A Method for Interpreting Statutes

Christopher Enright

If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading ~ Lao Tzu

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!Sinch Business Name Sinch Firm Name Sinch Software Pty Ltd Seminars www.sinch.com.au Products www.sinch.com.au Books www.legalskills.com.au Email info@legalskills.com.au !First Edition July 2015 Copyright © Christopher Enright 2015

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National Library of Australia ‘Cataloguing in Publication’ Entry Author Enright, Christopher 1947 – author Title A Method for Interpreting Statutes / Christopher Enright ISBN 978-0-9943711-3-3 (paperback) Series Legal Skills Series Notes and Index Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects Statutes - Australia. Law - Australia - Interpretation and construction. Dewey Number 348.9402

iii

Preface

The law of statutory interpretation has become the most important single aspect of legal practice. Significant areas of the law are determined entirely by statute. No area of the law has escaped statutory modification.1 In Australia the rules and presumptions of statutory interpretation have been in extremely capable hands because of the generalship of Professor Dennis Pearce of the Australian National University. In 1974 LexisNexis Professor Pearce published the first edition of his text Statutory Interpretation in Australia. For the third edition in 1988 he acquired an adjutant in the form of Associate Professor RS (Harry) Geddes of the University of New England who became a co-author and has remained so. LexisNexis published the eighth edition of this book in 2014. This book takes a different approach to statutory interpretation. It does not seek to explain the rules of statutory interpretation. Instead it seeks to perform a task that will complement knowledge of the rules. This task is to devise a method for interpreting statutes by using a step-by-step approach. There is a need for such a book because law schools commonly teach statutory interpretation by reference to the rules and neglect any or much attempt at a method. Neglect of method for interpreting statutes is part of wider neglect of legal method and legal reasoning. Often lawyers seem oblivious to this, perhaps on the basis that you do not know what you do not know. Some, however, have commented on the lack of skills. For example, with reference to statutory interpretation Justice Michael Kirby has said that ‘we are truly upon an untracked ocean of decision-making.’2 This is a frank admission by a senior judge of the lack of a proper method for interpreting statutes. Model for Interpreting Statutes This book is written to solve the problem of lack of skills. It builds on, and draws heavily from other publications that deal with legal method and legal reasoning in a general way.3 The method for interpreting statutes consists of six steps that cover the process from start to finish. The diagram below sets out these steps in short form:

Step 1. Rule Organising the Rule Step 2. Issues Identifying the Issues Step 3. Options Identifying the Meanings and Effects Step 4. Purpose and Object Identifying the Purpose and Object Step 5. Correct Meaning Identifying the Correct Meaning Step 6. Opinion Writing the Opinion

Preface Diagram 1 Model for Interpreting Statutes

1. JJ Spigelman ‘The Poet’s Rich Resource: Issues in Statutory Interpretation’ (2001) 21 Australian Bar Review 224 2. Kirby in Sheard (2003) p 52 3. Christopher Enright (2015) Legal Reasoning and Christopher Enright (2015) Legal Method

iv Preface

Legislation Appendix 1 Legislation sets out the text of provisions in the Interpretation Acts that contain what is now the basic and mandatory rule for statutory interpretation – that courts and officials must interpret a statute in a manner that will ‘best achieve’ purpose and object, which comprise the policy that underlies the statute. It also sets out a back up rule, that interpreters can use extrinsic material for ascertaining the meaning of an ambiguous provision. There is also the text of Articles 31 and 32 in Section 3 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). Articles 31 and 32 were the inspiration and models for the Australian provisions. Christopher Enright 24 April 2015 Newcastle In my opinion strict literal interpretation of a tax Act is an open invitation to artificial and contrived tax avoidance. Progress towards a free society will not be advanced by attributing to Parliament meanings which no one believes it intended so that income tax becomes optional for the rich while remaining compulsory for most income earners. If strict literalism continues to prevail the legislature may have no practical alternative but to vest tax officials with more and more discretion. This may well lead to tax laws capable if unchecked of great oppression. Commissioner of Taxation v Westraders (1980) 54 ALJR 460, 469 per Murphy J

v

Legal Skills Series

Series This book is part of a series of textbooks that explain legal skills. The aim of these books is to simplify and systematise tasks for working with law by describing a step-by-step guide. The aim has been to make this guide as close as possible to an algorithm. The ultimate goal was to enable law schools to train lawyers so that they could understand these tasks and perform them effectively and efficiently when required. The table below sets out the books in this series:

Authors Title Christopher Enright Legal Reasoning Christopher Enright Legal Method Christopher Enright Legal Writing Christopher Enright Proof of Facts Christopher Enright A Method for Interpreting Statutes Christopher Enright Drafting Readable Statutes Christopher Enright & Clare Cappa Fundamentals of Legal Research

Website The legal skills website address is: www.legalskills.com.au

vii

Author

Christopher Enright Christopher Enright is qualified as a barrister, solicitor and chartered accountant. Chris has a Master of Commerce (Management) from the University of New England. In a former life Chris lectured in law and management at various universities. Much of his research time as an academic was working in the much-neglected field of legal skills. This research was directed to the major tasks with law that involved reasoning. These tasks are organising law, making law, interpreting law, applying law to facts, proving facts, exercising a discretion, researching law, reading law and writing law.

ix

Contents

Preface ................................................................................................. iii Legal Skills Series............................................................................. v Author ................................................................................................... vii Contents............................................................................................... ix Table of Legislation .......................................................................... xv Table of Cases.................................................................................... xxiii Table of Diagrams ............................................................................. xxxi Table of Latin and French Expressions ...................................... xxxv Labels ................................................................................................... xxxvii Summary.............................................................................................. xiv

Part 1 Background Chapter 1 Statutes ............................................................................ 1 Part A. Sources of Law........................................................................... 1 Statutes ................................................................................................... 1 Common Law ......................................................................................... 5 Statutory Common Law ......................................................................... 5 Part B. Composition of a Statute ............................................................ 6 Part C. Rules and Effects........................................................................ 7 Rules ....................................................................................................... 7 Effects..................................................................................................... 8 Part D. Legislative Intent........................................................................ 17 Part E. Illustration: Hypothetical Case ................................................... 25 Chapter 2 Components of a Statute ............................................. 27 Introduction ............................................................................................ 27 Words ..................................................................................................... 28 Definitions .............................................................................................. 40 Instruments ............................................................................................. 48 Interpretation Acts .................................................................................. 48 Maxims................................................................................................... 51 Judicial Interpretation............................................................................. 75 Judicial Alteration .................................................................................. 75 Chapter 3 Policy................................................................................. 77 Introduction ............................................................................................ 77 Nature of Policy...................................................................................... 78 Causation ................................................................................................ 80 Evaluation............................................................................................... 80 Using Policy ........................................................................................... 84

x Contents

Judicial Understanding of Policy............................................................ 85 Chapter 4 Legal Method................................................................... 87 Introduction............................................................................................. 87 Model for Organising Law ..................................................................... 88 Model for Applying Law ........................................................................ 96 Model for Using Law.............................................................................. 98 Model for Forming Law ......................................................................... 102 Chapter 5 Model for Enacting Statutes........................................ 105 Introduction............................................................................................. 105 A. Rational Model................................................................................... 106 Step 1. Allocating the Resources ............................................................ 108 Step 2. Identifying the Options ............................................................... 108 Step 3. Formulating the Reasons ............................................................ 113 Step 4. Enacting the Statute .................................................................... 119 B. Irrational Model ................................................................................. 119

Part 2 Interpreting the Statute Chapter 6 Major Problems............................................................... 121 Introduction............................................................................................. 121 Literal Rule ............................................................................................. 122 Ambiguity ............................................................................................... 123 Neglect of Policy .................................................................................... 128 Neglect of Legal Method ........................................................................ 129 Judicial Behaviour .................................................................................. 136 Chapter 7 Purpose and Object Rule ............................................. 137 Introduction............................................................................................. 137 Mischief Rule.......................................................................................... 138 Vienna Convention ................................................................................. 141 Purpose and Object Rule......................................................................... 141 Rationale for the Rule ............................................................................. 146 Analysis of the Rule................................................................................ 147 Problems with the Rule........................................................................... 153 Problems with Policy .............................................................................. 154 Chapter 8 Model for Interpreting Statutes .................................. 161 Introduction............................................................................................. 161 Step 1. Organising the Rule .................................................................... 168 Step 2. Identifying the Issues.................................................................. 168 Step 3. Identifying the Meanings and Effects......................................... 168 Step 4. Identifying the Purpose and Object ............................................ 170 Step 5. Identifying the Correct Meaning ................................................ 171

Contents xi

Step 6. Writing the Opinion ................................................................... 173 Application of the Model ....................................................................... 174

Step 1. Organising the Rule Chapter 9 Organising the Rule ...................................................... 177 Introduction ............................................................................................ 177 Elements and Sub-elements.................................................................... 180 Consequences ......................................................................................... 183 Checklist ................................................................................................. 183 Technique ............................................................................................... 183 Illustration .............................................................................................. 186

Step 2. Identifying the Issues Chapter 10 Identifying the Issues ................................................. 189 Introduction ............................................................................................ 189 Applying Law......................................................................................... 192 Detecting Issues...................................................................................... 194 Formulating Issues ................................................................................. 196 Judicial Confusion .................................................................................. 198

Step 3. Identifying the Meaning and Effects Chapter 11 Identifying Meanings and Effects ........................... 201 Introduction ............................................................................................ 201 Meanings ................................................................................................ 201 Effects..................................................................................................... 202 Causation ................................................................................................ 204 Chapter 12 Meanings: Nature of Ambiguity ............................... 205 Introduction ............................................................................................ 205 Meaning of Ambiguity ........................................................................... 206 Causes of Ambiguity .............................................................................. 207 Effect of Ambiguity................................................................................ 208 Organising Framework........................................................................... 209 Identifying the Meanings........................................................................ 209 Appendix: Daisy Bell ............................................................................. 212 Chapter 13 Meanings: Classification of Ambiguity.................. 215 Introduction ............................................................................................ 215 Lexical Ambiguity.................................................................................. 215 Relational Ambiguity ............................................................................. 224 Ambiguity of Implication ....................................................................... 227 Ambiguity of Implication: Justification ................................................. 230 Ambiguity of Implication: Requirements............................................... 239 Ambiguity of Implication: Illustrations.................................................. 242 Ambiguity of Competing Rules ............................................................. 250

xii Contents

Chapter 14 Causation ....................................................................... 257 Introduction............................................................................................. 257 Nature of Causation ................................................................................ 258 Predicting of Causation........................................................................... 259 Visibility of Causation ............................................................................ 260 Chapter 15 Effects ............................................................................. 261 Terminology............................................................................................ 261 Function .................................................................................................. 261 Nature of Effects..................................................................................... 262 Levels of Effects ..................................................................................... 262 Actual and Predicted Effects................................................................... 263 Rationality............................................................................................... 264

Step 4. Identifying the Purpose and Object Chapter 16 Identifying the Purpose and Object ........................ 265 Introduction............................................................................................. 265 Scale of Purpose...................................................................................... 265 Nature of Purpose ................................................................................... 265 Classification of Sources ........................................................................ 267 Chapter 17 Makers of Policy ........................................................... 269 Introduction............................................................................................. 269 Inhabitants of the Policy Trail ................................................................ 269 Use of the Policy Trail ............................................................................ 273 Chapter 18 Intrinsic Sources of Policy ........................................ 275 Introduction............................................................................................. 275 Text of the Statute................................................................................... 275 Legislative History of the Statute ........................................................... 281 General Context of the Statute................................................................ 282 Chapter 19 Extrinsic Sources of Policy ....................................... 287 Introduction............................................................................................. 287 Requirement 1. Extrinsic Material.......................................................... 295 Requirement 2. Adequacy....................................................................... 297 Real Adequacy........................................................................................ 298 Deemed Adequacy.................................................................................. 308 Requirement 3. Discretion ...................................................................... 310 Requirement 4. Weight ........................................................................... 314 Problems ................................................................................................. 314

Contents xiii

Step 5. Identifying the Correct Meaning Chapter 20 Identifying the Correct Meaning .............................. 315 Introduction ............................................................................................ 315 Measuring Proximities ........................................................................... 316 Applying Precedents............................................................................... 322

Illustration: Hypothetical Case Chapter 21 Illustration: Hypothetical Case ................................ 327 Hypothetical Case................................................................................... 327 Model for Interpreting Statutes .............................................................. 328 Step 1. Organising the Rule.................................................................... 329 Step 2. Identifying the Issues ................................................................. 329 Step 3. Identifying the Meanings and Effects ........................................ 331 Step 4. Identifying the Purpose and Object ............................................ 334 Step 5. Identifying the Correct Meaning ................................................ 336

Part 3 Writing the Opinion Step 6. Writing the Opinion

Chapter 22 Writing the Opinion ..................................................... 339 Introduction ............................................................................................ 339 Structure ................................................................................................. 340 Formatting .............................................................................................. 340 Headings ................................................................................................. 341 Tables ..................................................................................................... 341

Part 4 Reforming the Law Chapter 23 Defining the Problems ............................................... 345 Introduction ............................................................................................ 345 Section 15AA: Measuring the Proximities............................................. 347 Sections 15AA and 15AB: Dual Nature of Legislative Intent ............... 348 Section 15AB: Ambiguity ...................................................................... 354 Section 15AB: Irrelevant Inclusions ...................................................... 357 Chapter 24 Proposing the Solutions ............................................ 365 Introduction ............................................................................................ 365 Section 15AA: Original Version ............................................................ 365 Section 15AA: Redrafted Version.......................................................... 365 Section 15AB: Original Version ............................................................ 366 Section 15AB: Redrafted Version .......................................................... 367 Legislative History ................................................................................. 367

Appendixes Appendix 1 Legislation .................................................................... 369 Introduction ............................................................................................ 369

xiv Contents

Commonwealth....................................................................................... 370 Queensland.............................................................................................. 372 New South Wales.................................................................................... 373 Victoria ................................................................................................... 375 South Australia ....................................................................................... 376 Tasmania................................................................................................. 376 Western Australia ................................................................................... 378 Australian Capital Territory.................................................................... 379 Northern Territory................................................................................... 383 Norfolk Island ......................................................................................... 385 New Zealand ........................................................................................... 386 Vienna Convention ................................................................................. 387 Appendix 2 Approaches to Interpretation .................................. 389 Introduction............................................................................................. 389 Judicial Legitimacy................................................................................. 389 Legislative Legitimacy ........................................................................... 390 Metademocracy....................................................................................... 390 Diagram .................................................................................................. 390 Bibliography ........................................................................................ 393

Index ...................................................................................................... 405

xv

Table of Legislation

Australian Capital Territory

Human Rights Act 2004 s30(1) .................................................................................................................... 142, 380 Legislation Act 2001............................................................................................... 49, 184 s4 ................................................................................................................................... 293 s4(2) ................................................................................................................................ 50 ss136-1441.................................................................................. 51, 298, 325, Appendix 1 s136 ............................................................................................................................... 325 s137 ............................................................................................................................... 325 s138 ............................................................................................................................... 131 s139 ..........................................................50, 131, 142-144, 268, 280, 292, 325, 345, 345 s140 ............................................................................................................................... 326 s141 ................................................................................................308, 310, 325, 313-314 s141(1) .................................................................................................. 295, 308, 310, 313 s142 ............................................................................................................... 297, 308, 325 s142(1)-(3) .................................................................................................................... 297 s144 ........................................................................................................................... 51, 63 s150 ................................................................................................................................. 51 s151 ................................................................................................................................. 51 s157 ................................................................................................................................. 42 ss196-229 ........................................................................................................................ 73 Interpretation Act 1967 ................................................................................................... 49 s11A ...................................................................................................................... 131, 325 s11B .............................................................................................. 131, 280, 292, 325, 345 s11C ................................................................................................................................ 58

Commonwealth Acts Interpretation Act 1901................................................................................... 48, 184 s13 ................................................................................................................................. 280 s15A ................................................................................................................................ 62 s15AA2...................................19, 23, 50, 85, 104, 113, 128, 129, 131, 142-144, 149-154, s15AA ................................ 190, 302, 318, 325, 345-349, 352-353, 365-368, Appendix 1 s15AA(1)....................................................................................................................... 296 s15AA(2)....................................................................................................................... 295 s15AB3 ...............................59, 126, 131, 153-154, 268, 291, 293, 296, 298, 302, 23, 280 s15AB ............................................. 305, 308, 312, 314, 345, 345-348, 352-363, 366-368 s15AB(1).........................................................................292, 297, 308-310, 313, 353-356 s15AB(1)(a) .......................................................................................................... 311, 353 s15AB(1)(b) .................................................................................................. 311, 348, 353 s15AB(1)(b)(i) ...................................................................................................... 126, 311 s15AB(1)(b)(ii) ..................................................................................................... 126, 311 s15AB(2)........................................................................................292, 305, 308, 354-356

1. The full text of ss 136-144 are set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 2. The full text of s15AA is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 3. The full text of s15AB is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

xvi Table of Legislation

s15AB(2)(a)-(h) ............................................................................................. 308, 354-355 s15AB(2)(a) ...........................................................................................................280, 309 s15AB(2)(b)...........................................................................................................292, 309 s15AB(2)(c) ...................................................................................................................309 s15AB(2)(d)...........................................................................................................292, 309 s15AB(2)(e) ...................................................................................................292, 297, 309 s15AB(2)(f) ...........................................................................................292, 293, 296, 309 s15AB(2)(g)...................................................................................................................309 s15AB(2)(h)...................................................................................................................309 s15AB(3) .......................................................................................................295, 313, 314 s17....................................................................................................................................51 s18a..................................................................................................................................42 s22....................................................................................................................................51 s26....................................................................................................................................51 s27....................................................................................................................................51 ss33-34C ..........................................................................................................................73 s35....................................................................................................................................51 s36....................................................................................................................................51 s37....................................................................................................................................51 s38(1) .............................................................................................................................149 s38(2) .............................................................................................................................149 s46..........................................................................................................58, 62, 73, 74, 149 s46(1) .............................................................................................................................293 s47..............................................................................................................................73, 74 Acts Interpretation Amendment Act 1984.....................................................................291 s7....................................................................................................................................291 Acts Interpretation Amendment Act 2011.............................................................368, 371 Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 s3(5) .................................................................................................................................47 Australian Meat and Livestock Act 1977 s4....................................................................................................................................157 Australian Industries Preservation Act 1906 .................................................................301 Broadcasting Act 1992 ....................................................................................................38 s122..................................................................................................................................38 s160..................................................................................................................................38 Constitution s7.................................................................................................................... 236-237, 252 s51(xx) ...........................................................................................................................219 s61....................................................................................................................................60 s92.................................................................................................................. 246, 247-249 s122................................................................................................................ 236-237, 252 s80..................................................................................................................................250 s92..................................................................................................................................246 Corporations Act 2001 s5C .................................................................................................................................293 Criminal Code Act 1995................................................................................................284 Family Law Act 1975 s48(1) ......................................................................................................................... 43-44 s48(2) ......................................................................................................................... 43-44

Table of Legislation xvii

Freedom of Information Act 1982 s3 ................................................................................................................................... 277 s3(2) .............................................................................................................................. 276 s4(1) ...........................................................................................................................46-47 Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 s51 ................................................................................................................................. 221 s123A(1) ....................................................................................................................... 245 Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 s8-1(1) ....................................................................................................................221-224 s8-1(1)(a)....................................................................................................................... 222 s8-1(1)(b) ...................................................................................................................... 222 s8-1(3) ........................................................................................................................... 222 Legislative Instruments Act 2003 s13 ......................................................................................................................... 149, 293 Migration Act 1958................................................................................................. 61, 246 s6A(1)(c) ................................................................................................................246-247 Practice Direction 1984 No 1 (High Court) 54 ALR 652............................................. 294 Statute Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (No1) 1984 ............................................ 368 s3 ................................................................................................................................... 372 Statute Law Revision Act 1981 ............................................................................ 142, 371 s2(1) .............................................................................................................................. 371 s115 ............................................................................................................................... 368 Trade Practices Act 1974 s46 ................................................................................................................................... 45 s46(1) .....................................................................................................................186-187 s46(2) .........................................................................................................................45-46

New South Wales Companies Act 1961..................................................................................................... 302 Interpretation Act 1987 ..................................................................................... 41, 48, 184 s3(2) ................................................................................................................................ 73 s5(1) .............................................................................................................................. 293 s5(4) ................................................................................................................................ 52 s6 ..................................................................................................................................... 41 s7 ..................................................................................................................................... 42 s9 ..................................................................................................................................... 73 s11 ............................................................................................................................. 58, 75 s12 ................................................................................................................................... 73 s13 ................................................................................................................................... 73 s14 ................................................................................................................................... 73 s15 ................................................................................................................................... 73 s19 ................................................................................................................................... 73 s21 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s31 ................................................................................................................................... 62 ss31-45 ............................................................................................................................ 74 s32 ............................................................................................................................. 62, 75 s334...............................................50, 131, 142, 144-145, 325, 345, 345-346, Appendix 1

4. The full text of s33 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

xviii Table of Legislation

s345 .....................................................................................50, 131, 268, 292, Appendix 1 s34(1) ..................................................................................... 295, 297-298, 308, 310, 313 s34(2) .............................................................................................................................308 s34(2)(a).........................................................................................................................280 s34(3) ............................................................................................................. 310, 313-314 s36....................................................................................................................................51 s38....................................................................................................................................51 s43....................................................................................................................................73 ss46-49.............................................................................................................................73 s78-80 ..............................................................................................................................73

New Zealand Interpretation Act 1924 s56 .................................................................................................................... Appendix 1 Interpretation Act 1999 s57 .................................................................................................................... Appendix 1 Land Transfer Act 1952 s62..................................................................................................................................246 Poultry Act 1968 s2......................................................................................................................................43 Town and Country Planning Act 1953 s23..................................................................................................................................227

Norfolk Island Interpretation Act 1979............................................................................................49, 184 s6......................................................................................................................................62 s7......................................................................................................................................62 s9......................................................................................................................................52 s10C8................................................... 50, 131, 142, 144-145, 292, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s10D9 .................................. 50, 131, 268, 280, 295, 298, 308, 313-314, 345, Appendix 1 s10D(1) ..........................................................................................................................297 s11....................................................................................................................................51 s12....................................................................................................................................51 s16....................................................................................................................................42 s22....................................................................................................................................51 s23..............................................................................................................................51, 73 ss23A-24, 36....................................................................................................................73

Northern Territory Interpretation Act.....................................................................................................49, 184 s3(1) ...............................................................................................................................293 s7......................................................................................................................................74 s17....................................................................................................................................51

5. The full text of s34 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 6. The full text of s5 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 7. The full text of s5 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 8. The full text of s62A is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 9. The full text of s62B is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

Table of Legislation xix

s18 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s19 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s20 ............................................................................................................................. 58, 74 s23 ................................................................................................................................... 42 s27 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s28 ................................................................................................................................... 51 ss39-48 ............................................................................................................................ 73 s59 ................................................................................................................................... 62 s61 ............................................................................................................................. 62, 74 s62A10 ......................................................... 50, 142, 144-145, 290, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s62B11................................................................. 50, 268, 280, 290, 292, 345, Appendix 1 s62B(1).......................................................................................................................... 297 s66 ................................................................................................................................... 74 Interpretation Amendment Act 1988 ............................................................................ 290

Queensland Acts Interpretation Act 1954 .................................................................................. 48, 184 s2(1) .............................................................................................................................. 293 s7 ..................................................................................................................................... 75 s9 ..................................................................................................................................... 62 s14A12 ......................................................... 50, 131, 142-144, 152, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s14B13.................................................................. 50, 131, 268, 291, 345-346, Appendix 1 s14B(1)...................................................................................295, 297-298, 308, 310, 313 s14B(2).................................................................................................................. 313, 314 s14B(3).......................................................................................................................... 308 s14B(3)(a) ..................................................................................................................... 280 s23 ................................................................................................................................... 75 ss23-29B ......................................................................................................................... 73 s36 ........................................................................................................................... 51, 150 s37 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s38 ................................................................................................................................... 51 Acts Interpretation Amendment Act 1991 ................................................................... 372 Companies Act 1961..................................................................................................... 302 Statutory Instruments Act 1992 s14 ..........................................................................................................291, 293, 345-346 Statute Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (No 1) 1984 s2(1) .............................................................................................................................. 372 s3 ................................................................................................................................... 372 Fire Service Legislation Amendment Act 1994 s14 ................................................................................................................................. 372

South Australia Acts Interpretation Act 1915 .................................................................................. 48, 184 s4 ..................................................................................................................................... 51

10. The full text of s10C is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 11. The full text of s10D is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 12. The full text of s14A is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 13. The full text of s14B is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

xx Table of Legislation

s13..............................................................................................................................62, 75 s14..............................................................................................................................58, 75 s14a..................................................................................................................................75 s18..................................................................................................................................282 s19(1) .............................................................................................................................281 s2114 ............................................................................................75, 131, 142, Appendix 1 s2215 ....................................... 50, 75, 131, 142, 144-145, 290-291, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s22(1) .............................................................................................................................128 s22(2) .....................................................................................................................131, 142 s22a............................................................................................................................62, 75 s27....................................................................................................................................51 s28....................................................................................................................................51 s34-39 ..............................................................................................................................73 Companies Act 1961 .....................................................................................................302 Acts Interpretation Amendment Act 1986 ....................................................................290

Tasmania Acts Interpretation Act 1931 ...................................................................................48, 184 s3......................................................................................................................................62 s4......................................................................................................................................75 s4(1) ...............................................................................................................................293 s5......................................................................................................................................75 s8A.............................................................. 50, 131, 142, 144-145, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s8B16 ........................... 50, 131, 268, 280, 292, 295, 298, 308, 310, 313-314, Appendix 1 s8B(1) ............................................................................................................297, 313, 345 s19..............................................................................................................................58, 75 ss19-23C ..........................................................................................................................73 s24....................................................................................................................................73 s28....................................................................................................................................51 s29....................................................................................................................................51 s46....................................................................................................................................51 Companies Act 1961 .....................................................................................................302

United Kingdom Habeas Corpus Act 1679 ...............................................................................................284 Interpretation Act 1978............................................................................................48, 184 Magna Carta ..................................................................................................................284

United States Constitution Art. 1 s8 .........................................................................................................................249 Sherman Antitrust Act 1890 .......................................................................... 228-229, 301

14. The full text of s21 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 15. The full text of s22 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 16. The full text of s8B is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

Table of Legislation xxi

Victoria

Companies Act 1961..................................................................................................... 302 Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984.................................................................... 48, 184 s4(1)(a).......................................................................................................................... 293 s4(2) ................................................................................................................................ 52 s6 ..................................................................................................................................... 62 s22 ............................................................................................................................. 62, 75 s23 ............................................................................................................................. 58, 75 s31 ................................................................................................................................... 75 s33 ........................................................................................................................... 75, 142 s34 ................................................................................................................................... 75 s3517 ...................................... 50, 75, 131, 144-145, 268, 280, 292, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s35 ......................................................................................................................... 346, 353 s35(b) ..............................................................................295-298, 308, 313-314, 346, 357 s35(b)(i)-(iv) ..................................................................................................309-310, 357 s38 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s39 ................................................................................................................................... 42 ss40-42A ......................................................................................................................... 73 s43 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s44 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s45 ................................................................................................................................... 73

Western Australia Companies Act 1961..................................................................................................... 302 Interpretation Act 1984 ........................................................................................... 48, 184 s3(1) .............................................................................................................................. 293 s5 ............................................................................................................................... 51, 75 s6 ..................................................................................................................................... 75 s7 ............................................................................................................................... 62, 75 s818 ............................................................................................. 75, 131, 142, Appendix 1 s9 ..................................................................................................................................... 75 s1819 ...................................................... 50, 75, 131, 142, 144-145, 325, 345, Appendix 1 s1920 ............................................................. 50, 75, 131, 268, 280, 292, 345, Appendix 1 s19(1) .................................................................................... 295, 297, 298, 308, 310, 313 s19(2) ............................................................................................................................ 308 s19(3) .............................................................................................................310, 313-314 s44 ............................................................................................................................. 73, 75 ss48-60 ............................................................................................................................ 58 s61 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s62 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s63 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s64 ................................................................................................................................... 51 s65 ................................................................................................................................... 51

17. The full text of s35 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 18. The full text of s8 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 19. The full text of s18 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 20. The full text of s19 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

xxii Table of Legislation

Conventions

Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 ............................................141, 299 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties..............................................141, Appendix 1 Article 3121 ....................................................................................................137, 141, 291 Article 31(1) .................................................................................................. 141, 150-151 Article 3222 ............................................................................................137, 141, 287, 291

21. The full text of Article 31 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation. 22. The full text of Article 32 is set out in Appendix 1 Legislation.

xxiii

Table of Cases

Table of Abbreviations This table shortens and thus abbreviates the names of some of the cases to enable them to fit properly within the table of cases. AdSteam Adelaide Steamship Co ABA Australian Broadcasting Authority AMP Australian Mutual Provident Blacktown FC Blacktown Football Club GIO G GIO Gen. GMLAS General Mutual Life Assurance Society G & G Gordon & Gotch CMA Coal Miners’ Association CSC Corrective Services Commission Cont. Continued DPP Director of Public Prosecutions Export DGB Export Development Grants Board FCT Federal Commissioner of Taxation FCC Federation of Construction Contractors Papierwerke Papierwerke Waldof Aschaffenburg SCE Sony Computer Entertainment Vietnam VA Vietnam Veteran’s Association

Adler v George [1964] 2 QB 7 ......................................................... 233-234, 239, 249 Ainsworth v Criminal Justice Commission (1992) 175 CLR 564..............................68 Airlines of NSW v NSW (No 2) (1965) 113 CLR 54.................................................36 Al Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 5621 ..................................................... 65-66, 86 Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 208 ALR 124 ..........................................................60, 300 Amalgamated Society of Engineers v AdSteam (1920) 28 CLR 1292 .......................29 ..................................................................................29-33, 35, 138, 167, 278-279, 289 American Dairy Queen v Blue Rio (1981) 37 ALR 613 ............................................71 Ametex Fabrics Inc v C&C Fabrics (1992) 111 ALR 565 ...............................309, 355 Annetts v McCann (1990) 170 CLR 506..............................................................68, 70 Anstee v Jennings [1935] VLR 144..........................................................................239 Arrowcrest Group v Gill (1993) 46 FCR 90.............................................................290 Attorney General v Brewery Employees Union (1908) 6 CLR 469...........................57 Attorney General v Prince Ernst Augustus of Hanover [1957] AC 143 ......................................................................... 39, 59, 126, 164, 239 Attorney-General (Vic) v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 2373................................61 Australasian Temperance and GMLAS v Howe (1922) 21 CLR 290 ........................29 Australian Capital Television v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 108..........................67, 238 Australian FCC, Re; Ex parte Billing (1986) 68 ALR 416...........................................310, 312 Australian Telecommunications Commission v Bartley (1988) 84 ALR 261......................281 Avel Pty Ltd v Attorney General (1987) 11 NSWLR 126 .....................................29, 156, 303 Barker v The Queen (1983) 153 CLR 338............................................................................289

1. Other citations are Al Kateb v Godwin (2004) 208 ALR 353; 39 ALD 206 2. Engineers’ Case 3. Pharmaceutical Benefits Case

xxiv Table of Cases

Barratt v Howard (2000) 170 ALR 529 ..................................................................................70 Barry R Liggins v Comptroller of Customs (1991) 32 FCR 1124 ................ 292, 296-297, 300 Barton v Commonwealth (1974) 131 CLR 477 ......................................................................60 Beckwith v R (1976) 135 CLR 569, 12 ALR 333 ..........................................................58, 301 Bell v Australian Securities Commission (1991) 103 ALR 689.............................................70 Beresford v Royal Insurance Co Ltd (1936) 52 TLR 650; [1937] 2 KB 197 .......................243 Bermingham v CSC (1988) 15 NSWLR 292......................... 125, 128, 216-217, 239-242, 245 Bernstein v Skyviews [1978] QB 479...................................................................................253 Black-Clauson International v Papierwerke AG [1975] AC 5915 ........................................299 Blashill v Chambers (1884) 14 QBD 479 ...............................................................................74 Blue Metal Industries v Dilley (1969) 117 CLR 651; [1970] AC 827 .................................145 Bolton; Ex parte Bean, Re (1987) 162 CLR 514; 70 ALR 225 ................... 35, 70-71, 311-312 Bonham v College of Physicians (1610) 8 Co. Rep. 114........................................................64 Bourke v State Bank of New South Wales (1988) 85ALR 61, 22 FCR 378 ........................220 Bourke v State Bank of New South Wales (1990) 170 CLR 276 .........................................220 Bowtell v Goldsborough Mort & Co (1905) 3 CLR 444 ......................................127, 227, 232 Brammer v Deery Hotels (1974) 3 ALR 621........................................................................282 Brennan v Comcare (1994) 50 FCR 555, 122 ALR 615.........................................34, 310, 312 Briginshaw v Briginshaw (1938) 60 CLR 336......................................................................260 Brodie v Singleton Shire Council (2001) 206 CLR 512 .........................................................22 Brooks v FCT (2000) 173 ALR 235 .............................................................................299, 304 Bropho v Western Australia (1991) 171 CLR 1 .........................................................60, 68, 90 Brown v Classification Review Board (1998) 154 ALR 67 ...................................................71 Brown v The Queen (1986) 160 CLR 171............................................................................218 Burch v South Australia (1998) 71 SASR 12 .......................................................................376 Buretsi v Beveridge (1998) 158 ALR 445 ..............................................................................41 Byrne v Australian Airlines (1995) 185 CLR 410, 131 ALR 422 ................................ 156-157 Byrnes v R (1999) 199 CLR 1; 164 ALR 520 ......................................................................520 Cabell v Markham 148 F 2d 737 (2nd Cir) 1945..................................................137, 210, 231 Cadia Holdings Pty Ltd v New South Wales (2010) 242 CLR 195........................................60 Cain v Doyle (1946) 72 CLR 409 .........................................................................................238 Caminetti v 242 US 470 (1917) ........................................................................................ 31-32 Canwan Coals v FCT (1974) 4 ALR 223..............................................................................245 Carter v Bradbeer [1975] 1 WLR 1204.................................................................................206 Catlow v Accident Compensation Commission (1989) 87 ALR 663...................................282 CBFC Ltd v Pearce (1993) 112 FLR 478 .............................................................................301 Cheatle v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR 541...........................................................................218 Christie v Permean Wright (1904) 1 CLR 693 .......................................................................71 Chugg v Pacific Dunlop (1990) 170 CLR 249.............................................................. 151-152 Church of the Holy Trinity v United States (1892) 143 US 457.............................67, 231, 233 CIC Insurance v Bankstown FC (1997) 187 CLR 384; 141 ALR 618 ...........39, 124, 126, 164 CIC Insurance v Bankstown FC (cont.) ........................................ 199-200, 283, 289, 292, 299 Clissold v Perry (1904) 1 CLR 363.........................................................................................71 Coco v The Queen (1994) 179 CLR 427, 120 ALR 415 ............................................65, 69, 71 Codelfa Construction v State Rail Authority (1982) 149 CLR 337......................................231 Cole v Whitfield (1988) 165 CLR 360, 78 ALR 42...................................................... 248-249 Collector of Customs v Agfa-Gearet (1997) 141 ALR 59 ................................48, 59, 209, 224 Collector of Customs v Savage River Mines (1988) 79 ALR 258................................295, 304 Commercial Union Insurance Co v Colonial Carrying Co [1937] NZLR 1041 ...........227, 232 Commission for Safety v Neil (1993) 114 ALR 461 ............................................................292

4. Another citation is Barry R Liggins v Comptroller of Customs 103 ALR 565. 5. Another citation is Black-Clawson International v Papierwerke Waldof Aschaffenburg AG [1975] 1 All ER 810

Table of Cases xxv

Commissioner for Prices v Charles Moore (Aust) Ltd (1977) 139 CLR 449.......................288 Commissioner for Railways v Agalianos 39 (1955) 92 CLR 390 ..........................................63 Commissioner of Police v Tanos (1957-58) 98 CLR 383 ......................................................68 Commissioner of Taxation v Westraders (1980) 54 ALJR 460...............................................iv Commissioner of Taxation v Whitfords Beach (1981) 148 CLR 16.....................289, 292, 297 Committee of Direction of Fruit Marketing v Collins (1925) 36 CLR 410................71 Commonwealth v Christoffelsz (1988) 79 ALR 611................................................279 Commonwealth v Hazeldell (1918) 25 CLR 552 .......................................................71 Commonwealth v Progress Advertising and Press Agency (1909) 10 CLR 457 .......71 Commonwealth v Western Australia (1999) 196 CLR 392........................................60 Commonwealth v Yarmirr [2001] HCA 56, (2001) 208 CLR 1.................................21 Connecticut National Bank v Germain 112 S Ct 1146, 1149 (1992) .........................31 Cooper Brookes (Wollongong) v FCT (1981) 147 CLR 297 .....................................36 Cooper Brookes v FCT (1981) 35 ALR 151 ........................36, 37, 164, 242, 289, 359 Corkery v Carpenter [1950] 1 KB 102 ..........................................34-35, 197, 211-213 Corporate Affairs Commission v Yuill [1991] HCA 28; (1991) CLR 319 ....34, 35, 85 Cumerlong Holdings v Dalcross Properties (2011) 85 ALJR 828 ............................71 D’Emden v Pedder (1904) 1 CLR 91 .................................................................63, 248 Dallikavak v Minister for Immigration (1985) 61 ALR 471 ....................................247 Dampier Salt v Collector of Customs (1995) 133 ALR 502 ....................................282 Davies v Deverell (1992) 1 Tas R 214..................................................................33, 35 Deem v Millikin 6 OCC Rep 357 (1892) 360 ..........................................................243 Despoja v Durack (1979) 27 ALR 466 .......................................................................58 Dillingham Constructions v Steel Mains (1975) 6 ALR 171 ...........................292, 296 Dilworth v Stamps Commissioner [1899] AC 99.......................................................45 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 .......................................................................... Douglas v Minister for Aboriginal Affairs (1994) 34 ALD 192 .................................... DPP v Logan Park Investments (1995) 132 ALR 449....................................... 71, 312 DPP v Serratore (1995) 132 ALR 461................................................ 67, 292, 296-297 Duport Steels v Sirs [1980] 1 WLR 142 [1980] 1 All ER 529 .........................126, 199 Eastman v The Queen (2000) 172 ALR 39 ..............................................................249 Electricity Trust v Krone (1994) 51 FCR 540, 123 ALR 202 ..................................290 Electrolux Home Products v Australia Workers Union (2004) 221 CLR 309 ...........65 Ellerman Lines Ltd v Murray [1931] AC 126 ..........................................................199 Evans v New South Wales (2008) 168 FCR 576........................................................66 Evans v US 504 US 255 (1992)..................................................................................69 Farmer v Murphy (1986) 67 ALR 114 .......................................................................69 FCT v Blake 84 ATC 4661.......................................................................................221 FCT v Chubb (1995) 128 ALR 489..........................................................................259 FCT v Dixon (1952) 86 CLR 540.............................................................................221 FCT v Launceston Legacy (1987) 75 ALR 122 .........................................................59 FCT v Murray (1990) 92 ALR 671...........................................................................304 FCT v Trustees of Lisa Marie Walsh (1983) 48 ALR 253 .................................32, 312 FCT v Whitfords Beach (1982) 39 ALR 521 ...................................................292, 297 Fergusson v Union Steamship Co (1884) 10 VLR (l) 279 .........................................71 Flaherty v Girgis (1987) 71 ALR 1.......................................................................................282 Fourth South Melbourne Society, Re (1883) 9 VLR (E9) 54 ...........................................41, 50 Frendo v Department of Social Security (1987) 77 ALR 682 ................................................57

6. Other citations are Commissioner of Taxation v Whitfords Beach (1982) 56 ALJR 240, 39 ALR 521

xxvi Table of Cases

Gardner Smith v Collector of Customs (1986) 66 ALR 697 ..................................................48 Genders v Ajax Insurance Co (1950) 81 CLR 470 .................................................................42 Gill and Department of Industry, Re (1985) 1 VAR 97........................................................296 Gill v Donald Humberstone [1963] 3 All ER 180 ..................................................................75 GKT Trading v Export DGB (1981) 40 ALR 375; 56 FLR 292...........................................149 Gladstone v Armstrong [1908] VLR 454................................................................................70 Grain Elevator Board v Dunmunkle Corp (1946) 73 CLR 70 ..............................................302 Grannall v Marrickville Margarine (1955) 93 CLR 55...................................................63, 248 Green v Bock Laundry Machine Co 490 US 504 (1989)..................................................36, 67 Grey v Pearson (1857) 6 HLC 61................................ 36, 40, 56, 127, 234-236, 246, 312, 359 Griffiths v Minister for Lands (2008) 235 CLR 232; [2008] HCA 20 ...................................34 GTE v Brown (1986) 76 ALR 221................................................................................ 296-297 Habib v Nationwide News [2010] NSWCA 34, [180]..........................................................229 Hallstroms v FCT (1946) 72 CLR 634 .................................................................................221 Harradine v Department of Social Security (1989) 87 ALR 305..........................................282 Haseldine v Daw [1941] 2 KB 343, [1941] All ER 524 .......................................................252 Hawkesbury Development Corporation v Landmark Finance [1969] 2 NSWR 782 ...........226 Hayes v Cable (1961) 78 WN (NSW) 735..............................................................................71 Hayes, Re; Ex parte J Wattie Canneries (1986) 70 ALR 65 .................................................296 Heydon’s Case (1584) 3 Co Rep 7a ................................................ 18, 137-141, 151, 231, 234 Hilder v Dexter [1902] 1 AC 474............................................................................................40 Hilton v FCT (1992) 110 ALR 167...............................................................................292, 297 Hoffman v Armstrong 48 NY 201 (1872) ............................................................................254 Humpheries v Poljak [1992] 2 VR 129.................................................................................311 Hunter Resources v Melville (1988) 77 ALR 8 ....................................................................302 Hynes v NYCRR (Springboard Case) (1921) 231 NY 229 ..................................................252 ICI Australia Operations v Fraser (1992) 106 ALR 257.......................................................310 Inco Europe v First Choice Distribution [2000] 2 All ER 109 ..................... 238, 241-242, 235 Ingham v Hie Lee (1912) 15 CLR 267 .................................................................................233 Inline Courier Systems v Walker [1999] 1 VR 405 ..............................................................293 Investors Compensation [1998] 1 WLR 896...........................................................................29 Isherwood v Butler Pollinow (1986) 6 NSWLR 363..............................................39, 126, 164 IW v City of Perth (1997) 191 CLR 1, 146 ALR 696...........................................125, 128, 278 Jago v District Court [1989] HCA 46; (1989) 168 CLR 23............................................57, 284 Jankovic v Minister for Immigration (1994) 35 ALD 261......................................................42 Jegatheeswaran v Minister for Immigration [2001] FCA 865 ..............................................260 John Burke v Insurance Commissioner [1963] QdR 587 .....................................................301 Johnson v Southern Pacific Co 117 Fed 462 (CCA 8th 1902) .............................................211 Johnson v Southern Pacific Co 196 US (1904).....................................................................211 Jones v Wrotham Park Estates [1980] AC 74 .................................................................39, 291 Jones v Wrotham Park Settled Estates [1976] 2 All ER 393; [1977] Ch 1...........................242 Jumbunna Coal Mine v Victorian CMA (1908) 6 CLR 309...................................................60 K & S Lake City Freighters v G & G (1985) 157 CLR 309; 60 ALR 509 ...................164, 281 Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 72 ALJR 722 ................................................................69 Kelly v R (2004) 218 CLR 216; 205 ALR 274.....................................................................125 Kelsen v Imperial Tobacco Co [1957] 2 QB 334..................................................................253 Kerr v Verran (1988) 88 ALR 125........................................................................................309 King Gee Clothing Co v Commonwealth (1945) 71 CLR 184...............................................73 Kingston v Keprose (1987) 11 NSWLR 404 ..........................90, 125, 137, 147, 155, 164, 229 Kioa v Minister for Immigration (1984) 53 ALR 658 ............................................................67 Kioa v West (1985) 159 CLR 550, 62 ALR 321 ..............................................66, 70, 235, 246 Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1981) 153 CLR 168 .................................................................70 KP Welding Constructions v Herbert (1995) 102 NTR 20...................................................290

Table of Cases xxvii

Lacey v Attorney-General (1998) 194 CLR 355 .............................................................. 21-22 Lacey v Attorney-General (2011) 85 ALJR 508 ........................................................ 21-22, 52 Langston v Langston (1834) Cl & Fin 194; 6 ER 1128........................................................236 Lanyon v Canberra Washed Sand (1965-66) 115 CLR 342 ...................................................93 Lemair (Australia) v Cahill (1993) 30 NSWLR 167 .................................................... 303-304 Lennard’s Carrying Co v Asiatic Petroleum Co [1915] AC 705 ............................................21 Lennon v Gibson and Howes [1919] AC 709.......................................................................300 Leveridge v Kennedy [1960] NZLR 1 ..................................................................................225 Liberman v Morris (1944) 69 CLR 69..................................................................................283 Lincoln College’s Case (1595) 3 Co Rep 586 ...................................................... 138-139, 234 London and North Eastern Railway Co v Berriman [1946] AC 278......................................30 Longmead’s Case (1795) 2 Leach 694 .................................................................................207 Lord Pitsligo’s Case (1750) Fost 79 .....................................................................................207 Luke v Inland Revenue Commissioners [1963] AC 557 ......................................125, 128, 155 Lyman v Hale (1836) 11 Conn Rep 177 ...............................................................................254 Macalister v R (1990) 92 ALR 39 ........................................................................................155 Magor & St Mellon’s RDC v Newport Corporation [1952] AC 189 ........................... 238-239 Magrath v Goldsbrough Mort & Co Ltd (1932) 47 CLR 121 ................................................70 Majar v Howell (1992) 7 WAR 33 .......................................................................................311 Market Investigation v Minister for Social Security [1969] 2 WLR 1 .................................220 Marshall v Director General, Department of Transport (2001) 205 CLR 603 .......................71 Marshall v Watson (1927) 124 CLR 640..............................................................................238 Masters v McCubbery [1996] 1 VR 635...............................................................................293 Maynard v O’Brien (1991) 78 NTR 16 ........................................................ 138-139, 234, 290 Mcalister v R (1990) 169 CLR 324; 92 ALR 39 ..........................................................125, 155 McBoyle v United States 283 US 25 (1931).........................................................................210 McCawley v The King (1918) 26 CLR 9, 24 ALR 413 .................................................35, 238 McCrae v Coulton (1986) 7 NSWLR 64 ................................................................................71 McGrath v Goldsborough Mort & Co (1931-32) 47 CLR 121...............................................69 McNally v United States 483 US 350 (1987) .........................................................................69 Melbourne Corporation v Barry (1922) 31 CLR 174 .............................................................63 Metal Manufacturers v Lewis (1988) 13 NSWLR 315.........................................................156 Miller v Commonwealth (1904) 1 CLR 668...................................................................39, 126 Miller v Minister for Mines [1961] NZLR 820, [1963] NZLR 560 ...............................56, 246 Mills v Meeking [1990] HCA 67;... 21, 23, 39, 85, 123, 126-127, 138-139, 146, 199, 234, 265 Minister for Immigration v Guo (1996) 144 ALR 567.........................................................255 Minister for Immigration v Mayer (1985) 61 ALR 609 ...............................................239, 246 Minister for Immigration v Petrovski (1998) 154 ALR 606...................................................67 Minister for Immigration v Sciascia (1991) 103 ALR 307.....................................................71 Minister for Immigration v Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 2738...........................................60, 71, 300 Minister for Immigration v WABQ (2002) 121 FCR 163 ....................................................299 Monier v Szabo (1992) 28 NSWLR 53 ................................................................155, 157, 293 Moradian v Minister for Immigration [2004] FCA 1590 .....................................................299 Morris v Beardsmore [1981] AC 446 ...................................................................................231 Mudginberri Station v Langhorne (1985) 68 ALR 613 ..........................................................71 Muller v BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc 923 P 2d 783, 787-788 (Alaska 1996).......................32 Municipal Officers’ Association v Lancaster (1981) 54 FLR 129; 37 ALR 559 .................278 Muscarello v US, 524 US 125 (1998).....................................................................................69 NAAV v Minister for Immigration [2002] FCAFC 228; (2002) 123 FCR 298 .....................85 Neat Holdings v Karajan Holdings (1992) 67 ALJR 170.....................................................260

7. Other citations are Mills v Meeking (1990) 169 CLR 214; (1990) 91 ALR 16 8. Other citations are Minister for Immigration v Teoh 128 ALR 353; 39 ALD 206

xxviii Table of Cases

New South Wales v Commonwealth9 (1990) 169 CLR 482.................................................219 Newcastle City Council v GIO [1997] HCA 5310 ............. 39, 57, 125, 229, 241-242, 279, 289 News Corporation, Re (1987) 70 ALR 419 ..........................................................................312 Nicol v Chant (1909) 7 CLR 569 ..................................................................................127, 231 Nonferral v Taufia (1998) 153 ALR 439 ..............................................................................282 Northern Territory v Collins (2008) 235 CLR 619 .................................................................40 O’Brien v Gillies (1990) 69 NTR 1 ........................................................................................71 O’Reilly, Re; Ex parte Bayford Wholesale (1983) 181 CLR 557 ........................................166 O’Sullivan v Farrer (1989) 89 ALR 71...........................................................................56, 241 Ombudsman v Commissioner of Police (1987) 11 NSWLR 386 .........................................310 Ombudsman v Moroney [1983] 1 NSWLR 317 ...................................................................280 Ormond Investments v Betts [1928] AC 143........................................................................302 Owen v South Australia (1996) 66 SASR 251..............................................................150, 290 Pambula District Hospital v Herriman (1988) 14 NSWLR 387 ...........................................283 Parry v Osborn [1955] VLR 152.............................................................................................74 Pennsylvania v Union Gas Co (1989) 491 US 1...................................................................155 Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593 ...............................................................................158, 290, 293 Phosphate Co-op v Environment Protection Authority (1977) 18 ALR 210....................33, 35 Pileggi v Australian Sports Drug Agency (2004) 138 FCR 107; 79 ALD 1 ........................275 Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476, [2003] HCA 2 ........................66 Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60 ..................................................................60, 300 Potter v Minahan (1908) 7 CLR 277................................................................................. 68-69 Practice Direction 1984 No 1 (High Court) 54 ALR 652 .....................................................294 Practice Note 1 (1994) 121 ALR 697....................................................................................294 President etc of Shire of Arapiles v Board of Land (1904) 1 CLR 679.............. 33, 35-36, 237 Prince of Blucher, Re [1931] 2 Ch 70...................................................................................239 Prior v Sherwood (1906) 3 CLR 1054 ....................................................................................54 Project Blue Sky v ABA (1998) 153 ALR 490...........................................................29, 38, 58 Public Service Association (SA) v Federated Clerks Union (1991) 173 CLR 132 ................69 Pyneboard v Trade Practices Commission (1982-83) 152 CLR 328 ................................63, 69 Qantas and DCT, Re (1979) 2 ALD 291...............................................................................226 R v Allen [1985] 2 All ER 641 .............................................................................................289 R v Bolton; Ex parte Beane11 (1987) 162 CLR 514 ....................... 33, 70-71, 294, 311-312 R v Broadcasting Complaints Commission; Ex parte Owen [1985] 2 All ER 522 ...... 232-233 R v Brown [1996] 2 WLR 203, 218, [1996] 1 All ER 54.......................................................59 R v Ellis (1844) 6 QB 501, 115 ER 187 ...............................................................................239 R v Hepworth [1955] 2 QB 600 ............................................................................................255 R v Jaagusta [1974] 3 WWR 766..........................................................................................226 R v L (1994) 122 ALR 464 ...........................................................................124, 146, 150, 206 R v Lavender (2005) 222 CLR 67; 218 ALR 521.................................................................301 R v Law [1961] Crim LR 52 .................................................................................................255 R v Lieschke (1986-87) 162 CLR 446 ....................................................................................68 R v Lord Chancellor; Ex parte Withan [1998] QB 575 ..........................................................66 R v McN (1963) 63 SR (NSW) 186........................................................................................45 R v Refshauge (1976) 11 ALR 471.......................................................................................245 R v Sabri Isa [1952] St R Dd ................................................................................................283 R v Secretary of State for the Home Department; Ex parte Pierson [1998] AC 539; [1997] 3 All ER 577.................................................................................66 R v Secretary of State for the Home Department;

9. Incorporation Case 10. Other citations are Newcastle City Council v GIO (1997) 191 CLR 85; 149 ALR 623. 11. Another citation is R v Bolton; Ex parte Beane 70 ALR 225, sub nom Re Bolton

Table of Cases xxix

Ex parte Simms [2000] 2 AC 115 .......................................................................... 66, 68-69 R v Smith [1974] 2 NSWLR 588..........................................................................................218 R v The Judge of the City of London Court [1892] 1 QB 273 .................................29, 34, 237 R v Wilson; Ex parte Kisch (1934) 52 CLR 234 ..................................................................238 R v Woods [1961] Crim LR 324...........................................................................................255 R v Young (1999) 46NSWLR 681 .................................................................................32, 128 Regional Director of Education v International Grammar School (1986) 7 NSWLR 302...303 Repatriation Commission v Kohn (1989) 87 ALR 111 ..........................................................29 Repatriation Commission v Vietnam VA (2000) 171 ALR 523 ..........................124, 127, 206 Richardson v Austin (1911) 12 CLR 46 .................................................................................54 Rimmer v Nissen; Ex part Nissen (1993) 113 ALR 502 ......................................................300 River Wear Commissioners v Adamson (1877) 2 App Cas 732 ....................................37, 359 Robinson v Local Board of Barton-Eccles (1883) 8 App Cas 798 .........................................44 Rodriguez v United States 480 US 522 (1987).....................................................................278 Roe v Tranmarr (1757) Willes 682 .......................................................................................236 Rogers v Resi-Statewide Corp (1991) 101 ALR 377 ...................................................292, 296 Ross v The Queen (1979) 141 CLR 432.................................................................................61 Roy Morgan Research Centre v Commissioner for State Revenue (2001) 207 CLR 72..34, 39 Royal College of Nursing v DHSS [1981] AC 800, [1981] 2 WLR 279 .............................237 Rubin v United States 449 US 424, 430, 101 S Ct .................................................................32 Ruddock v Vadarlis [2001] FCA 1329 ..................................................................................61 Saeed v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship (2010) 241 CLR 252 ..............................70 Sarasawati v R (1991) 100 ALR 193 ..............................................................................39, 310 Sargood Brothers v Commonwealth (1910) 11 CLR 258.................................................63, 68 Scarborough v US 431 US 563 (1977) ...................................................................................69 Scott v Cawley (1907) 5 CLR 132........................................................................................132 Seamen’s Union of Australia v Utah Development (1978) 22 ALR 291 .............................149 Sean Investments Pty Ltd v MacKellar (1982) 42 ALR 676 ................................................275 Secretary, Department of Social Security v Van Luc Ho (1987) 77 ALR 491.....................255 Sharpe v Wakefield [1891] 1 AC 173.............................................................................72, 244 Shearer, Re (1891) 12 LR (NSW) 24......................................................................................71 Shergold v Tanner (2002) 209 CLR 126 ................................................................................70 Sherrin Gordon Mines v FCT (1976) 10 ALR 441.................................................................43 Shire of Arapiles v Board of Land and Works (1904) 1 CLR 679 ..................... 33, 35-36, 237 Singh v Commonwealth [2004] HCA 43; (2004) 222 CLR 322 ...................... 57, 85, 282-284 Skea v Minister for Immigration (1994) 51 FCR 82 ............................................................152 Southern Foundries v Shirlaw [1940] 1 AC 701...................................................................252 Standard Oil Co of New Jersey v United States 221 US 1 (1911)................................ 228-229 State Chamber of Commerce v Commonwealth [1987] HCA 3812 ..................................... 210 Steiner v Attorney General (1983) 52 ALR 148...................................................................234 Stevens v Brodribb Sawmilling Co (1985) 63 ALR 513 ................................................22, 220 Stevens v Kabushiki Kaisha SCE (2005) 224 CLR 193 ...........................................34, 40, 282 Stewart v Liazars [1965] VR 210 ...........................................................................................55 Stock v Frank Jones (Tiplon) [1978] 1 WLR 231; [1978] 1 All ER 948 ...............................18 Stradling v Morgan (1560) 1 Plowd 200, 75 ER 305 ...........................227, 231, 233, 237, 287 Strickland v Rocla Concrete Pipes (1971) 124 CLR 568 .....................................................255 Sun World Inc v Registrar, Plant Variety Rights (1997) 148 ALR 447 ...............................282 Sussex Peerage Case (1844) 11 Cl&F 85, 143; 8 ER 1034 ..........................................137, 164 Sutherland Publishing v Caxton Publishing [1938] 1 Ch 174 ......................................125, 229 Tackiack v Commissioner of Australian Federal Police (1995) 131 ALR 319 ......................71 Tassell v Hayes (1987) 71 ALR 480.......................................................................................70

12. State Chamber of Commerce v Commonwealth (1987) 163 CLR 329

xxx Table of Cases

Taylor v Public Service Board (1976) 10 ALR 211..............................................................282 TCN Channel Nine v AMP Society (1982) 42 ALR 496 .....................................................289 Temple v City of Petersburgh 182 Va 418 (1944) ..................................................................32 Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 233 CLR 307; [2007] HCA 33.................................................284 Thompson v Byrne (1999) 161 ALR 632 .............................................................................301 Thompson v Gould [1910] AC 409 ..............................................................................238, 242 Tileska v Bevelar (1989) 4 BPR 9601 ..................................................................................253 Timbu Kolian v The Queen (1968) 119 CLR 47 .......................................................... 216-217 Tinkham v Perry [1951] 1 KB 547........................................................................................239 Tokyo Mart Pty Ltd v Campbell (1988) 15 NSWLR 275.....................................................230 Town v Eisner 245 US 418 ...................................................................................................215 Transport Accident Commissioner v Treloar [1992] 1 VR 447..............................................42 Trennerry v Bradley (1997) 115 NTR 1................................................................................290 Trevisan v FCT (1991) 29 FCR 157, 101 ALR 26 ..........................................33, 35, 123, 150 Union Trustee Co v Church of England Property Trust (1946) 46 SR (NSW) 298 .............283 United States v Fisher 1805 2 Cranch 358..............................................................................67 United States v Reid 201 F. Supp 2d 132 (Mass DC, 2002).................................................210 United States v Santos 553 US 507 (2008) .............................................................................69 Vacher v London Society of Compositors [1913] AC 107.............................................29, 288 Victims Compensation Fund v Brown (2002) 54 NSWLR 668 ...........................................278 Victims Compensation Fund v Brown [2003] HCA 5413 .....................................................265 Victoria v Commonwealth14 (1996) 187 CLR 416 .................................................................62 Victoria v Commonwealth (PMA Case) (1975) 134 CLR 81...............................................226 Wacal Developments v Realty Developments (1978) 20 ALR 621 ....... 39, 126-127, 292, 296 Wacando v Commonwealth (1981) 37 ALR 317..........................................................292, 296 Wakim, Re (1999) 198 CLR 511 ..........................................................................................249 Ward v Commissioner of Police (1998) 151 ALR 604.......................... 282-283, 292, 296-297 Ward v R (1980) 29 ALR 175...............................................................................................283 Warumungu Land Claim, Re; Ex parte Attorney General (1987) 77 ALR 27 .....282, 292, 296 Waterman v Soper (1697) 1 Ld Raymond 737 .....................................................................254 Wentworth Securities v Jones [1980] AC 74 ................................................................217, 241 Western Australia v AH [2010] WASCA 172 ......................................................................299 Western Australia v Commonwealth15 (1975) 134 CLR 201, 7 ALR 159 ...........................236 Whelan and Department of Defence, Re (1997) 47 ALD 383......................................295, 304 Whiteley v Chappell (1868) LR 4 QB 147 .............................................................................38 Widgee Shire Council v Bonney (1907) 4 CLR 977 ..............................................................74 Wik Peoples v Queensland (1996) 187 CLR 1 .......................................................................21 Wills v Bowley [1983] AC 57.................................................................................................17 Woolworths Ltd v Crotty (1942) 66 CLR 603......................................................................282 Yougarla v Western Australia (1998) 146 FLR 128 .............................................................310 YZ Finance Co v Cummings [1964] ALR 667 .......................................................................45 Zheng v Cai [2009] HCA 52 ................................................................................. 23, 53, 85-86

13. Another citation is Victims Compensation Fund v Brown (2003) 77 ALJR 1797; 201 ALR 260 14. Industrial Relations Case 15. Territorial Senators Case

xxxi

Table of Diagrams

Preface Preface Diagram 1. Model for Interpreting Statutes ............................................ iii Labels Labels Diagram 1. Symbols for Relationships .....................................................xli Labels Diagram 2. List of Meanings ....................................................................xli Labels Diagram 3. Meanings and Effects.............................................................xli Labels Diagram 4. Symbols Used for Probability............................................. xliii Summary Summary Diagram 1. Model for Interpreting Statutes..................................... xlvii Summary Diagram 2. Model for Interpreting Statutes: Expanded Version ..... xlvii Summary Diagram 3. Data for a Hypothetical Statute.................................... xlviii Summary Diagram 4. Micro Analysis of a Legal Rule ................................... xlviii Chapter 1 Statutes Diagram 1.1 Elements and Consequences..............................................................7 Chapter 2 Components of a Statute Diagram 2.1 Functions of the Maxims of Interpretation......................................53 Chapter 3 Policy Diagram 3.1 Policy: Causation and Evaluation....................................................78 Diagram 3.2 Policy: Causation and Evaluation....................................................83 Chapter 4 Legal Method Diagram 4.1 Model for Organising Law ..............................................................89 Diagram 4.2 Model for Applying Law.................................................................97 Diagram 4.3 Syllogism for Applying Law to Facts .............................................98 Diagram 4.4 Model for Using Law ......................................................................99 Diagram 4.5 Model for Litigation ......................................................................100 Diagram 4.6 Model for Litigation: Operational Version....................................101 Diagram 4.7 Model for Transactions .................................................................101 Diagram 4.8 Model for Interpreting Statutes .....................................................104 Chapter 5 Model for Enacting Statutes Diagram 5.1 Model for Enacting a Statute.........................................................106 Diagram 5.2 Making the Decision .....................................................................107 Diagram 5.3 Options for Statutes .......................................................................110 Diagram 5.4 Statutes, Effects and Net Benefits .................................................116

xxxii Table of Diagrams

Chapter 6 Major Problems Diagram 6.1 Model for Enacting Statutes ......................................................... 133 Diagram 6.2 Model for Interpreting Statutes..................................................... 133 Diagram 6.3 Nature of Proximity ...................................................................... 135 Chapter 7 Purpose and Object Rule Diagram 7.1 Legislative Sources for the Purpose and Object Rule................... 142 Diagram 7.2 Analysis of Purpose and Object Rule: Version 1 ......................... 144 Diagram 7.3 Analysis of Purpose and Object Rule: Version 2 ......................... 145 Diagram 7.4 Meanings and Effects.................................................................... 148 Chapter 8 Model for Interpreting Statutes Diagram 8.1 Model for Interpreting Statutes..................................................... 168 Diagram 8.2 Meanings....................................................................................... 169 Diagram 8.3 Options for Interpreting a Statute ................................................. 171 Chapter 9 Organising the Rule Diagram 9.1 Micro Analysis of a Legal Rule.................................................... 180 Diagram 9.2 Element and Sub-Elements........................................................... 182 Diagram 9.3 Elements of Section 46(1) ............................................................ 186 Chapter 10 Identifying the Issue Figure 10.1 Two Ways of Designating Meanings ............................................. 190 Figure 10.2 Explaining Ambiguity .................................................................... 191 Figure 10.3 Explaining the Effect of Ambiguity ............................................... 192 Chapter 11 Identifying Meanings and Effects Diagram 11.1 Meanings and Effects.................................................................. 202 Chapter 12 Meanings: Nature of Ambiguity Diagram 12.1 Meanings and Effects.................................................................. 205 Diagram 12.2 Effect of Ambiguity on Litigation .............................................. 208 Diagram 12.3 Analysis of the Effect of Ambiguity........................................... 209 Diagram 12.4 Types of Ambiguity .................................................................... 211 Diagram 12.5 Daisy Bell: Extract ..................................................................... 213 Diagram 12.6 Daisy Bell: Extract...................................................................... 213 Chapter 13 Meanings: Classification of Ambiguity Diagram 13.1 Types of Ambiguity .................................................................... 215 Diagram 13.2 Elements of Section 8-1.............................................................. 222 Chapter 14 Causation Diagram 14.1 Meanings and Effects.................................................................. 257

Table of Diagrams xxxiii

Chapter 15 Effects Diagram 15.1 Meanings and Effects ..................................................................261 Diagram 15.2 Statutes, Predicted Effects and Actual Effects ............................263 Chapter 19 Extrinsic Sources of Policy Diagram 19.1 Legislative Sources for the Extrinsic Material Rule....................292 Diagram 19.2 Formulas for Adequacy ...............................................................297 Chapter 20 Identifying the Correct Meaning Diagram 20.1 Identifying the Correct Meaning .................................................316 Diagram 20.2 Options for Interpreting a Statute ................................................318 Diagram 20.3 Dates of Commencement of Policy Rules for Statutory Interpretation ..............................................................................325 Chapter 21 Illustration: Hypothetical Case Diagram 21.1 Elements and Consequences........................................................329 Diagram 21.2 Summary of Purpose and Object.................................................336 Chapter 22 Writing the Opinion Diagram 22.1 Devices for Displaying Information Clearly ...............................340 Chapter 23 Defining the Problems Diagram 23.1 Problems with the Major Rules of Interpretation ........................346 Diagram 23.2 Intention = Preference for a Purpose or Object ...........................349 Diagram 23.3 Intention = Preference for a Meaning..........................................351 Diagram 23.4 Intention = Preference for a Meaning and an Effect ...................352 Chapter 24 Proposing the Solutions Diagram 24.1 Legislative History of Sections 15AA and 15AB .......................358 Appendix 1 Legislation Diagram Appendix 1.1 List of Legislation.........................................................370 Diagram Appendix 1.2. Legislative History of s15AA and s15AB...................372 Appendix 2 Approaches to Interpretation Diagram Appendix 2.1 Meanings and Actual and Desired Effects....................390

xxxv

Table of Latin and French Expressions

a fortiori ........................................................................................................................ 234 actus reus......................................................................................................................... 19 ad medium filum............................................................................................................. 92 ad medium filum aquae................................................................................................... 93 ad medium filum viae ..................................................................................................... 93 bona vacantia .................................................................................................................. 77 casus male inclusus ....................................................................................................... 232 casus omissus ................................................................................................................ 233 causa justitiae ................................................................................................................ 360 construere.......................................................................................................................... 3 cuius est solum eius usque ad coelum et ad inferos................................................ 92, 253 eiusdem generis......................................................................................... 54, 55, 244, 245 entia non sunt multiplicanda ............................................................................................. 2 ex turpi causa non oritur actio....................................................................................... 243 exegi monumentum aere perennius .................................................................................. 3 expressio unius exclusio alterius est ..................................................................54-55, 240 generalia specialibus non derogant ........................................................... 54, 56, 245, 251 habeas corpus .......................................................................................................... 57, 284 in claris non fit interpretatio.................................................................................. 127, 205 in pari materia ......................................................................................................... 59, 234 intra vires ........................................................................................................................ 74 leges posteriores contrarias abrogant .............................................................. 56, 247, 251 littera ................................................................................................................. 28, 32, 358 lucet ipsa per se............................................................................................................... 29 Magna Carta............................................................................................................ 57, 284 medium filum.............................................................................................................92-93 mens rea .................................................................................................................. 19, 243 noscitur a sociis........................................................................................54, 244-245, 279 prior est tempore potior est iure ............................................................................ 251, 254 pro bono publico ....................................................................................139-140, 151, 234 pro privato commodo.............................................................................................139-140 quando lex aliquid concedit concedere videtur et illud sine quo res ipsa valere non potest ........................................................................................ 63, 248 quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit ...................................................................92, 253-254 ratio decidendi....................................................................................................... 175, 322 reddendo singula singulis........................................................................................... xxxix stant in claris ................................................................................................................. 127 travaux preparatoires..................................................................................................... 287 ultra vires ........................................................................................................................ 74 usque ad medium filum viae ........................................................................................... 93 ut res valeat magis quam pereat ........................................................ 61, 74, 152, 236, 244

xxxvii

Labels

Introduction Describing Items Listing Items Diagrams Probability

Introduction

Discussion in this publication refers to items such as a statute or a meaning of an ambiguous provision. Often these are part of a collection, list, range or set of items. Frequently the text puts them in a diagram where they represent a model or a step on the way to explaining a model. The purpose here is to explain the labelling system used to refer to these items.

Describing Items Labelling Items

There are several aspects to labelling the items in a set, range, list or collection. These are name, number, letter and designating a set of items. Name The name of an item commences with a capital letter. Some examples are Element, Statute and Meaning. Number Items in a set, range, list or collection are generally numbered. For example, the elements of a legal rule are labelled Element 1, Element 2, Element 3 and so on. These numbers are ways of identifying elements and distinguishing one from another. They are generally not intended to create any list according to preferences or values. Letter Items in a set, range, list or collection can be lettered. For example a list of statutes can be Statute A, Statute B and so on. Designating a Set of Items It is useful to designate a set of items with a single and simple tag. Here is an outline. The basic proposition is that a simple and obvious tag has two aspects: 1. Description. Use a written label on the items as a tag or description. Put it in plural form. Thus a tag for a set of statutes would be ‘Elements’.

xxxviii Labels

2. Numbers. After the tag add a space then a compound numerical tag consisting of three items: 2.1 The number of the first item in the set. 2.2 A hyphen. 2.3 The number of the last item in the set. Here are two illustrations: 1. A set of six elements would be Elements 1-6. 2. A set of elements where the number can vary from situation to situation is written as Elements 1-n. 1. Naming the Items The item has a name, which is usually obvious. For example each statute in a set of statutes would bear the name ‘Statute’, and each elements in a set of elements would be ‘Element’. 2. Numbering the Items There are two possibilities for the numbering of a set, list or range of items: 1. There can be a fixed number in the set. 2. There can be a variable number in the set. 2.1 Fixed Number in the Set In a particular instance there may be a specific number of items in a set. For example a particular legal rule might be composed of five elements. In this case the first and last numbers designate the number of items in the set or range. In this example of a set of five elements, one would designate the set as ‘Elements 1-5’. 2.2 Variable Number in the Set Sometimes the text refers to a set or a list in general terms in cases where the number of items in the set can vary from situation to situation. In this event, the way to go is to number the last item with the symbol ‘n’. To refresh readers, ‘n’ stands for however many there are on a particular occasion. An example would be a general discussion about elements of a legal rule. In this case the possibilities vary from legal rule to legal rule. Thus the designation of this set of items is Elements 1-n.

Null Option There is a special case with options where one of the options is to do nothing and leave things as they are. This occurs, for example, with the proposed making of a statute where one option is just not to enact a statute. In a case such as this the option is labelled with the symbol for nought, namely ‘0’. Thus the

Labels xxxix

option not to enact a statute is designated as Statute 0. Statute 0 represents the null option – it is the option for a legislature not to enact a statute on a topic whereas Statutes 1, 2 3 and so on are options for different versions of a statute on a topic (on the basis that there is no form of a statute that can better present conditions). Given this the full set or range of possible statutes for a legislature to enact consists of Statutes 0-n.

Corresponding Items Sometimes there are sets with corresponding items. This can occur for a number of reasons. Here are two examples: 1. For making and interpreting law, items correspond because of causation. Each version of a statute on a subject and each meaning of an ambiguous provision will cause an effect if a legislature enacts the statute or if a court declares the meaning to be legally correct. 2. In the model for litigation, elements and facts correspond because each element delineates a category of facts so that in a particular case the element is satisfied by a fact that falls within that category. Similarly, facts and evidence correspond because each fact is proved or potentially provable by some evidence. Single Relationships Corresponding items are labelled with the same number or letter. Here are some illustrations: 1. Statutes, Meanings and their Predicted Effects. Statute 0 is predicted to cause Effect 0, Statute 1 is predicted to cause Effect 1, Statute 2 is predicted to cause Effect 2 and so on. Meaning 1 is predicted to causes Effect 1, Meaning 2 is predicted to cause Effect 2 and so on. Similarly, Statute X (or Meaning X) is predicted to cause Effect X while Statute Y (or Meaning Y) is predicted to cause Effect Y. 2. Facts Satisfying Elements. Fact 1 is the label given to a fact that fits within or satisfies Element 1, Fact 2 is the label given to a fact that fits within or satisfies Element 2 and so on. 3. Evidence Proving Facts. Evidence 1 is the label given to evidence that might prove or has proved Fact 1, Evidence 2 is the label given to evidence that might prove or has proved Fact 2, and so on. Collective Relationships It is possible to use labels of correspondence to make collective statements. Here are some examples: Statutes 0-n are predicted to cause Effects 0-n, while Evidence 1-n is capable of proving Facts 1-n. To construe these collective statements properly it is necessary to apply the maxim reddendo singula

xl Labels

singulis. Literally this says that each is rendered on their own. In plainer language, the items are to be taken singularly so the each item in the first list is paired with the corresponding item in the second list. The adverb ‘respectively’ captures this notion.

Two or More Version of an Item There may be two or more versions of an item. Additional letters or numbers can distinguish the different versions. For example: 1. If Element 2 is ambiguous because it has two meanings, the versions of Element 2 can be designated Element 2A and Element 2B. 2. There can be two versions of a fact. There are two major possibilities: 2.1 In a case there may be two versions of Fact 2 because the plaintiff propounds one and the defendant propounds the other. These can be designated ‘P’ and ‘D’ to signify the plaintiff and defendant’s version. Thus the two versions are Fact 2P and Fact 2D. 2.2 After investigating the facts of a case the defendant may find that there is evidence to support two versions of one of the facts in their case. These are facts that the defendant could use to rebut the plaintiff’s satisfying Element 3. The defendant or the court could designate these as Fact 3D.1 and Fact 3D.2.

Subdivisions of Items It is possible to designate subdivisions of an item with a numbering system that invokes the form but not the meaning of decimal points. Thus if Element 2 has three sub-elements, one can designate them as Element 2.1, Element 2.2, and Element 2.3. If Element 2.2 has three sub-elements we can designate these as Element 2.2.1, Element 2.2.2 and Element 2.2.3. Obviously this form of numbering adapts to any number of levels of subdivision.

Possibilities: ‘X’, ‘Y’, Etc Sometimes the text needs to refer to any option, that is, to an option in general terms. Conveniently this is labelled with a capital letter. Commonly, this is the letter X, so that a general option for a legislature wishing to pass a statute is Statute X. Naturally, if there is a need to refer to more than one option additional letters may be used. For example, there could be reference to Statute X and Statute Y; in this case Statute X is one possible statute and Statute Y is another possible statute.

Signifying Relationships Sometimes it is necessary to signify a relationship between two items. This can be done using standard symbols. This table sets out the major possibilities:

Labels xli

Symbol Relationship Illustration < Less than X<Y. X is less than Y. > Greater than X>Y. X is greater than Y. = Equals X=Y. X equals Y, ≠ Not Equals X≠Y. X does not equal Y. ≈ Approximately Equals X≈Y. X is approximately equal to Y. ≡ Congruence Relationship X≡Y. X is congruent with Y. ≅ Isomorphic X≅Y. X is structurally identical to Y

Labels Diagram 1. Symbols for Relationships

Listing Items Where there is a list, for example a list of the meanings of an ambiguous provision, we can set these out in the text as a series – Meaning 1, Meaning 2 ... Meaning n. In the text, as we have noted, the range can be efficiently represented as Meanings 1-n. In a table they are set out as a list in the following way:

Meanings Meaning 1 Meaning 2 Meaning n Labels Diagram 2. List of Meanings

In this presentation it is not strictly necessary to include Meaning 2. Indeed, it is actually redundant, when n=2. However, it usefully emphasises the sense of a list that sets out the range of options or possibilities.

Diagrams Lists in a table can connect corresponding item to become a diagram or figure. In the diagram below, one main column sets out the meanings of an ambiguous provision in a statute in Statute X while the other sets out the effect for the whole statute that each meaning is predicted to cause:

1 2 3 Meanings → Effects 1 Meaning 1 Effect 1 2 Meaning 2 Effect 2 3 Meaning n Effect n 4

Labels Diagram 3. Meanings and Effects

xlii Labels

This diagram functions in the following way: * Column 1 shows the meanings of the ambiguous provision, being Meanings 1-n. * Column 3 shows the effect of the statue that each meaning is predicted to cause if a court chooses them as the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision. Let us flesh this out. Every statute that is enacted causes a number of outcomes. The author refers to the full collection of outcomes that a statute is predicted to cause as an effect. When a court interprets a statute it is faced with the basic options in terms of the range of meanings of the ambiguous provision that gives rise to the need to interpret the statute. The diagram labels these meanings as Meanings 1-n. If a court decides that Meaning 1 is the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision that decision is likely to have an impact on the effect that the whole statute will cause. Column 3, as stated, sets out this effect, the effect of the whole statute, for Meaning 1. In a similar way it sets out the effect for each other meaning of the ambiguous provision. This method of identifying the effects of each meaning caters for the constitutional rule in each Australian jurisdiction that requires a court to interpret a statute in the way that will ‘best achieve’ the purpose and object for which the legislature enacted the statute. Now the purpose or object of a statute is to cause some effect or outcome. Hence the term ‘Effect’ aligns directly with purpose and object (which of course is why the table includes it). * Column 2 contains an arrow pointing from the Column 1 to Column 3, thereby indicating that each meaning in Column 1 is predicted to cause the statute to have the corresponding effect in Column 3. * Columns 1-3 indicate meanings and their predicted effects. Assume for the purposes of the explanation that a court is interpreting an ambiguous provision in Statute X that has Meanings 1-3: 1. If a court chooses Meaning 1 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 1. 2. If a court chooses Meaning 2 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 2. 3. If a court chooses Meaning 3 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X will cause Effect 3.

Probability A number of symbols are used for probability. This diagram shows the common symbols and their meanings: Symbol Meaning P(A) probability that event A occurs P(B) probability that event B occurs

Labels xliii

P(A B) probability that event A or event B occurs (A union B) P(A B) probability that event A and event B both occur (A intersection B) P(A’) probability that event A does not occur P(A | B) probability that event A occurs given that event B has occurred

already (conditional probability) P(B | A) probability that event B occurs given that event A has occurred

already (conditional probability) P(B | A’) probability that event B occurs given that event A has not occurred

already (conditional probability) φ the empty set = an impossible event S the sample space = an event that is certain to occur

Labels Diagram 4. Symbols Used for Probability

xlv

Summary

Rules for Interpreting Statutes Model for Interpreting Statutes Step 1. Rule Step 2. Issues Step 3. Meanings and Effects Step 4. Purpose and Object Step 5. Correct Meaning Step 6. Opinion

Introduction

This book describes a model for interpreting statutes that assists lawyers to interpret a statute according to the two fundamental rules, the purpose and object rule and the extrinsic material rule. The aim is to prescribe a method or model that ensure that a user interprets a statute effectively and in accordance with the requirements of these two rules. The purpose of the summary is to outline this method or model.

Rules for Interpreting Statutes There are two fundamental rules for interpreting statutes, the purpose and object rule and the extrinsic material rule. These rules are largely similar among the Australian jurisdictions. Purpose and Object Rule A statutory requirement in the Interpretation Act of each Australian jurisdiction commands a court to interpret statutes (and instruments made under statutes) by reference to their purpose or object. This rule takes much the same form and effect in each jurisdiction. It is known as the purpose and object rule. Purpose and object derive from the policy of the legislature that enacted the statute. The purpose or object of a statute is to cause some effect. It is useful to conceive this as an ‘intended effect’ to incorporate the notion that the purpose or object of a statute is to cause this effect. Note that this book uses the term ‘effect’ in the singular as a convenient expression to capture what is really a cluster or conglomeration of specific effects. In essence the purpose and object rule requires a courts to interpret a statute not only in accordance with the letter of the law but, within the limits that the words of the statute impose, courts must also interpret by reference to the spirit of the law. This rule operates in much the same form in the Commonwealth, the six states – Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia,

xlvi Summary

Western Australia – and three major territories, Norfolk Island, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.1 Section 15AA(1) of the Acts

Interpretation Act 1901 will illustrate the rule. It provides as follows:

15AA Interpretation best achieving Act's purpose or object In interpreting a provision of an Act, the interpretation that would best achieve the purpose or object of the Act (whether or not that purpose or object is expressly stated in the Act) is to be preferred to each other interpretation.

Extrinsic Material Rule Most of the Australian jurisdictions (with South Australia as the exception) have enacted legislation to allow courts access to extrinsic material in order to ascertain the meaning of ambiguous words in a statute of a statute.2 Logically this allows courts to seek evidence of the purpose of object of the legislation because that throws light on the intended meaning. Some obvious major sources are the second reading speech of the member of parliament who is proposing the bill for the statute and the explanatory memorandum for the statute.

Model for Interpreting Statutes Introduction There is a model for interpreting a statute that consists of six steps. There now follows a brief outline and an expanded outline of the model. Brief Outline of the Model This table sets out the brief version:

Step 1. Rule Organising the Rule Step 2. Issues Identifying the Issues Step 3. Meanings and Effects Identifying the Meanings and Effects Step 4. Purpose and Object Identifying the Purpose and Object Step 5. Correct Meaning Identifying the Correct Meaning

1. Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth) s15AA, Acts Interpretation Act 1954 (Qld) s14A, Interpretation Act 1987 (NSW) s33, Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic) s35, Acts Interpretation Act 1915 (SA) s22, Acts Interpretation Act 1931 (Tas) s8A, Interpretation Act 1984 (WA) s18, Legislation Act 2001 (ACT) s138, Interpretation Act 1979 (NI) s10C, Interpretation Act (NT) s62A. Section 22(2) of the Acts Interpretation Act 1915 (SA) provides that s22 does not operate to create or extend any criminal liability. 2. Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth) s15AB, Acts Interpretation Act 1954 (Qld) s14B, Interpretation Act 1987 (NSW) s34, Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic) s35, Interpretation Act 1984 (WA) s19, Acts Interpretation Act 1931 (Tas) s8B, Interpretation Act (NT) s62B, Legislation Act 2001 (ACT) s139 which replaced s11B of the Interpretation Act 1967, Interpretation Act 1979 (NI) s10D.

Summary xlvii

Step 6. Opinion Writing the Opinion Summary Diagram 1. Model for Interpreting Statutes

Expanded Outline of the Model Lawyers are not used to working with models. Therefore it may help readers to present an expanded form of these steps, which the diagram below sets out:

Step 1. Rule

Organising the rule that contains the provision in the statute that needs to be interpreted.

Step 2. Issues

Identifying the issues that give rise to the need to interpret this provision in the statute.

Step 3. Options

Identifying two items that constitute the issues: 1. The meanings of the ambiguous provision. 2. The effects that each meaning would cause the statute to have if the court were to choose t as the correct legal meaning.

Step 4. Purpose and Object Identifying the purpose and object of the statute Step 5. Correct Meaning

Identifying the correct legal meaning of the ambiguous provision. This is the meaning that will enable the statute to best achieve its purpose and object.

Step 6. Opinion

There are two aspects: 1. A lawyer writes an opinion as to how a court is likely to interpret the statute. 2. A judge writes a judgment that incorporates their interpretation of a statute in a case.

Summary Diagram 2 Model for Interpreting Statutes: Expanded Version Data This account of how to interpret a statute incorporates an illustration. This illustration is based on data for a statute, not a real statute but an abstract statute. This is the data: 1. A legislature has enacted a statute, Statute X. 2. In enacting, the legislature had a purpose and object. This purpose and object was directed to causing some effect. For Statute X the purpose and object is to cause Effect X. An alternative terminology is that Effect X is the desired or intended Effect X. 3. A court is now interpreting an ambiguous provision in Statute X. 4. This ambiguous provision has two meanings. These are labelled Meaning 1 and Meaning 2. 5. As a matter of simple reasoning, if a court were to choose one of these meaning as the legally correct meaning of the statute it would play a part in causing the total effect of Statute X. However, generally it is possible to know such an effect only as a prediction. For this illustration these are the predictions:

xlviii Summary

5.1 If the court were to determine Meaning 1 to be the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision in Statute X, the prediction is that Statute X will cause an effect that is labelled Effect 1. 5.1 If the court were to determine Meaning 2 to be the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision in Statute X, the prediction is that Statute X will cause an effect that is labelled Effect 2. The following diagram captures the key propositions in this data. It refers to the purpose and object of Statute X by an alternative label being the intended effect of Statute X. This assists the reader by heightening the contrast in relation to Statute X between its predicted effect and its intended effect because this distinction is fundamental to the task of interpretation:

Statute → Intended Effect of Statute X Statute X Effect X

Meanings → Predicted Effect of Statute X Meaning 1 Effect 1 Meaning 2 Effect 2

Summary Diagram 3 Data for a Hypothetical Statute

Step 1. Rule Step 1 entails organising the rule that contains the ambiguity by setting out its element and consequences. This illustration assumes that the interpreter has carried out Step 1. The following diagram illustrates micro analysis of a legal rule in abstract form. This rule has Elements 1-n and Consequences 1-n:

Elements Element 1 Element 2 Element n ↓ Consequences Consequence 1 Consequence 2 Consequence n Summary Diagram 4 Micro Analysis of a Legal Rule

Summary xlix

Step 2. Issues For Step 2 it is necessary to check each element in turn against each of the facts of the case (as best known at this stage) to see if there is a fact that satisfies each element. In the simple case the answer is a definite yes or no. But if an element is ambiguous the answer will consists of ‘maybe’ – the fact may or may not satisfy the element depending on which meaning of the ambiguous part of the element is legally correct. This illustration assumes that the interpreter has carried out Step 2.

Step 3. Meanings and Effects Step 3 builds on the work in Step 2. It has two parts: 3.1 Identifying the meanings that give rise to the ambiguity. 3.2 Making a prediction for each meaning, that is, Meaning 1 and Meaning 2. To make this prediction it is necessary to take each meaning in turn and engage in a ‘what if’ analysis. Ask this question: if a court were to choose this meaning as the legally correct meaning of the statute, what total effect would the statute then cause? According to the data set out above in the text and in the diagram, these are the predicted outcomes: 3.2.1 With Meaning 1 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X would cause an effect that is labelled Effect 1. 3.2.2 With Meaning 2 as the legally correct meaning the prediction is that Statute X would cause an effect that is labelled Effect 2. While the account above of Step 3 seems simple, it is not an easy task to perform, especially if a statute has any complexity. There are two common sources of difficulty. These involve ignorance or uncertainty about two matters: 1. The environment – the facts and the circumstances – in which the legal rule will operate. 2. The relevant causal laws that determine the effect of a statute.

Step 4. Purpose and Object Step 4 consists of identifying the purpose and object of the statute. This is necessary because the basic rule of interpretation in Australian jurisdictions is that a courts must choose as the legally correct meaning of an ambiguous provision the meaning that has the following property: if the court chooses this meaning as the correct legal meaning the predicted effect of the statute comes closer to achieving the effect that constitutes the purpose and object of the legislators who enacted the statute than would the predicted effect of any other meaning. As indicated above, for the purposes of this explanation we assume that a legislature has enacted Statute X with the purpose and object of causing

l Summary

Effect X. So, achieving Effect X, or as close as possible to it, is the target of this exercise in interpretation.

Step 5. Correct Meaning Step 5 is to identify the correct meaning of the ambiguous provision. Is it Meaning 1 or is it Meaning 2? The answer to this question depends on examining the predicted effects of Statute X in two situations – when Meaning 1 is correct and when Meaning 2 is correct. In Step 3 we identified these effects as Effect 1 for the case of Meaning 1 being the correct legal meaning and Effect 2 for the case of Meaning 2 being the correct legal meaning. So the question is this. In the language of the purpose and object, which of the two meanings would cause Statute X to ‘best achieve’ Effect X? The answer to these questions is the legally correct meaning of the ambiguous provision. To put this in even plainer language, which of these two effects, Effect 1 and Effect 2, come closest to achieving Effect X? As with Step 3, it is easy enough to describe Step 5 but is may be difficult to perform it. Performing Step 5 involves measurement. There is no ready yardstick for the task – this is the problem that haunts social science, namely incommensurability.

Step 6. Opinion Once they have interpreted the statute the lawyer or judge writes an opinion. A lawyer writes an opinion for a client, for a fellow lawyer or for a file on a matter. The court will write an opinion in the form of a judgment when it interprets the statute. The basic advice for writing an opinion is founded on a fundamental proposition to the effect that three things are necessary for clear writing namely structure, structure and structure. The point to structure is to ensure that each and every part of the text connects in a functional way. In plainer language there is an intelligible flow of ideas. The obvious advice is to structure the judgment by reference to the five preceding steps in the model for interpreting a statute. How the writer does this depends on the identity and circumstances of their readers.