order tomeasure gas flow rate the electronic anemometer havebeen used. Diameter of the electronic anemometer wasequal to internal diameter of the gas make tube(23, Fig. 1). Its readings were registered and processedby the computer. The experiment was performed dozentimes, and each time its readings were reproduced withsmall deviations [11]. But we had no hydrogen analyzer,that’s why the results being obtained cannot beconsidered as final ones. We admonished it in all editionsof the book Water is a New Source of Energy with sucha phrase: “We abstain from lending an official status tothese results with the hope to get necessary financingand to repeat them with a complete set of the necessarydevices” [12, page 176].

In the middle of the year of 2002 we received smallfinancing, which allowed us to make a new reactor andto buy some measuring instruments, in particular thescales with the measurement limit up to 600 g andaccuracy of 0.02 g. Careful preparation allowed us toincrease duration of continuous operation of the reactor(to 10 and more hours) and to register solutionconsumption for gas production.

The main difficulty of operation with the hydrogen isin the fact that its mixture with air (4-74)% or oxygen(4-94)% is combustible, and the fact was emphasizedmore than once during the experiments that made theresearches be very careful. The second difficulty duringhydrogen quantity measurements generated by theplasma electrolytic reactor is in the fact that itsmolecule has the smallest dimensions, that’s why itpenetrates easily to the places where the molecules ofother substances do not penetrate. Molecular hydrogendiffuses easily even into metals. For example, onevolume of palladium absorbs up to 800 volumes ofhydrogen.

Gas flow speed was measured with the help of variousanemometers, its readings being registered with thehelp of the computer. Numerous measurements andnumerous analysis of gas flow speed measurementaccuracy with the help of the anemometers showedthat error of a conventional anemometer can be 100%.

Fig. 6.Diagram of measurement of flow rate of the gas and its volume:

1 - tap for gas flow movement direction switching,2 – anemometer, 3 – graduated tank, 4 – water tank

1 0 New Energy Technologies, Issue #1 January � February 2003

Table 6Experimental results

Indices 1 2 3 Average1-duration of experiment, hour 1 1 1 12-voltage, V 70 70 70 703-current, A 0.038 0.080 0.098 0.0724 – power, W 2.7 5.60 6.44 4.914-volume of consumed solution, ml 1.67 3.98 4.32 3.325-density of the solution, kg/l 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.046-volume of consumed water, ml 1.60 3.83 4.15 3.197-volume of the gas mixture being produced, l 2.95 7.06 7.85 5.956-volume of hydrogen being produced, l 1.95 4.67 5.07 3.807-energy consumption per 1 l of hydrogen, W⋅h/l 1.38 1.20 1.27 1.288-energy consumption per 1m3 of hydrogen, kWh/m3 1.38 1.20 1.27 1.289-existing energy consumption for production of 1 m3 of 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00hydrogen from water, kWh/m3

CONCLUSION

Transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material duringplasma electrolysis of water existed. Plasma electrolytic process opens new prospects in study of matter onthe nuclear, atomic and molecular levels. The low-current electrolysis allows us to get the inexpensive hydrogenfrom water.

REFERENCES1. M. Fleischmann, S. Pons and M. Hawkins. Electrochemically Induced Nuclear Fusion of Deuterium.J. Electroanal. Chem. 261, 301 (1989),2. ICCF-7 ACCEPTED ABSTRACTS. Infinite Energy. V. 4, Issue 20, p. 59…69.3. Harold L. Fox. Cold nuclear fusion: essence, problems, influence on the world. View from USA.Production group SVITAX. M.: 1993, 180 pages.4. T. Ohmori, T. Mizuno. Strong Excess Energy Evolution, New Element Production, and Electromagnetic Waveand/or Neutron Emission in Light Water Electrolysis with a Tungsten Cathode. Infinite Energy. Issue 20, 1998.Pages 14-17.5. T. Mizuno. Nuclear Transmutation: The Reality of Cold Fusion. Infinite Energy Press. 1998. 151 pages.6. Ph. Kanarev. Foundations of Physchemistry of Microworld. Krasnodar, 2002. 330 pages.7. Kenneth R. Shoulders, “Method of and Apparatus for Production and Manipulations of High Density Charge”,U.S. Patent 5,054,046, issued Oct 1, 1991.8. Ken Shoulders & Steve Shoulders, “Observations on the Role of Charge Clusters in Nuclear Cluster Reactions”,J.of New Energy, vol. 1, no 3, pp 111-121, Fall 1996, 7 refs, 22 figs.9. Hal Fox, Robert W. Bass, & Shang-Xian Jin, “Plasma-Injected Transmutation”, J. of New Energy, vol. 1, no 3,Fall 1996, pp 222-230, 23 refs, 4 figs.10. Shang-Xian Jin & Hal Fox, “High Density Charge Cluster Collective Ion Accelerator”, J. of New Energy,vol. 4, no 2, Fall 1999, pp 96-104, 47 refs, 4 figs., 3 tables.11. Ph.M. Kanarev. Water is the Main Power Carrier of Future Power Engineering. Journal of New Energy.An International Journal of New Energy Systems. Vol. 6, No.2. Pag. 101-121.12. Ph.M. Kanarev. Water is New Source of Energy. The Third Edition. Krasnodar 2002. 194p. (In English).

It is known that it is possible to produce 1220 litres ofhydrogen and 622 litres of oxygen from one litre of water.Quantity of the gases generated by the plasmaelectrolytic process is much greater than it is possibleto get from consumed water (Table 1). It was a strongreason for a search of the measurement error. For thispurpose, the diagram of measurement of flow rate ofthe gases and their quantity was used (Fig. 6).

The results of the measurements were as follows. Theanemometer showed that 200 litres of gas mixturepenetrated through it during 10 minutes. Nearly one litreof gases was in the graduated tank during this period.

Thus, the measurement of gas flow with the help ofthe anemometers distorted the result 200 fold. It shouldbe mentioned that the reactor operated in theproduction mode of hydrogen and oxygen in thecathode zone. As a result, their mixture burst. Thepulses of these explosions increased the readings ofthe anemometer.

It has become necessary to return to the reactor operationmodes when no oxygen is released in the cathode zone.Our theory allows us to do this easy.

PROTOCOLof tests of the first model of low-current Electrolyzers

It is known that it is possible to produce 1.22 l of H2+ 0.622 O2= 1.843 (H2+O2) from 1 ml of H2O


Cold fusion is important because it promises to be anew source of pollution-free, inexhaustible energy. Inaddition, it is important because it reveals theexistence of a new way nuclei can interact thatconventional scientific theory predicts is impossible.What then is this phenomenon that suffers suchpromise and rejection?

Energy can be obtained from the nucleus in twodifferent ways. On the one hand, a large nucleus canbe broken into smaller pieces, such as is experiencedby uranium in a conventional nuclear reactor and bythe material in an atom bomb. This is called fission.On the other hand, two very small nuclei can be joinedtogether, such as occurs during fusion of deuteriumand tritium in a Hot Fusion reactor and in a hydrogenbomb. This process, called fusion, also takes place instars to produce much of the light we see.

The fission reaction is caused to happen by addingneutrons to the nucleus of uranium or plutonium tomake it unstable. The unstable nucleus splits into twonearly equal pieces, thereby releasing more neutrons,which continue the process. As every one nowknows, this process produces considerable waste thatis highly radioactive. The uranium used as fuel alsooccurs in limited amounts in the earth’s crust. As aresult, this source of energy is not ideal, althoughwidely used at the present time.

The normal hot fusion reaction requires two deuteriumor tritium nuclei to be smashed together with greatenergy. This is accomplished by raising theirtemperature. However, this temperature is so highthat the reactants cannot be held in a solid container,but must be retained by a magnetic field. This processhas proven to be very difficult to accomplish for a timesufficient to generate useable energy. In spite of thisdifficulty, attempts have been under way for the last

40 years and with the expenditure of many billions ofdollars. Success continues to be elusive while theeffort continues.

Cold fusion, on the other hand, attempts to cause thesame process, but by using solid materials as thecontainer held at normal temperatures. The containerconsists of various metals, including palladium, withwhich the deuterium is reacted to form a chemicalcompound. While in this environment, the barrierbetween the deuterium nuclei is reduced so that twonuclei can fuse without having to be forced together.Because the process causing this to happen is notwell understood, the possibility is rejected by manyconventional scientists. Difficulty in producing theprocess on command has intensified therejection.While this difficulty is real, it has not, as manyskeptics have claimed, prevented the process frombeing reproduced hundreds of times in laboratoriesall over the world for the past 13 years. As you willsee by reading the reviews and papers in our Library(see http://www.lenr-canr.org/LibFrame1.html),the process continues to be reproduced withincreasing ease using a variety of methods andmaterials.

What is the nature of this process and why has itbeen so hard to understand? To answer this question,a person needs to understand the nature of thebarrier that exists between all nuclei. Because allnuclei have a positive charge in proportion to theiratomic number, all nuclei repeal each other. It isonly the surrounding electrons that hold normalmatter together, with the nuclei being atconsiderable distance from each other, at least onthe scale of an atom. When attempts are made to pushthe nuclei closer, the required energy increases as thenuclei approach one another. However, when deuteriumdissolves in a metal, it experiences several unique

LENR(Low Energy Nuclear Reactions)

http://www.lenr-canr.org

Editorial: There is a collection of some papers on LENR (Low Energy Nuclear Reactions), also known as ColdFusion. CANR, Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions, is another term for this phenomenon. These originalscientific papers are reprinted with permission from the authors and publishers.

Website http://www.lenr-canr.org features a growing library of scientific papers about LENR and an extensivebibliography of journal papers, news articles and books about LENR.

COLD FUSION: What is it and what does it mean toscience and society?

Edmund Storms


conditions. The surrounding metal atoms produce aregular array that is able to support waves of variouskinds. These waves can be based on vibration of theatoms (phonons), vibration of the electrons, standingwaves of electromagnetic energy, or a wave resultingfrom conversion of the deuterium nuclei to a wave. Inaddition, the high density of electrons can neutralizesome of the positive charge on the deuterium nucleiallowing a process called tunneling, i.e.. allowingpassage through the barrier rather than over it. Themechanism of this neutralization process is proposedto involve a novel coherent wave structure that canoccur between electrons under certain conditions. Allof these wave processes have been observed in thepast under various conventional conditions, butapplying them to the cold fusion phenomenon hasbeen a subject of debate and general rejection.

While the debate based on wave action has beenunderway, people have proposed other mechanisms.These include the presence of neutrons within thelattice. Normally, neutrons are unstable outside of thenucleus, decomposing into a proton, an electron, anda neutrino. Presumably, this reaction can be reversedso that neutrons might be created in a latticecontaining many free electrons and protons. Havingno charge, the neutron could then interact with variousatoms in the lattice to produce energy. These neutronsmight also be hidden in the lattice by being attachedto other nuclei in a stabilized form, to be released

Technical Introduction to LENR-CANR

Edmund Storms

when conditions were right. Several particles normallynot detected in nature also have been proposed totrigger fusion and other nuclear reactions.

While search for a suitable mechanism has beenunderway, an understanding of the environment thattriggers the mechanism has been sought, the so-callednuclear-active-environment. Initially, this environmentwas thought to exist in the bulk of the palladiumcathode used in the Pons-Fleischmann method toproduce cold fusion. It is now agreed that the nuclearreactions only occur in the surface region. Recentarguments suggest that this surface layer does noteven require palladium for it to be nuclear-active.Nuclear reactions have now been produced in avariety of materials using many methods. The onlycommon feature found in all of these methods is thepresence of nano-sized particles of material on theactive surface. If this observation is correct, fourconditions seem required to produce the nuclearreactions. First, the particle must have a critical smallsize; second, it must contain a critical concentrationof deuterium or hydrogen; third, it must be constructedof certain atoms; and fourth, it must be exposed to asource of energy. This energy can take the form of asufficiently high temperature, a significant high fluxof hydrogen through the particle, application ofenergetic electrons or charged particles, or applicationof laser light of the proper frequency. Until, theimportance of these factors is understood, the effectwill continue to be difficult to replicate.

At low energies, the Coulomb barrier prevents nucleifrom coming together and fusing to form a singlenucleus. To initiate a nuclear reaction, several methodsare used. Nuclear reactions are normally initiated bypushing two atoms together with enough force toovercome the Coulomb barrier by brute force, or byusing neutrons which penetrate the nuclei withoutseeing a barrier. (Neutrons have no electrical charge,so the Coulomb barrier does not stop them.) Theseforces are normally provided by high-temperatureplasma or by accelerating ions to high energies. Incontrast, LENR describes the mechanism andconditions that cause a variety of nuclear reactions totake place with relatively low activation energy. Theseunique conditions reduce the need for excessive energy.The normal method forces the nuclei together, whilethe new method encourages them to come together.The challenge has been to understand the uniquecharacteristics of the necessary solid structure suchthat this structure could be generated at will.

Because the proposed method is unique, at odds withcurrent nuclear theory, and is still difficult to reproduce,support for studies in many countries, but not all, has

been very limited. Nevertheless, considerableinformation has accumulated over the last 13 yearssince Profs. Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmannshowed the world the possibilities inherent in thisphenomenon. Much understanding is buried inconference proceedings and reports that are notavailable to a serious student. This information will,as time permits, be made available on this site.Students of the subject are also encouraged to usethis site to interact with other people in the field andprovide objective critiques of the work published here.

PHENOMENA DISCUSSED IN SOME OF THEPAPERS

At least 10 ways have been demonstrated to produceanomalous heat and/or anomalous elementalsynthesis. A few of these methods will be describedhere. For course, not all of the claims are worthy ofbelief nor are they accepted by many people.Nevertheless, the claims will be described withoutqualifications in order to provide the reader with thelatest understanding.


The most studied method involves the use of anelectrolytic cell containing a LiOD electrolyte and apalladium cathode. Current passing through such acell generates D+ ions at the cathode, with a veryhigh effective pressure. These ions enter thepalladium and, if all conditions are correct, join in afusion reaction that produces He-4. Initiallypalladium wire and plate were used, but these werefound to form microcracks, which allowed therequired high concentration of deuterium to escape.Later work shows that the actual nuclear reactionoccurs on the surface within a very thin layer ofdeposited impurities. Therefore, control of thisimpurity layer is very important, but rather difficult.The use of palladium is also not important becausegold and platinum appear to be better metals onwhich to deposit the impurity layer. This method isfound, on rare occasions, to generate tritium withinthe electrolyte and transmutation products on thecathode surface. Different nuclear reactions are seenwhen light water (H2O) is used instead of D2O,although the amount of anomalous energy is lesswhen H2O is used. These observations have beenduplicated hundreds of times in dozens oflaboratories.

Application of deuterium gas to finely dividedpalladium, and perhaps other metals, has beenfound to generate anomalous energy along withhe l ium-4 . Both pa l lad ium-black as wel l aspalladium deposited as nanocrystals on carbonhave shown similar anomalous behavior. In bothcases the material must be suitably purified.Palladium deposited on carbon can and must beheated to above 200/260°C for the effect to beseen. When deuter ium is caused to di f fusethrough a pal ladium membrane on which isdeposited a thin layer of various compounds,isotopes that were not previously present aregenerated with isotopic rat ios unl ike thoseoccurring naturally.

A plasma discharge under H2O or D2O betweenvarious materials generates many elements thatwere not previously present. When the electrodesare carbon and the plasma is formed in H

2O, the

main anomalous element is iron. This experiment isrelatively easy to duplicate.

Several complex oxides, including severalsuperconductors, can dissolve D2 when heated.When a potential is applied across a sheet of suchmaterial, the D+ ions are caused to move andanomalous heat is generated.

If deuterium ions, having a modest energy, arecaused to bombard various metals, tritium as wellas other elements not previously present aregenerated. These ions can be generated in a pulsedplasma or as a beam.

When water, either light or heavy, is subjected tointense acoustic waves, collapse of the generatedbubbles on the surrounding solid walls can generatenuclear reactions. This process is different from thefusion reaction claimed to occur within a bubble justbefore it disappears within the liquid becauseneutrons are not produced in the former case, but areproduced in the latter case. This method has beenapplied to various metals in heavy water using anacoustic transducer and in light water using a rotatingvane which generates similar acoustic waves...

HOW TO EXPLAIN THE CLAIMS

A major problem in deciding which model might becorrect is the absence of any direct informationabout the nature of the nuclear-active-environment.At this time, two important features seem to beimportant, the size of the nanodomain in which thereactions occur and the presence of a deuterium fluxthrough this domain. The domain can apparently bemade of any material in which hydrogen ordeuterium can dissolve. Until the nature of thenuclear-active-state (NAS) is known, no theory willproperly explain the effect and replication of theclaims will remain difficult.

When fusion is init iated using conventionalmethods, significant tritium and neutrons areproduced. In addition, when other elements aregenerated, they tend to be radioactive. This is indirect contrast to the experience using low energymethods. These products are almost completelyabsent and, instead, helium-4 is produced. Whenradiation is detected, it has a very low energy. Thiscontrasting behavior, as well as the amount ofanomalous energy, has made the claims hard toexplain using conventional models. This difficultyhas been amplified by a failure of many skeptics torecognize the contrasting effect of the environment,a plasma being used in the older studies and a solidlattice of periodic atoms being present as the newenvironment.

Over 500 models and their variations have beenproposed, some of which are very novel and someare variations on conventional ideas. Most modelsattempt to explain the nuclear reaction once therequired environment has been created, withoutaddressing what that unique environment might belike. These models involve conversion of a proton(deuteron) to a neutron (dineutron), creation of anelectron structure that is able to neutralize thebarrier, conversion of deuterium to a wave whichinteracts without charge, and the presence ofotherwise overlooked neutrons and/or novelparticles. Many of the models will have to beabandoned or seriously modified once the nature ofthe nuclear active environment is understood.


Many of us recall the controversy surrounding theannouncement of claims of observations of fusionreactions in a test tube that were made in 1989. At thetime, these claims were greeted with considerableskepticism on the part of the physics community andthe scientific community in general.

The principal claim of Pons and Fleischmann

The principal claim of Pons and Fleischmann in 1989was that power was produced in palladium cathodesthat were loaded electrochemically in a heavy waterelectrolyte. The evidence in support of this was ameasured increase in the temperature in theelectrochemical cell. There was no obvious evidencefor nuclear reaction products commensurate with theclaimed heat production. Fleischmann speculated thatperhaps two deuterons were somehow fusing toHe-4 through some kind of new mechanism.

Rejection by the physics community

This claim was not accepted by the physicscommunity on theoretical grounds for several reasons:

First, there was no mechanism known by which twodeuterons might approach one another close enoughto fuse, since the Coulomb barrier prevents them fromapproaching at room temperature.

Second, if they did approach close enough to fuse,one would expect the conventional dd-fusion reactionproducts to be observed, since these happen very fast.Essentially, once two deuterons get close enough totouch, reactions occur with near unity probability, andthe reaction products (p+t and n+He-3) leaveimmediately at high relative velocity consistent withthe reaction energy released. To account forFleischmann’s claim, the proposed new reactionwould seemingly somehow have to make He-4 quietlyand cleanly, without any of the conventional reactionproducts showing up, and would somehow have toarrange for this to happen a billion times faster thanthe conventional reaction pathway. Most physicistsbet against the existence of such a magical new effect.

Third, the normal pathway by which two deuteronsfuse to make He-4 normally occurs with the emissionof a gamma ray near 24 MeV. There was no evidencefor the presence of any such high energy gammaemission from the sample, hence no reason to believethat any helium had been made.

Finally, if one rejects the possibility that any newmechanisms might be operative, then the claim thatpower was being produced by fusion must besupported by the detection of a commensurate amount

of fusion reaction products. Pons and Fleischmannfound no significant reaction products, which, giventhe rejection of new mechanisms, implied an absenceof fusion reactions.

An alternate explanation is proposed

The physicists decided in 1989 that the most likelyreason that Pons and Fleischmann observed atemperature increase was that they had made an errorof some sort in their measurements. When manygroups tried to observe the effect and failed, this ledmost of the physics community to conclude that therewas nothing to it whatsoever other than some badexperiments.

The claim of Jones

A second very different claim was made at the sametime in 1989 by Steve Jones. This work also involvedelectrochemistry in heavy water and the observationof reaction products corresponding to the conventionaldd-fusion reactions. The initial publication showed aspectrum of neutron emission that Jones had detectedfrom a titanium deuteride cathode loadedelectrochemically. The response of the physicscommunity was skeptical, as the signal to noise ratiowas not particularly impressive. Given the polarizationof the physics community in opposition to the claimsof Pons and Fleischmann (which were announcedessentially simultaneously), the physicists were notof a mood to accept much of any claims that fusioncould happen in an electrochemical experiment at all.Jones went to great lengths to assure fellow scientiststhat his effect was completely unrelated to the claimsof Pons and Fleischmann, and was much morereasonable.

Also rejected

Physicists had reason to be skeptical. Theoreticalconsiderations indicated that the screening effects thatJones was relying on were not expected to be as strongas needed to account for the fusion rates claimed. Asthis experiment could not seem to be replicated byothers at the time, it was easy for the physicscommunity to reject this claim as well.

Cold fusion, weighed and rejectedwith prejudice

Cold fusion, as the two different claims were termed,was dismissed with prejudice in 1989. The initialclaims were made near the end of March in Utah, andthe public refutation of the claims was made at the

It Started in 1989 . . .Peter Hagelstein


beginning of May. It only took about 40 days for thephysics community to consider the new claims, testthem experimentally, and then announce loudly to theworld that they had been carefully weighed andrejected.

Following this rejection, physicists have treated coldfusion rather badly. For example, Professor JohnHuizenga of Rochester University was selected to beco-chair of the DOE ERAB committee that met to

review cold fusion and issue a report. Shortlyafterward, he wrote a book entitled Cold Fusion,The Scientific Fiasco of the Century, in which hediscusses the claims, the experiments, and theextreme skepticism with which the new claims weregreeted. Robert Park discusses the subject in hisbook entitled Voodoo Science. You can find manyplaces where physicists and other scientists happilyplace the cold fusion claims together with claimsof psychic phenomena.

A Science Tutorial

First it is important to recognize that there are fourdistinct types of energy production:1) chemical energy, that powers our cars and most ofour civilization;2) nuclear fission energy, as used to generate about15% or our electricity;3) hot fusion nuclear energy, which powers the sun andmost stars;4) cold fusion nuclear energy, which appears asunexplained heat in a few experimenter’s laboratorystudies and which most scientists believe isimpossible.

The three types of nuclear energy produce 10 milliontimes as much heat per pound of fuel than occurs withchemical energy. How do these types of energy differ?To understand this question you need to know somechemistry and physics.

Lesson 1

Nature has provided us with two types of stable chargedparticles, the proton and the electron. The proton isheavy, normally tiny, and has a positive charge. Theelectron is light, normally large and fuzzy, and has anegative charge. The positive charge and the negativecharge attract each other, just like the north pole of amagnet attracts the south pole of a magnet. When youbring two magnets together with the north pole of onefacing the south pole of the other, they pull together,bang! When they bang into each other they release alittle bit of energy in the form of heat, but it is too smallan amount to easily measure. To pull the magnets apartyou have to do work, which is another way of sayingyou have to use up energy. It’s almost like pulling a rockback up a hill. Rolling the rock down a hill actuallycreates a little heat, and pulling the rock back up thehill takes energy. In the same way the positive chargeof the proton pulls on the negative charge of the electronand they stick together releasing energy in the process.The result is a hydrogen atom, designated H. A hydrogenatom is nothing but a fuzzy electron hugging a compactproton. The proton is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.If you knock the electron off the hydrogen atom you

Talbot Chubb

get a positive ion H+, which is nothing more than theoriginal proton. An ion is the name applied to an atomor molecule that has lost or gained one or moreelectrons, hence is no longer electrically neutral.

Lesson 2

As you know, nature has provided us with more thanone type of atom. We have oxygen atoms, nitrogenatoms, iron atoms, helium atoms, etc.. How do theseatoms differ? The answer is that they all have differenttypes of nuclei (plural of nucleus, from the Latin). Andthese different nuclei all have different numbers ofprotons inside them, which means they all havedifferent plus charges. The nucleus of the helium atomhas 2 protons inside it, hence has plus 2 charge, andrequires 2 electrons to neutralize its charge. When 2electrons stick to it, it becomes a helium atom. Theoxygen nucleus has 8 protons and has charge 8. When8 electrons stick to it, it becomes an oxygen atom. Thenitrogen atom has 7 electrons, and the iron atomssomething like 26. But all the atoms are built more orless the same way, with a compact positively chargednucleus embedded in a cloud of fuzzy electrons. Thedifference in size between the compact nucleus andthe fuzzy electrons is enormous. The sun has a diameteronly about 100 times that of the earth. The electroncloud on an atom has a diameter which is about 100,000times that of the nucleus. Cube these numbers to getthe difference in volumes.

Lesson 3

We now are in a position to understand what chemicalenergy is. The atoms, all electrically neutral, canactually join with each other and release more energy.This is another way of saying that they can join intomore stable configurations. The electrons in an atomtry to configure themselves so as to get as close aspossible to their nucleus, but their fuzzy naturerequires that they take up a certain volume of space.However, if they join together with the electrons ofanother atom they can usually find a tighterconfiguration that leaves them closer to their beloved


nuclei. For example, 2 hydrogen atoms can jointogether into a more compact configuration if eachhydrogen atom contributes its electron to a 2-electroncloud, which the separate protons share. In thismanner they form a grouping of the 2 electrons in asingle cloud, together with the 2 isolated protonsspaced apart from each other but still within theelectron cloud. The result is a heat-producing chemicalreaction H + H => H

2. (The => means “goes to” or

“becomes”.) The H2 configuration is the hydrogen

molecule, and when you buy a tank of hydrogen gas,H2 molecules is what you get. Furthermore, the2 electrons of the H2 molecule and the 8 electrons ofthe O atom can find a still more compact configurationby combining their electrons to create the watermolecule H2O, plus heat. The water molecule is reallya single cloud of electrons in which are embeddedthe three point-like nuclei to form a minimum energyconfiguration. So when we burn oil or coal wereconfigure the electrons to produce more stableconfigurations of point-like nuclei embedded inelectron clouds, liberating heat. So much for chemicalenergy.

Lesson 4

We have slid over one point in the above discussion.How does Nature make a nucleus containing two ormore protons in the first place. After all, each of theprotons has a positive charge, and the positivecharges repel each other very strongly when they areseparated by a tiny distance, equal to the distanceacross a nucleus. The repulsion of like charges is justlike the repulsion between the north poles of twomagnets when they are pushed together the wrongway. Something must overcome this repulsion, or elsethe only kind of atoms we would have would be thoseof hydrogen. Fortunately, this is not what we observe.The answer is that there is a second kind of forcewhich acts on protons. This is the nuclear force. Thenuclear force is very strong but requires particles toalmost sit on each other to have any effect. Also, thereis a second kind of heavy particle, which is just like aproton, except that it has no positive or negativecharge. It is not pushed away by the proton’s pluscharge. This other kind of particle is called the neutron,since it is electrically neutral. A peculiar fact of life isthat it exists in stable form only inside a nucleus.When not in the nucleus it changes into a proton, anelectron and a very light anti-neutrino in about 10minutes. But it lasts forever inside a nucleus. Anyway,the neutron and the proton very strongly attract eachother once they get close enough together, and thenthey combine to form a highly stable pair called adeuteron, which we designate D+. The singledeuteron, when it combines with a single electron,forms the heavy hydrogen atom called deuterium,designated D. A second nuclear reaction occurs whentwo deuterons make contact. When they can be forcedtogether so as to make contact, the 2 deuterons fuse,

making a doubly charged particle. The grouping of2 protons and 2 neutrons is even tighter than theproton-neutron grouping in the deuteron. The newparticle, when neutralized by 2 electrons, is thenucleus of the helium atom, designated He. Largergroupings of neutrons and protons exist in nature andserve as the nuclei of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, andiron, etc. atoms. All of these groupings are madepossible by the very strong nuclear force, which isfelt between particles only when they are in contactor share the same nucleus-size volume of space.

Lesson 5

We can now understand normal nuclear energy, whichis really nuclear fission energy. During the early historyof the universe massive stars were formed. In theexplosion of these massive stars, lots of different typesof nuclei were formed and exploded back into space.Second and later generation stars and planets wereformed from this mix, including the sun. In the explosionprocess probably every possible stable configurationof protons and neutrons was produced, plus somealmost-stable groupings, such as the nucleus of theuranium atom. There are actually 3 different types ofuranium atom nuclei, called uranium-234, uranium-235,and uranium-238. These “isotopes” differ in theirnumber of neutrons, but they all have 92 protons. Thenuclei of all uranium atoms can go to a lower energyconfiguration by ejecting a helium nucleus, but thisprocess occurs so rarely that the Earth’s uranium hasalready lasted over 4 billion years. But the uraniumnuclei are unstable in another way. In general,groupings of protons and neutrons are happiest if theyhave about 60 protons-plus-neutrons. The uraniumnuclei contain more than three times this number. Sothey would like to split in two, which would release alot of heat. But nature doesn’t provide a way for themto split apart. They have to first go to a higher energyconfiguration before splitting in two. However, one ofthe three forms of uranium nucleus found in naturecalled uranium-235 and designated 235U, gains theneeded energy if it captures a neutron. The energizednucleus that results from neutron capture then splitsapart with the release of an enormous amount of energy,and incidentally with release of additional neutrons.The additional neutrons can then split more uranium-235nuclei, keeping the reaction going. This is whathappens in nuclear power plants, where the heat,which is the end product of the nuclear splittingprocess, is used to boil water, generate steam, and turnelectrical generators. (One also gets lots of radioactiveproducts, which are a nuisance to dispose of safely.)

Lesson 6

We are now also in a position to understand hot fusionnuclear energy. As mentioned in lesson 5, the groupingsof protons plus neutrons is most stable when thenumbers of neutrons and protons approximate those


found in the nucleus of an iron atom. Just as uraniumhas too many neutrons plus protons to becomfortable, so the light elements like hydrogen,helium, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen have too few.If the nuclei can be made to make contact underproper conditions, they can combine to create morestable groupings, plus heat. This is the process offusion. Nature has found a way of doing this in starslike the sun. All Nature has to do is heat compressedhydrogen hot enough and wait long enough and hotfusion will occur. If Nature were to start withdeuterium, which already has a paired proton andneutron, the task would be relatively easy in a star.Temperature is a measure of how much speed anatom of a given type has as it bangs around insidea cloud of such atoms. The higher the temperature,the higher the speed and the closer the atoms getto each other momentarily during a collision. In astar the temperatures are high enough that all theelectrons quickly get knocked off the atoms, so oneis really dealing with a mixed cloud of electrons andnuclei . At very high temperature the nucleioccasionally get close enough during collisions forthe pulling-together short range nuclear force toturn on. Then the nuclei can stick together and goto a lower energy grouping of protons plus neutrons,releasing heat. Hot fusion nuclear energy is anattempt to carry out this process in the lab, usingdeuterium and mass-3 hydrogen (whose nucleus isa compact grouping of 1 proton and 2 neutrons) asthe gas. Hot fusion requires that the gas becontained at temperatures of hundreds of millionsof degrees, which can be done with the help ofmagnetic fields, but only for 1 or 2 seconds. Thehope is to contain the gas for longer times. Duringthe period of high temperature containment nuclearreactions occur during collisions. The main form ofenergy release is ejection of high energy neutronsand protons. The proton energy quickly converts toheat. The neutron energy can also be converted toheat but makes the equipment highly radioactive.It then becomes difficult to repair the equipment,which could make hot fusion a poor candidate forcommercial power production. In any case hotfusion power is a dream that is still probably at least50 years away. But most scientists view hot fusionas the only way to achieve fusion power. Hot fusionproduces less radioactivity than fission power, isenvironmentally benign, and has a virtually limitlessfuel supply on earth (many millions of years atpresent energy usage rates).

Lesson 7

So now we come to cold fusion. Cold fusion mayprovide an easier and non-radioactive way ofreleasing nuclear fusion energy. Cold fusion relies ona different way of letting the protons and neutronsin one nucleus make contact with those in another

nucleus, so that the nuclear force can bring them intoa more stable configuration. The requirement for anynuclear reaction to occur is that the reacting nucleioccupy the same volume of space. This condition iscalled particle overlap. In hot fusion particle overlapis brought about briefly by banging the nucleitogether so as to overcome momentarily the repulsionof the two positive charges which try to keep theparticles apart. In cold fusion particle overlapconditions are achieved by making deuterium nucleiact as fuzzy objects like electrons in atoms, insteadof like tiny points. When either light or heavyhydrogen is added to a heavy metal, each hydrogen“atom” occupies a position inside the metal whereit is surrounded by heavy metal atoms. This form ofhydrogen is called interstitial hydrogen. Withinterstitial hydrogen the electrons of the hydrogenatom become part of the pool of electrons of themetal. Each hydrogen nucleus oscillates back andforth through a negatively charged electron cloudprovided by the electrons of the metal. They can bethought of as moving back and forth like thependulum in a grandfather clock. This vibrationexists even at very low temperature, due to apeculiarity of a branch of physics called quantummechanics. The vibration is called zero point motion.The nucleus then becomes a fuzzy object, like theelectrons in an atom. But this amount of fuzziness isnot enough to permit a hydrogen nucleus to makecontact with another hydrogen nucleus. To get twoor more hydrogen nuclei to share the same volumeone must go one step further. In a metal electricalcurrent is carried by electrons that act more likevibrating matter waves than like point particles. Ifelectrons did not become wave-like inside solids,there would be no transistors and no present daycomputers. This wave-like kind of electron is calleda Bloch function electron. The secret of cold fusionis that one needs Bloch function deuterons. Oneneeds wave-like deuterons inside or on the surfaceof a solid in order that two or more deuterons sharethe same volume of space. But once the Blochfunction deuterons are created, the nuclear forcecomes into play and the protons and neutrons makingup the deuterons can rearrange themselves into themore nuclearly stable Bloch function heliumconfiguration, with release of heat. To study coldfusion the experimenter has to force deuterons toassume the wave-like form and keep them in thewave-like state. Cold fusion experimentsdemonstrating release of excess heat show that thiscan be done. But at present no one knows how to doit reliably. Since cold fusion promises millions of yearsof energy without the problems of global warmingor radioactivity, a real effort should be made to learnhow.

For more tutorials go to www.hometown.aol.com/cffuture1and www.hometown.aol.com/cffuture2


LENR (Low Energy Nuclear Reactions)Experiments

Review fromhttp://www.lenr-canr.org

Have you ever wondered what a physics laboratorylooks like? They are seldom spacious or organized theway they are shown in movies. Most LENR researcherswork at universities or home laboratories, with tightbudgets in a crowded space. They keep old, brokenequipment on shelves to scavenge parts for newexperiments. In this section we present somephotographs of equipment provided by researchers,and close up pictures of equipment. The actual cells,cathodes and other equipment used in electrolysisexperiments often have an ad-hoc, home-madeappearance, because they are made by hand. Theyhave to be; they are unique, one-of-a kind prototypes.Nothing quite like them has ever been made before.

A visitor seeing a LENR experiment the first time mayfeel disappointed. It looks like any other electrochemicalexperiment. The heat or neutron flux produced by theexperiment are so small they can only be detected withsensitive instruments. A null cathode that produces noeffect looks exactly like an active cathode. The differencebetween one cathode and another is in the microscopicstructure, or the traces of elements mixed in with thepalladium. Only one kind of cold fusion looks dramatic i. e.the glow discharge reaction.

Here are a few photographs of cold fusion cells anddevices (also see the cover page).

On Fig. 1 there is acalorimeter constructedby Edmund Storms. Notethe DieHard® battery,lower right, that servesas an unninterruptablepower supply. A powerfailure can ruin anexperiment. Wheneverposs ib le , inexpensive,ordinary materials andinstruments are used.However, experiments arenever cheap, and theycannot be done on ashoestring. The equipment,arranged for anotherexperiment (see Fig. 2),costs about $40,000.

Fig.2 (On the left)Vacuum system to prepare

particles for gas loaded coldfusion cells, courtesy

E. Storms.

Fig.1Box Calormeter


Fig.3A high resolution mass spectrometer used for on-line helium

detection during a cold fusion experiment at C. R. ENEA Frascati.(http://www.frascati.enea.it/nhe/)

Fig.5A flow-type cell, courtesy E. Storms

Fig.4A cell at ENEA Frascati

Fig.6Close up of a Miley-style cell, courtesy E. Storms


Fig.7A cell installed inside a Thermonetics Seebeck calorimeter with

the lid removed, courtesy E. Storms

Fig.8

On the Fig. 8 you cansee a glow dischargeelectrochemical cell atHokkaido University,courtesy T. Mizuno.The cell is installedinside a crowdedconstant temperatureair-cooled chamber. Itplaced on a magneticmixer. Cooling water ispumped through theplastic tubes attachedto the top and bottom.The muffin fan at theback circulates the airin the chamber

Fig.9

A schematic of thecalorimeter shown above.

Hydrogen powerengineering

Faraday Laboratories Ltd, Moscow, andSpectrum Investments Ltd, London, startedjoint R&D project on hydrogen powerengineering. Photo: Alexander V. Frolov,Faraday Laboratories Ltd and Nicholas Moller,Spectrum Investments Ltd. The projectincludes designing and building of prototypeto use hydrogen recombination process forheat generation.


On Electrogravitation

Andrey V. Lemeshko

Krasnogvardeyskaya st., 14, apt.1102094, Kiev, UkraineE-mail: [email protected]

Part I

“let’s go to the Mars!”

Nowadays it becomes evident that exploration of deepspace by means of rocket equipment is impossible.Aircrafts, which run on jet thrust, are too expensiveand unreliable. Besides, they are too slow-speed if wereconsidered on a scale of solar system. For example, theflight to the remote areas of our planetary system candrag on tens years. But the main disadvantage ofrockets is their low load-carrying capacity. Thus, themost powerful transport system “Progress” can deliverless than 100 ton of load to the orbit of the Earth, andonly 1 ton to the orbit of the Mars. Rather naturalquestion arises as to whether any alternative ways ofspace exploration exist? Are there any transportsystems, which can compete with rocket equipmenton the interplanetary routs of future? Actually, atpresent there is only one technology, which isalternative to rocket ones – it is the so-called lightsailers, using light pressure for acceleration. Laser andmaser can be also used for their acceleration fromsatellites. However, there are also some disadvantageshere.

There is also one more transport system, which isundeservedly consigned to oblivion. It uses electricityin acceleration aggregate. This transport system or theelectric propulsion system is a result of researches andinvestigations of two little-known, but extremelytalented American physicians and inventors, ThomasTownsend Brown and Paul Alfred Biefeld (the last onewas also a professor of Astronomy).

Thomas T. Brown was the first who discovered electricprinciple of this propulsion system. Thus, in twentiesof the XX century Thomas T. Brown, being the studentof secondary school, became interested in X-rays. Hewanted to reveal if the rays, outgoing the X-ray unit,could take positive effect. For his researches theinventor had got Coolidge Tube, the device, whichradiates X-rays and consists of a glass tube. Deepvacuum is created in this glass tube. Anode andcathode are placed in the tube. Cathode radiateselectrons and anode brakes them. X-rays are createdat striking of electrons against anode. Brown usedCoolidge Tube in the way nobody had done before. Forease of handling the researcher suspended the deviceon wires, which run to anode and cathode parallel tothe Earth. During the operation of the device he noticedthat every time when current fed to the tube, the tubewas moved aside and tended to make slightprogressive motion. Subsequent experimentsdemonstrated that the deviation value depended onlyon the value of voltage, which is between anode andcathode. The higher voltage is, the more deviation.

X-rays were neither here not there. Much later atparticipation of Paul A. Biefeld, the same tendency tomove was revealed at plane disc capacitors. Thereason, which causes this motion, is the same, i.e.voltage, which exists between plates and not betweenanode and cathode as in Coolidge Tube.

Having run series of experiments, the researchersproved that electric energy could be directlytransformed to mechanical. They also devised thephysical principle, which were included in the scientificannals as Biefeld-Brown effect.

Editor’s: Let us note that earlier Ampere and Faradayhave been working on Electrokinetic effects which areeasily detected at strong current. Modern researches onthis point are known as “Sigalov’s effect” (force appearsin electric conductor which is bent at angle and atcurrent impulse).

The essence of this effect lied in the fact that chargeddisc electric capacitors tend to move in the directionof their positive pole. At formulating of the essence ofthis effect the scientists consciously did not mentionCoolidge Tube in order to demonstrate that accordingto their experimental observations, electron streamswere not involved in generation of electromotive force.This effect of the direct transfer of electric energy tomechanic one (Biefeld-Brown effect) is observed, whencurrent is fed to the Coolidge Tube or to the plane disccapacitor.

However, all this was realized much later, when in1923 Brown became a student of Dennis University inGreenville, Ohio, where he met his teacher and lateron a coauthor, Paul A. Biefeld. In school time theinventor came to the conclusion that the reopened byhim phenomenon has nothing in common with X-raysand that high voltage, used for rays generation, is thebasis of this phenomenon. Besides, Brown designeda device named “Gravitor”. It looked like a usualbakelite box and was made as a simple construction,which consisted of several flat aluminum plates. Theplates were placed as coins in a rouleau and separat

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