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Worsham, Antoinette M.; Stockton, Anita J.A Model for Teaching Thinking Skills: The InclusionProcess. Fastback 236.Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, Bloomington,Ind.ISBN-0-87367-236-48643p.; This fastbylk was sponsor3d by the North TexasState University/Texas Women's University Chapter ofPhi Delta Kappa.Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, Eighth andUnion, Boz 789, Bloomington, IN 47402 ($0.75).Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

milla/Pc02 Plus Postage.*Cognitive Processes; Conflict Resolution; CriticalThinking; Decision Making; Elementary SecondaryEducation; *Logical Thinking; *Problem Solving;*Teaching Methods*Thinking Skills

ABSTRACTAs a consequence of studi,' indicating that students'

ability to think can be improved through direct instruction, thisbooklet presents one approach to teaching thinking skills within thecontext of existing curricula--a model described as the "inclusionprocess." The booklet discusses what thinking skills should be taughtand how to decide which skills are appropriate. It then describesfour approaches for teaching thinking skills: infusion, a separatecourse, linkage, and inclusion. Next, the booklet describes using theinclusion process and guidelines for teaching thinking skills usingfocus and application lessons. The booklet concludes by discussingthe universality of the inclusion process, evaluating thinking skillsinstruction, and advocating a focus on process rather than content.(EL)

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL Resoundsssionwmon CEHTER sow

ANTomirriz M. vVORSHAM ANITA J. sioacroNAntoinette M. Worsham is a secondary English language arts spe-

cialist for the Howard County (Md.) school system. She also has beenan English language arts and foreign language speesdir for the Freder-ick County (Md.) school system and regional spe% r Instruc-tional Services in the Baltimore schools. She has taugL lementary,secondary, and university levels. She received a B.A. Ali English fromNow Dame of Maryland, an M.A. and C.A.S. in liberal arts fromJohns Hopkins University, and a Ph.D. in secondary English educa-tion from the University of Maryland.

Worsham's doctoral research dealt with the direct instruction of think-

ing skills. Since 1983 she has been developing the Inclusion Process"model of teaching thinking skills featured in this fastback. This mod-el is currently being used in four Maryland counties. Worsham alsohas conducted inservice programs demonstrating the model in Mary-land and several other states.

Anita J. Stockton is a science specialist for the Maryland StateDepartment of Education. She has taught chemistry and biology inConnecticut, Florida, and Maryland. She earned her B.S. from theUniversity of Connecticut, an M.S. in science education from theUniversity of Georgia, and an Ed.D. from the University of Mary-land in curriculum and supervision.

Stockton's doctoral research was an ethnographic study of scienceclassrooms. One of her major findings is that students prefer activelyconstructing knowledge to merely absorbing facts. This led naturallyto her interest in thinking skill instruction. While teaching chemistryand biology, she developed curriculum materials for the specific teach-ing of thinking skills.

Series Editor, Ilrek L. Burleson

A Model for TeachingThinking Skills:

The Inclusion Process

byAntoinette M. Worsham

andAnita J. Stockton

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-63691ISBN 0-87367-236-4

Copyright 1986 by the Phi Delta Kappa Educational FoundationBloomington, Indians

This fastback is sponsored by the NorthTexas State University/Texas Woman'sUniversity Chapter of Phi Delta Kappa,which made a generous contribution towardpublication costs.

The chapter sponsors this fastback inrecognition of J.C. Matthews, who was in-strumental in establishing the chapter in1939.

5

Table of Contents

Why Teach Thhddng? 7

What Thinking Skills Should We Be Teaching? 9Deciding Which Skills Are Appropriate 11

Methods for Teaching Thinking 13Infusion 13Separate Course 13Linkage 14Inclusion 14

Using the Inclusion Process 16

Guidelines for Teaching Thinking Skills Using InckusionProcess Lessons 20Focus Lessons 20Application Lessons 25

Universality of the Inclusion Process 36

Evaluating Thinking Skills Instruction 37

Concludon 39

References 40

6 OfI

Why 'leach Thinking?

The most critical issue facing educators today is students' lack ofadequate thinking skills for solving problems and making decisions.Although research has shown that nearly all students beyond the ageof 12 should be able to reason at the formal operational level (Piaget1972), fewer than 40% of high school graduates are able to demon-strate higher-level thinking skills (Day 1981). This is not due to lowintelligence but rather to students' inability to apply the higher -levelskills and processes necessary for many curricular tasks (Mader 1980).

The problem is compounded when the approach to instruction as-sumes that students are receptacles of knowledge and that these is aspecific body of knowledge that students should assimilate. Studiesof classroom instruction show that most content is presented at theknowledge level. Studies also show that the ratio of teacher talk tostudent talk is three to one, with only 1% of this seedier talk requir-ing students to engage in anything beyond recall (Goodlad 1983). Thisapproach to instruction assumes that the toned answer" it the ulti-mate curricular goal. As a result, students have little opporumity toexercise their reasoning skills. They become passive receptat-41 rath-er than active manipulators and generators of knowledge.

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has foundthat many students are unable to solve word problems on standardizedmathematics tests. They cannot translate the information provided in

7.

the word problem into the algorithm needed to dl the computation,even though they 'mow how to do the computation. They lack the think-ing strategies to change words into the appropriate mathematical pro-cess to solve the problem (NAEP 1979).

More than 25 years ago the Educational Policies Commission (1961)stated,

The purpose which runs through and strengthens all odwr educationalpurposes the common thread education is the development rfthe ability to think.

But it has only been in the 1980s that educators have given seriousattention to how to teach thinking more effectively.

Studies indicate that the student's ability to think can be improvedthrough direct instruction (Whimbey 1980; Worsham and Austin 1983).Whimbey's research in cognitive skill development indicates that ifstudents are taught basic thinking skills and given practice in theiruse, their overall ability to think and solve problems will imp; we.Worsham (1982) showed that students who were given focused instruc-tion in thinking skills as part of their English curriculum scored anaverage of 42 pints higher on the verbal portion of the SAT than acontrol group the did not have direct thinking skill instruction.

lb master many curriculum objectives, students need to use severalhigher-order thinking skills. Thaching these skills must be deliberateand continuous if the students are to learn how to learn. Time is re-quired, time to think and time to talk about thinking. This time paysoff. Once Audents become proficient in using variou: thinking strate-gies, they Will use them in all areas of the curriculum.

This fastback presents one approt.th to teaching thinking skillsa model developed by one of the authors (Worsham) and currentlyused in several Maryland counties. There are other worthwhile ap-proaches, but we believe the Inclusion Process" described in this fast-back is an effective way to begin teaching thinking skills because itprovides for the direct teaching of these skills within the context ofthe existing curriculum.

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What Thinking Skills Should We Be leaching?

The growing body of literature on the teaching of thinking over-whelms us with such terms as prerequisite skills, process thinking,conceptual thinking, thinking levels, higher-order thinking skills, lower-order thinking skills, creative thinking, critical thinking, problem solv-ing, and decision making. As one reads the literature, it becomes ap-parent that the same terms used by one writer have different meaningswhen used by another writer. There is a need for those working inthis field to agree on definitions, but until that happens we have de-fined those terms we feel are necessary to understand the conceptspresented in this fastback.

Thinking is an internal process unique to each pence, which cannot be defined as a concrete entity. It must be defined in abstract tenns.We define thinking as the mental manipulation of sensory perceptionsto formulate thoughts, knowledge, reasons, or judgments. The twobroad categories of thinking are critical thinking and creative think-ing. Critical thinking inmilvee the manipulation of sensory input inorder to generate meanings and interpretations. Creative thinking in-volves several processes resulting in novel or aesthetic ideas orproducts. In the critical mode the thinker is acting on some externalcontent such as a piece of literature, a chart, or a mathematical prob-lem. In the creative mode the thinker is actively producing somethingsuch as a poem, a visual illustration, an oral report, a research paper,or a duee-dimensionr construct.

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Complex thinking processes include problem solving and decisionmaking. Although similar, the two processes differ somewhat. Prob-lem solving uses thinking skills to resolve a known or defined diffi-culty. It involves several steps including: 1) defining the problem,2) collecting data concerning the problem, 3) forming hypotheses, 4)testing the hypotheses, 5) forming a conclusion, 6) applying i - con-clusion, and 7) evaluating the conclusion. These steps are the sameas the scientific method.

Problem solving reqt ices applying specific thinking skills to solvea problem. Consider, for example, the skills needed to plan a balancedbudget. Research shows that good problem solvt.rs have a large reper-toire of skills and are flexible and inventive in applying them.

Decision making involves the thinking skills needed to choose thebest response from several options; for example, selecting which in-come tax form to use for the best tax advantage. It n==ails the compar-ison of advantages and disadvantages of alternate approaches. Itinvolves several steps including: 1) defining the problem, 2) collect-ing data, 3) identifying obstacles to the goal, 4) identifying alterna-tives, 5) ranking alternatives, 6) choosing the best alternative, and 7)evaluating the decision.

Bloom (1956) has developed a taxonomy of six thinking levels. Theyare: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysts, synthesis, mdevaluation. Progression through these levels nvires increasinglycom-plex thinking skills in almost endless combinations. For each of thesesix thinking levels, there are discrete, identifiable skills that can bedefined and broken down into a logical sequence of steps. These skillscan be practiced individua' iy and then used in combination with oth-er skills to attain specific learning objectives. For example, if studentsare expected to comprehend specific curriculum content, they candemonstrate their comprehension in a variety of ways (constructinga diagram or graph, writing a :Ater to a friend, or giving an oral ex-planation).

Persons who can apply a variety of thinking skills generally mobsbetter decisions and solve problems more effectively. Those who haveskills that allow them to visualize the consequences of their decisionsusually can make better decisions. Mark Twain has said that if the

10 10

only tool one has is a hammer, everything is treated like a nail. 71esame holds true for thinking skills. The fewer we have, the less weare able to think effectively.

Thinking skills, then, are processes used by the learner to operatemor effectively at various thinking levels. They are not the same foreach learner. That is, learners do not all use the same steps to accom-plish a task. However, there are some skills that are basic and com-mon to most curriculum tasks (for example, gathering information,finding the main idea, determining meaning).

Deciding Which Skills Are Appropriate

In teaching thinking skills, the first task is determining which skillsare appropriate at a particular grade level and for specific course con-tent. It is generally agreed that it is better to wadi a few skills wellthan to cover many superficially. Some suggest that specific skills betaught at specific grade levels or in specific subjects. We believe themost useful approach is to analyze the requirements of the curricu-lum and the cognitive needs of the learner to determine which skillsneed to be taught explicitly.

The elementary grades generally are seen as appropriate for em-phasizing the lower-order thinking levels of knowledge, comprehen-sion, and simple application. These involve such thinking skills asidentifying the main idea and applying this information in understand-ing the plot of a story. The skills introduced in the elementary gradesgerorally build vertically on one another. However, elementary stu-dents also are able to engage in more complex critical reasoning skillsif the content is appropriate to their level of understanding. For exam-ple, younger students are able to make valid predictions within theirrealm of experience, even though predicdon is generally consideredto be a higher-order thinking skill.

Middle school is probably the most appropriate place for intensivedevelopment of higher-ordcr thinking skills. Most middle school stu-dents are making the transition from concrete to abstract reasoning.Curriculum requirements generally are flexible enough to lend them-selves to a variety of skills across the curriculum; for example, as-

- semIMII

sessing the validity of advertising claims in social studies, hypothesizingthe outcome of an experiment in science, or interpreting the actionsof characters in a story in English. Also, those skills introduced inthe lower grades should be refined and reinforced.

If students acquire a wide variety of skills in elementary and mid-dle school and have many opportunities to practice them in variousparts of the curriculum, they will be ready to apply these skills inhigh school. Most curriculum materials at the high school level re-quire that students analyze, synthesize, and evaluate as well as to cre-ate new "products:' such as original oral and written pieces and artisticcreations. Se...dents are expected to apply the appropriate thinking skillsto accomplish these tasks. They are expected to Sink critically andcreatively about social issues, community problems, science experi-ments, and literature.

The placement of thinking skills at a specific grade level is diffi-cult. While most materials in the primary grades involve recognitionand recall, some analysis is necessary for comprehension. For exam-ple, young students may be asked to examine a group of objects anddistinguish between living and nonliving things. This seemingly sim-ple task requires a definition of terms, a listing of the attributes ofliving and nonliving things (classification), and then a comparison ofthese attributes with the attributes of those objects being studied. Thesetasks require analysis at a simple level; nevertheless, it is analysis.

Likewise, young students must synthesize simple ideas in order tocomprehend larger concepts. Once students have mastered the largerconcepts, they can apply them to other situations. So the skills moveon both vertical and horizonual axes throughout the grades.

In deciding which skills are appropriate, it is necessary to considerboo the needs of the students and the requirements of the curricu-lum. By asking, "What curriculum materials do my students strugglewith each year and why?" we can identify those skills that learnersneed to accomplish curriculum objectives. These are the skills thatmust be taught explicitly and directly.

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12

Methods for lbaching Thinking

There are four basic approaches to teaching thinking skills. Whilenot mutually exclusive, these four approaches. are:

1. Thinking skills are already infused throughout the curriculumand need no further emphasis.

2. Thinking skills can be added to the curriculum as a separatecourse.

3. A scope and sequence of chinking skills can be developed andlinked to the existing curriculum.

4. Thinking skills can be taught explicitly and included as part ofthe curriculum based on course requirements and student needs.

Infusion

Evidence indicates that whatever infusion of thinking skill instruc-tion currently exists in the curriculum does not go far enough. Recentresearch data (NAEP 1982) show a decline in student reasoning abili-ty, calling into question the assumption that thinking and reasoningskills are effectively infused throughout the curriculum.

Separate Course

Adding a separate course is another alternative to improving think-ing skills within existing curricula. Several commercial programs de-

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veloped to improve students' ability to think and reason are currentlyavailable. These range from specially written stories for elementarystudents (see fastback 206 Philosophy for Otildrcn: An Approach toCritical Thinking) to those based on logic and socratic reasoning suita-ble for older students. Several programs are remedial, designed to helpmiddle and high school students in those skills required to pass a mini-mum compentenry test. Most commercial programs require instruc-tional time apart front the regular curriculum as well as extensiveinservice training and follow-up coaching for teachers.

Linkage

The linkage approach to the teaching of thinking skills uses an ar-ticulated scope and sequence of skills, which are then linked to theexisting curriculum, with specific skills taught at grade levels whenthey are judged appropriate.

Inclusion

The "Inclusion Process; the approach advocated in this fastback,is a direct instruction model that first considers the objectives of acurriculum and the needs of the learner and then identifies the cogni-tive skills necessary to attain those objectives. By analyzing thesophistication of the thinking processes needed, one can determinethe thinking skills that should be explicitly taught et er separately-)r in clusters. Thus the model provides a structured F procedure forlearning the skills and using them to addeve mastery of the requiredcurriculum. The process includes eight steps:

1. Analyzing the curriculum objectives to determine the thinkingcategories, processes, or levels required to muter thecurriculum.

2. Assessing learners' cognitive needs with regard to the curricu-lum objectives.

3. Developing, based on curriculum requirements and students' cog-nitive needs, a list cf thinking skills to he taught.

14 14

4. Developing a long-range plan for sequencing thinking skills in-struction in introductory focus lessons and fo ow-up applica-tion lessons.

5. Defining each skill.6. Listing the steps involved in applying rotch skill.7. Applying the skills to the curriculum.8. Tbsting for effective skill application.

These eight steps are discussed more fully in the next section.

Using the Inclusion Process

Of the various approaches to teaching thinking skills, we believethe Inclusion Process is the most useful for the :olloviing reasons:

It begins with an analysis of the curriculum to be taught.It allows the teacher to select, based on student needs, the skillto be included as pan of the curriculum.It provides a in axiology for both teacher and student to learnthe selected skills.It provides direct and immediate practice of the skill in the con-tent being taught.It requires that the application of the skill be evaluated alongwith the content taught.It provides a model for teaching thinking skills that can be ap-plied and repeated across all grade and content areas.It requires no additional fielding beyond some initial inservicetraining (although on-going coaching is highly useful).It can stand alone or be used with any of the other approaches.

The Inclusion Process, then, provides a way for any teacher to beginand to continue to teach students how to think more effectively.

Analyzing curriculum objectives to determine the categories and lev-els of thinking required. The content of most courses requires that stu-dents be able to operate on many thinking levels, from simple

1®

information gathering and literal comprehension to higher-order an&ysis, synthesis, and evaluation. An analysis of the curriculum's cogni-tive demands provides the teacher with a good indication of the degreeof thinking sophistication necessary to master the content. For exam-ple, a high school literature course requires continuing use of analy-sis, synthesis, and evaluation skills, while a typing course requiresrecall, rote learning, and repetitive practice.

Assessing the learners cognitive needs with regard to the curricu-lum objectives. Any teacher who has taught a course more than onceWI identify readily those skills and concepts that most students willhave difficulty learning. By identifying these "rough spots" in the cur-riculum, the teacher can anticipate and prepare for those general areaswhere students need more explicit cognitive skill instruction and di-rect assistance.

Developing a list of thinking skills to be taught. By identifying whatparts of the curriculum are difficult for students, the teacher can nar-row the focus to specific thinking skills that should be taught directly.Various writers have developed lists of thinking skills ranging in lengthfrom as few as six to as many as 120. Those selected for dhect teach-ing should be based on individual program requirements and the needsof a specific grotto of learners. ibachers should exercise restraint inthe number of skills selected. It is better to focus on a few skills (fourto six a year) than to attempt to teach all the skills that students willeventually red to learn.

Developing a long-range plan for the sequencing of thinking skills.Just as a long-range scope and sequence plan is developed to ensurethat the content is covered, so, too, should the thinking skill instruc-tion be planned. In planning, each skill should be considered in rela-tion to other skills to determine if a logical sequence exists. Forexample, recognizing cause-and-effect relationships should be taughtbefore predicting outcomes. However, with higher-order thinking skills(predict .; outcomes, determining alternative actions, assessing gener-alizations) the relationship of one to another is more horizontal thanvertical. Therefore, it makes little difference which is introduced first.Each skill should be taught immediately prior to that portion of thecurriculum requiring its application. Also, each skill should be

17 17

reviewed and reinforced several times at app ror se places in the plo-p= duoughout the yew.

Defining each skill. Before a thinking skill can be understood it mustbe lefmed by both the teac'ler and the student. The process of defm-ing in itself is a thinking process requiring thoughtful analysis. It isjust as important for the students to go through the defining processc_vr each skill as it is for the teacher. Students can work in pairs orsmall gips to generate working defmitions. Then, after sharing theirideas with the whole class, students refine their drafts until a singledefinition accepable to everyone evohts. Some sample teacher-madeand student-made definitions developed with this process are included-in a later section of this fastback.

Listing the steps involved In applying each skill. After the defini-tion is wed on, the next step is to devdop a list of those mentalprocedures necessary to apply the skill. Fa example, lithe thinkingskill selected is "predicting outcomes' and the agreed definition is "tomake some reasonable conjecture about what might happen based onknown facts and past experiences," then a listing of steps necessaryto predict an outcome might include the following:

1. Consider past experiences.2. Collect data.3. Search for logical patterns.4. Look for cause-effect relationships.5. Consider all possible alternatives.6. Construct a statement concerning the unknown event based on

the pattern of known events.7. That or evaluate the prediction (if pnwible).8. Repeat the cycle (if necessary).

Applying the skill to the awriashan. Applying these steps to theactual content that requires the particular skill should follow immedi-ately so that the students can see how well their steps slut and whethermodi1 =dons need to be made in their list a steps. Students shouldhave ,gumerous opportunities to employ the procedure in order to be-con : proficient in applying the steps. Moreover, students should be

,ven frequent in-class opportunities to articulate their awareness of

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Guidelines far limiching Thinking SkillsUsing Inclusion Process Lessons

The Inclusion Process involves two kinds of lessons: "focus" les-sons and 'application" lessons. Focus lessons introduce the skill bydefining and listing steps appropriate for each skill (steps 5 and 6 ofthe model). Application lessons are comfit specific and require thedirect application of selected skills to specific curriculum objectives.

Focus Lessons

Focus lessons are designed to lead students through the processesof defining and generating steps for applying selected skills. Only oneskill at a time is introduced. The inductive approach is particularlyappropriate for the focus lesson. If, for example, the skill to be taughtis predicting outcomes, the teacher might begin by providing the stu-dents with a series of situations where prediction is possible withoutextensive research, such as the following:

What will the weather be like tomorrow?Who will win the basketball game?How will this story end?When will the next earthquake occur in California?What will be the U.S. population in the year 2001?

220xr-1.

...a..r....fleMic

Without doing any extra data gathering, students might begin bybrainstorming and drawing on their own background knowledge andexperience to generate some tentative yet reasonable responses to the

questions posed. Where students are not accustomed to this approach,teachers can first "model" the process for the entire class. Then theclass can be divided into smaller wort groups to try out the process.After the students have developed several predictions, the teacher asksthem to describe the forecasting activity they were engaged in (defin-ing the skill) and what mental steps they went through to arrive at

their answers.If students find it difficult to think about their own thought patterns,

it is helpful initially to pair two students during the problem-solvingsegment of the lesson, with one student (the recorder) describing theprocess that the second student (the thinker) follows in order to make

the prediction. Then the definitions and listings of steps generated bypairs of students are compared for similarities and differences. Fur-ther discussion with the whole class usually results in a definition and

list of steps acceptable to everyone.Following are definitions and a list of steps generated by two groups

of sixth-grade students during focus lessons.

Thinking Skill:Reading Charts, (Moho, 'Mies, and C\rtoons.

Definition (as developed by an above-average group):

Reading a chart, graph, table, or cartoon means to look atinformation, analyze it, define key vocabulary, and get a clearpicture of the main idea for interpretation.

Steps:

1. Look at the information.2. Analyze and break down numbers, headings, characters,

colors shapes, titles, maps.3. Define key or difficult words.

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4. Ask specific questions.5. Find the main idea in your own words.Et Interpret the findings.

Definition (as developed try a below-average group)

Reading a chart, graph, table, or cartoon means to look atinformation, see comparisons, define key words, and expressthe main Idea In your own words.

Molts:

1. Look at the information.2. Identify characters, numbers, terms, and maps.a Study the key if there is one.4. Define words that you don't know.S Compare and contrast.& Find the main idea in your own words.7. Ask "why" questions.

Definition: (as developed by the four teachers of these students)

Reading cables, charts, graphs, and cartoons requires theanalysis of numbers, sYmbols. Pictograph character's, colors,etc., for the purpose of interpretation.

Steps:

1. Study the content carefully.2. Define key terms, concepts, vocabulary.a Identify the main idea(s), theme(s), or message(s).4. Break down components and Identify.5. Determine relationships among terms, concepts,

vocabulary.

& Develop sample questions to test relationships.7. Make generalizations based on the data.

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From the examples given, one can see that, although the definitionsand steps differ somewhat in how the students and teachers expresstheir ideas, the integrity of the process remains intact. Again, bothstudents and teachers must work through steps 5 and 6 in the modelin order to come to a common understanding of the skill to be learned.

Generally, focus lessons take two or three class periods. It is mostimportant that students generate the definitions and steps and that ade-quate think time is given for both individual and group thought de-velopment and idea building. The teacher should not simply tell thestudents what the skill is, how it is defined, and how it is applied.The teacher's primary task is to foster a classroom environment thatenables students to generate thinking.

Methods such as Think-Pair-Share (Lyman 1981), thinking aboutthinking (ignition), brainstorming, and consensus building aremost appropriate for focus lessons. Also, the teacher should use a va-riety of pairing and grouping techniques.

Some teachers find it helpful to have students set up a section oftheir notebooks titled "Thinldng Skills." This section would includeeach skill taught directly, the class-generated definition, a listing ofsteps, and a log of those situations (both academic and nonacademic)in which the student has been able to apply the skill. Through regularentries in the log, students have a ready source to refer to when ap-plying thinking skills in other subjects and in everyday life situations.

All focus lessons, then, have the same objective: to have studentsgenerate the definition and list of steps required to apply a specificthinking skill. Following is an example of such a lesson.

Sample Focus Leeson

Thinking Skill: Reading charts, graphs, table , and cartoons.Subject Area: Social StudiesLeve Middle SchoolObjectives: To construct a definition of reading charts, graphs,

tables, and cartoons.lb describe the thinking processes involved in reading charts,graphs, tables, and cartoons.

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Materials: Overhead transparencies or several sets of charts,graphs, tables, and cartoons.Student notebook section titled "Thinking Skills:'

Procedures:

1. Present an example of either a chart, graph, table, or car-toon to the entire class.

2. Instruct students to study the data for a few minutes with-out talking or sharing ideas.

3. Pose the question, 'What is this saying to you?" or 'Whatdoes this mean?"

4. Choose a volunteer to record responses on the chalkboard. Encourage all students to respond. In fact, choosestudents who do not raise their hands.

5. Repeat the procedure using different examples.a Ask students to offer explanations of what reading charts,

graphs, tables, or cartoons means to them and use thechalkboard to synthesize students' 'dens into a workingdefinition.

7. Ask students to describe the steps (thinking processes)that they used for each example.

8. Make a class list of the steps involved in the reading ofcharts, graphs, tables, and cartoons.

9. Have students record the agreed-on definition and stepsin the "Thinking Skills" section of their notebook.

Evaluation/Follow-up: Have students state the definition andsteps in their own words. Using several examples of charts,graphs, tables, and cartoons, ask the students to apply the stepsin order to read or interpret them.

Developed by David Reck, social studies teacher.Patapsco Middle School, Howard County, Maryland.Used with permission.

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Applicadon Lessons

Application lessons give students the opportunity to test their skillproficiency with specific curriculum content in various subject-matterareas. These lessons should follow immediately after the focus lessons.

Application lessons should be planned frequently throughout theschool term to ensure that students are continually reviewing and rein-forcing their proficiency in applying the thinking skill. The applica-tion lessons should provide students adequate time to think aboutthinking (metacognition) and to articulate their thinking processes. Theteacher should use various pairing and grouping patterns for brain-storming and consensus building exercises. Students should record theirthinking ideas, awarenesses, and experiences in logs or in the 'Think-ing Skill' section of their notebooks.

Regard'.ess of the content being taught, there must be a heightenedawarenus that the skills involved in the thinking processes are valua-ble tools in learning. This is what education is all about: constantlyimproving our proficiency in applying an increasing number of complexthinking skills in a variety of ways in order to learn more effectively.

Following are examples of application lessons that require studentsto apply specific thinking skills to content areas.

Sample Application Lesson 1

Thinking Skill: Finding the main ideaSuojoct Area: AnyLevel: Elementary or middle schoolObjectives: To find the main idea in a short written paragraph

by differentiating between supporting statements and the cen-tral focus of the passage.

Materials: Worksheet, chalkboard or overhead projector,selection of short paragraphs taken from appropriate printedmaterials and mounted on construction paper.

Procedures:

1. Explain to the class that the main idea of a paragraph islike an umbrella that covers all the ideas in the paragraph.Show illustration (see below).

25 25

44

f",

2. Have students work in small groups. Provide several ex-amples of paragraphs. Number each to avoid confusion.Students will read three short paragraphs and record themain idea and the supporting details on the umbrellaillustrations.

3. Allow a 10 to 15 minute work period and then ask eachgroup to share its umbrella diagrams with the class.

Evaluation: Ask students to find a paragraph in a newspaper ora magazine and to put the main idea and supporting ideason the umbrella diagram.

Developed by Bill Hodge, science and language arts teacher.Thurmont Middle School, Frederick, Maryland.Used with permission.

Sample Application Lamm 2

Thinking Skill: Recognizing relationshipsSubject Area: MathematicsLevel: ElementaryObjectives: To generate ideas about number relationships.

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Materiels: Yardstidc, scale, telephone directory, calendar,local community map, ZIP code directory, clock, thermome-ter, and any other articles to aid students in attaining theobjective.

Procedures:

1. :let up world tables around the room and arrange threeitems on each table (yardstick, telephone directory, scale).

2. Pair the students and assign each rair to a Labia (severalpairs can work at one table).

3. Tell student pairs to study the three items on their tablecarefully and discuss how they are used.

4. Give one or two examples for the entire group to get themstarted.

5. Tell each pair to make a list of how the items are alike orcliff:went with regard to their numerical functions. Allow fiveto seven minutes for this activity.

I Have each pair share its list with the entire class.7. Compile a ciass list of the relationships discovered.8. Discuss the Importance of numbers in everyday life.

Evaluation: Have each student select any two of the categorieson the class list and write a brief explanation of the impor-tance of these numbers in their lives.

Sample Application Lesson 3Thinking Skill: Recoinizing logical relationshipsSubject Area: English language artsLevel: Middle schoolObjectives: To recognize the logical development of basic

story patterns.Materials: Several comic pages of a newspaper.Proce -sues:

1. Review the three major parts of a short story with the class(introduction, development, resolution). Point out that eachpart must build logically on the precedinj

Fr'

2. Select one simple, three-frame comic strip that illustratesthe pattern and ask students to identify the parts.

a Distribute several comic strips in which the frames havebeen cut apart and are out of order.

4. Direct students, worldng in small groups, to arrange theframes in logical order, paste them on a sheet of paper,and label the major parts.

Follow-up: Have students construct their own comic strips witha story line that has an introduction, development, and reso-lution (it does not have to be funny). The completed student-developed strips can be displayed on the bulletin board.

Adapted from a lertIn developed byAnne Keilty, English teacher.Patapsco Middle School, Howard County, MarylandUsed with permission.

Sample Application Lesson 4Thinking Skill: Distinguishing between facts and inferences.Subject Area: Science or social studiesLevel: Middle schoolObjectives: To distinguish between facts and inferences using

pictures that depict the life of stone-age people.Materials: lAbricsheet (see below) and several pictures depict-

ing life of stone-age people.Procedures:

1. Provide students with pictures that depict of the lifestyleof stone-age people.

2. Using the list on the worksheet, instruct students to placea check () in front of those statements that are supportedby information in the pictures and an (X) in front of thestatements which are inferences.

Follow-up: In a class discussion ask students to justify theiranswers. Ask them to generate additional facts and infer-ences from the illustrations.

28 28aranua.IMIA

Worksheet for Leeson 4

Directions: Carefully study the illustrations depicting the life of stone-age people. Place a check (e) in front of the statements below thatare supported by the illustrations. Place an (X) in front of those state-ments that are inferences.

Stone-age people:hunted and gathered all their food.had no communication.found shelter in caves.made all of their own clothing.took can of their own medical problems.survived only by luck.f- ashioned all of their weapons by hand.bulk shelters from available materials such as sticks, grasses,and leaves.used clubs to attract a mate.demonstrated artistic ability by drawing and painting on cavewalls.

survived many ice ages while other species perished.were not interested In artistic expressions.

Using the statements that you think are factual, write a summarizingstatement describing how stone-age people lived.

Adapted from a lesson developed byFrancis Swanson, science teacher.Patapsco Middle School, Howard County, Maryland.Used with permission.

Sample Application Lesson 5

Thinking Skill: Constructing definitionsSubject Area: EnglishLevel: High schoolObjectives: To learn the components of a definition. To develop

a definition.Materials: Dictionary

29

29

Procedures:

1. Have the students look up the word "definition" in a dic-

tionary.2. Organize students into small groups and have them:

a) describe the components of a definiton,b) develop some rules for writing a definition,c) look up two or three additional, words of their choice

and apply their rules to the definitions of these words,d) determine the validity of their rules,e) revise rules if necessary. Allow about 15 minutes for

this activity.a Construct some plausible definitions for the following

hypothetical terms using the dictionary for guidance andthe rules developed by the group

aquadexhous (well coordinated in water)psoudophobla (false fear)quasirationai (am* reasoneti.)terralunite (a moon creature living on Earth)

Follow-up: Create three original hypothetical terms and plausi-ble definitions for each. Any logical definition based on theroot, prefix, suffix, or derivation of each word should be so-

copied. The skill to be developed is defining.

Sample Application Lesson 6

Thinking Skill: PredictingSubject Area Social studiesLevel: High SchoolObjecth'es: To predict which side will win the war between Per-

sia and Greece (499-479 B.C) based on the analysis of a data

chart.Materials: Worlosheet (see below)

Procedures:

1. Divide class into groups of three to four students. Haveeach group use the worksheet and respund to the ques-tions, "Which el*, will win the war? How and why?" Al-low about 10 minutes for this activity.

2. Have a student recorder write down the group responses.Share group responses with the entire class. (Most groupsprobably will predict that Persia will win the war. However,Greece won.)

a Ask the total group what other variables (courage, deter-mination, spirit) need to be considered in addition to meas-urable data when making predictions.

Follow-up: Ask each student to respond Independently to anytwo of the following "What if?" questions:

What if:

1. the Ionian cities had not revolted in 499 B.C.? Would tnePersian Wars have occurred? Why?

2. the Persians had won at Marathon?a a shepherd had not betrayed the Greeks at Thermopylae?

4. the entrance to Salamis Bay had been wider?5. Sparta, not Athens, had the navy?

Use the following essay question (or a similar one) as a partof the final test for this unit.

How might a Greek soldier respond to an American colonistwho asked, "Can we win the war for independence againstGreat Britain?"

31 31w---.na

,

Worteheet for Lemon 6

Directions: Study thc data 13;eet carefully to determine which side willwin the war. Complete the last column.

Greece

Geography Peninsula, mountain-ous, rocky, hilly soil

NaturalMOBOWC011

Limited to those bod-e: utts ana metalsfound on the peninsu-la and those obtainedthrough trade, fewmineral deposits

Persia

Huge land area thatextends from Asia Mi-nor on the west to In-dia on the east andthe Persian Gulf onthe south.

Contains rich farmland, mountains, pla-teaus, deserts, rivers.

Unlimited supply ofagricuiturat goods,building materials,metals (including0c4d)

Government Varied, divided Into Absolute monarchycity-states, typesrange from democra-cy to monarchy

Which side hasthe advantage?

WhY?

Military Athenian navy Huge mercenaryArmy - forces contra- army, navybuted by each city-state

Developed by Bonnie Erickson, Assistant Principal.Francis Scott Key Middle School, Baltimore City. Maryland.Used with permission.

32

32

aolle.a

Sample Application Lesson 7

Thinking Skil: Predicting outcomesSubject Area: BiologyLeve High schoolObjective: To predict whether an organism will survive

in a particular environment using the knowledge gained inthe study of cells, viruses, bacteria, and protists.

Materials: Worksheet (see page 34)Procedures:

1. Working in groups, have students discuss the characteris-tics of each organism and predict whether it will survive.

2. Have a member of the group record the ideas generated.a Ask each group to share its predictions with the total class.4. Have class discuss the steps involved in predicting.

Evaluation: Ask each student to design an organism thst will sur-vive in a specified environment.

Sample Application Lesson 8

Thinking Sidi: Recognizing logical relationshipsSubject Area: MathematicsLevel Middle schoolObjectives: To develop a rule of logical relationships by deter-

mining how many spots are on the three unseen sides of adie.

Materials: One die for each group of three to four students.Procedures:

1. Each group roils a die on a desk so that only three sidesare visible. The group then tries to determine how manyspots are on the unseen sides.

2. Each time the die is rolled, students should record datato develop a rule or rules for determining the number ofspots on the unseen lidos. If successful, the group shouldgenerate the following rules:

Worksheet for Leeson 7

Directions: Organisms present on earth today are built for survival. Using the knowledge gained in thestudy of cells, viruses, bacteria, and prof sus, predict whether each organism will survive inthe environment described. Consider how the structures of each organism help it to accom-plish Ns functions. Consider how the organism maintains homeostasis.

Organism Structures Environment Steps used tosolve the problem

WiN or willnot survive?

Why?#1 Large surface to volume ratio;

has contractile vacuoles,membrane perm able to saleand water, oils, eyespot, lackschlomplasta but has foodvacuoles

salt water with lowoxygen content; lackssunlight; has smallpopulation of mi.mime smaller thanitself.

small surface to volume ratio;ngaaly Wig: :a"- 'esdeadir at:-karyote, has flagella, chioro-plots, contractile vacuole; no

. .

fresh water, low oxy-on Corsibilt. auaciiii

small eukaryole without pesu-dopods, olla, or AS01610110101food vacuoles but has =Wrap-dis vaouoise

damp, dark forest1100r; lade sunlight;has numerous mi-=his smaller than

a) One is opposite six.b) IWO Is opposite flv.C) Three is opposite four.

Opposite sides always total seven.

Folla.up: Following the same procedures, use an eight-sideddie. Ask students to generate rules for how many spots areon the unseen sides. If successful, they should generate theWafting rules:

a) One is opposite eight.b) Two is Omsk* seven.C) Three is opposite six.d) Four is opposite five.e) Opposite sides add up to nine.

Adapted from a lesson developed byBarbara Hoffman, mathematics teacher.Patapsco Middle School, Howard County, Maryland.Used wit remise:1m

35

35

Universality of the Inclusion Process

The sample lessons in this Astbadc demonstrate how the InclusionProcess can be used in particular content areas. It has atomise, widerapplications. The process can be applied schoolwide or systemwideto cover explicit instruction in all the thinking skills the curriculumrequires. The wider the span of subjects and grade levels, the greaterthe prospects are for a sequential program in teaching thinking skills.

While students can profit from thinking skill instruction at any level,the middle school seems to be the most appropriate setting for inten-sified focus on the higher-order thinking skills. Most students at thisage are developmentally ready to process formal operational thoughtrequired for higher-order thinking (Piaget 1972). Also, the middleschool generally provides an interdisciplinary curriculum structure anda team staffing model, which permits a better coordinated and better

integrated thinking skills program.

36

Evaluating Thinking Skills Instruction

The expenditure of time, energy, and funds for teaching thinkingmust be justified not only to boards of education and parents but toteachers and student as well. How do we judge whether these expen-ditures :..ny extr....:far, :f wain thirling akill 'eap-ta»;-Lion to the curriculum makes a difference? Clearly, evaluation mustbe an integral part of the thinking skills program.

Many standardized measures for assessing thinking skills alreadyexist and certainly should be considered for measuring studentprog-ress. But other indicators also should be used. For example, studentscores on standardized achievement or aptitude tests should be ana-lyzed fc r indications of growth beyond predicted expectations. Also,school systems should develop their own tests to assess the specificskills being taught in their program.

In the classroom the teacher can be alert for other inclicavars be-yond the student's demonstrated ability to apply a particular thinkingskill to a curriculum task or on a final examination. Such indicatorsinclude:

Increased student participation in classroom activitiesIncreased student interest and enthusiasm for thinking/learningtasksIncreased length of student oral and written responses

au1.111=11

Higher-level thinking demonstrated in student questions and an-

swers during discussionsEvidence of increased ability to apply thinking skills in solvingdiverse problemsDecreased student impulsiveness in responding, that is, think-ing before speaking

Because of the complexity of the thinking process, it is difficult tomeasure improvement precisely. But if we truly believe that thinkingskills are basic to all aspects of learning, then the lack of more pre-cise indicators of progress should not deter us from attempting to im-prove the teaching of thinking.

38

Conclusion

Traditionally the curriculum has been viewed as a body of knowl-edge with the focus on content rather than the process of thinking(Hobbs 1980). As a result, much of what students do is "fact-level;carat% and not ctraccptualizaticr." (ascnbcrg DM). The Inc Lei

Process is designed to complement this knowledge-based curriculumwith a process that leads to greater understanding and better learning.The process can be used with any subject matter content, but focuseson direct instruction of selected skills.

This focus on process rather than content (how to think rather thanwhat to think) provides both the teacher and learner with frequent in-class opportunities to identify and apply content - appropriate thinkingskills. Piaget (1972) and others have demonstrated that reasoning abil-ity increases when opportunities for growth are provided. If incorpo-ration of the Inclusion Process or any of the other approaches toimproving student thinking continue to yield positive results, we canexpect an exciting new direction for educational policy and practice:excellence in thinking as the overarching goal of education.

Pima. J. Intellectual Ea:dation from Adolescence to Adulthood!' HwntanDevelopment 1S (1972):1-12.

Whimbey, A. "Students Can Learn to Be Better Problem Solvers!' &taxa-tional Leadership (April 1980):556-65.

Whimbey, A , and Whinthey, L.S. Intelligence Can Be Bt u& New lbrk:Bantam Books, 197a

Woralsam, A.M. Me Effects of Think A Language Arts Thinking SkillsProgram on Scholastic Aptitude lbsts (SAT) herbal Scores at a BaltimoreCity Senior High School, Doctoral dissertstion, University of Maryland,1982.

Wonham, A.M., and Austin, QR. "Effects of lbaddng Thinking Skill:. onSAT Scores" Educational Leadership (November 1983):30-51.

441

41vbeatuamlmaula.111111111

re series Titles3. Owe Edemas: Preeltilead Problems7 bag: A ',oral IsseeII. Discipline or Disaster?

19. Sex Differences in Learning to Read20. Is Creativity Teachable?22. The Middle School. Whence What? Whither?16. The Teacher and the Drug Scene29 Can Intelligent., Be Taught?30. How to Recognize a ,Iriod School43. Motivation and Learning III school47. The School's Responsibility for Sex Education59. The Legal Rights of Students60. The lord Game Improving Communications66. TM Pros and Cons of Ability Grouping70. Dramatics in the Classroom: Making Lessons

Come Alive7$. Private Schools From the Puritans to the

Present79. The People and Their Schools10 Schools of the Past. A Treasury of Photographs11. Sexism. New Ism in Aaiun Education83. The Legal Rights of Teachers$4. Learning in Two Lang. 'es86 Silent Wimp in to assroom17 Multiethnic Education. Practices and Promises$1. How a School Board Operates91 What IM Learned About Values Education92 The Abuses of Standardized Testing93. The Uses of Standardized Testing95 Defining the Basics of American Education96. Some Practical Laws of Learning97 Reading 1967-1977 A Decade of Change

and Promise99. Collective Bargaining in the Public Schools

100. How to Individualize Learning105 The Good Mind106 Am in the Curriculum107 Fostering a Pluralistic Society Through Multi.

Ethnic Education108 Education and the Brain111 Teacher Improvement Through Clinical

Supervision1(4 Using Role Playing 10 the Classroom11: Management by Objectives in the Schools116 Declining Enrollments A New Dilemma for

Educator:117. Teacher Centen-lihere, What. Why?III The Case for Competency-1awl Education119. Teaching the Gifted and Talented120 Parents Have Rights. Tool121. Student Discipline and the Law122. British Schools and Ours123. Church -State Issas in Education114 Mainstreaming: Merging Regular and Special

Education. Student and Teacher Absenteeism

listing Centers in the Elementary SchoolA Primer on PraptThe Restoration of Standards: The Modesto Plan

ISO. Dealing with Stress: A Colima tor Educators131. Futunstics sad Education

132. New Parent-Teacher Conferences SoilPartnerships

133 Early Childhood Education. Foundations forLifelong Learning

135. Performance Evaluation of EducationalPersonnel

136 Mita for Education Journals137 linoleum Competency Testing138 Legal Implications of Minimum Competency

Testis'139 Energy Education: Goals and Practices140 Education in West Germany A Quest for

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Desegreptios142. Intermittent Edemas143. The Process of Grant Proposal Development144. Citizenship and Consumer Education: Key

Assumptions and Basic Competencies145 Migrant Education: Teaching We Wandering

Ones

146. Controversial Issas in OW Schools147. Nutrition and Lamm148 Edemas m the USSRz49 Teaching with Newspaper: The Living

Curriculum150. Population. Education, and Children'p Potent151 Sibliothetapy: The Right Book at the Right Thle,152. Educational Planing for fanatical SEW

Questions nisi awn on Moral Education154. Mastery Liana155. The Third Wave and Education s Futures156. Title 11: Implications Nu Education of Weal157 Elementary Matheinetics: Priorities for the 190IW:151. Summer School: A New Look159 Education for Cultural Pluralism: Global

Roots Stew160 Pluralism Gone Mad161 Education Agenda for the 1980s162 The Public Community College. The People's

University163 Technology in Education: Its Human Potential164 Chilna's Books: A Legacy for the Young165 Teacher Unions and the FUNS Structure166. Provosts, Education: Lessons from Three

Schools167. Basic Education: A Historical Pospective168. Aesthetic Education and the Pally ofLite169. Tentlite the horning disabled170. Safety EWAN,* is the Elementary Scheel171. Education in Contemporary Japan172. be

AbuSchool's Rol in the handle p Childse

173. Death Education: A Caen for the Living174. Tooth Participstle for Illy Adolemeets:

Imam end Serving in the Community175. Time Ilanmplient her Educators176. Edemas Venlig Gifted Youth

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Titles (conbnued from back cover)

/. hyoid Mahar Education in

1*Moly Countilsor Animas for Teed* EducationMicrecomputers I. the Classroom

AM Supervision Wen Simple1111. Medias Older hoplc Mother View of

IblesbeemingScheel Pak Relation: Commeamatueto ths Commealty

11311. Eases* Education Across the Curriculumlielm ths

oCasa as a Crania Teaching

NeoeurcCoNective 111114 Alternative toCase

111. 101 town ial=e of the Handicappedftoneeming I. N. Smeary School: TheIsle of the hider Teschor

MI Mimi Tax Crean: Fact ad Fiction1111. Chellsoglis the Gifted apd bland Through

Ileolor-Assideu Emichumet ProI.ctsThe Case for the Smeller School

111. Whet Yes Should Kum Most Tacking aid

111. May Nandi Strangles for Educators113. The Machin of Wain la Our Schools1M. Tsang aol the Art of Qoatioaing191. Indsrsteedieg the New light and Its Inset

es ManiaMt The Aalemic Achievemsot of Yang Americans197. Olathe Programs for the Marginal High

knot Modest111. Ileesgsmeot banes for School Leaders: The

kadwe Comala Whet Should We Twain in the

Social Stone2M. Illailmats for Classroom Teachers211. las* beams212. Teacher Preparation and Certification: The Call

for ReformMt Pros and Cons of Merit PayIN. Teacher Fairs: Counterpoint to Criticism205. The Case for the All-Day Kiederarteo201. Philosophy for Childres: An A, to

Critical Thing207. Television and Children201. Usieg TIMIMM011 is the Curriculum

209. Writing to Leers Across the Curriculum210. (Mateo vouchers211. Decision Making * Educational Satins212. Dana Making la ea Era of Fiscal Instability213. The Savors Role ie Educating Sanely

Handicapped Straits214. Teacher Caner Stages: Inflation for Staff

Developommt215. Sean School Budgets in Hard Times211. Encabo, in Healthy lifestyles: Curriculum

Implication217. Adolescest Alcohol Me se218. Nomenort -And Why211. America's Choosing Families:

A Guide for Educators220. Teaching Nildly Retarded Children

in the laplw Classroom221. Changing Ilehavier: A Practical Aside

for Tudors aid Ponds222. Issas ad lomovetion in

Fangs Language Mania223. Grievance Aladin in Education224. Toodiag About NNlgbn le the Public Schools225. homilies Voluntary Mediae in

School nd Ham22i. Now to Start a knol/Ilosiness Parthenhip227. Sinop* [deaden policy: An latsrustionl

Persactivo228. Planning for Study broad229. Taechiag About Nuclear 038.111111111110

230. heparin Home -School Commoniation231.

Adios232. Outdoor Eduation: Iron the Classroom Walls233. Whet Educators Maid bow Most234. Taoaap Suicide: Whet Can the SchooCirrort235. apt gala for Tacks*23$. A Nan for Teaching Thin* Skills:

The ladesion Process237. The Induction of New bakers238. The Case for Mak Skills Programs is

Higher Educate.239. Iscreitiog Superior Teachers: The Interview

Process240. Teaching and Teacher Education: Implant*

Reform

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