a history of ireland, scotland and wales - a course by dr. lizabeth johnson - olli at unm

Celtic pre-historyMap of Beaker folk finds, from Wikipedia.•Beaker folk, circa 2000 BCE

Celtic pre-historyMap of Urnfield finds, from Wikipedia.•Urnfield culture, circa 1200 BCE

Beaker grave items (including wrist-guard and arrow heads) from Culduthel, Inverness-shire, Scotland, held in the National Museums of Scotland.

Urnfield culture finds. Held in the Universitätsmuseum für Kulturgeschichte, Marburg, Hesse, Germany.

Celtic pre-history•The languages• Indo-European•Common Celtic, circa 1000 BCE•P and Q Celtic, circa 300 BCE

Indo-European

Germanic

English and modern Germanic languages

Romance/Latinate

French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian

Common Celtic(all Continental Celtic dialects now extinct)

Q Celtic/Goidelic

Irish, Scottish, Manx

Son of = macHead = ceann

P Celtic/Brythonic

Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Cumbric (Cumbric extinct)

Son of= map, apHead = pen

Hallstatt culture, c.1200-500 BC (yellow) and La Tene, 500 BCE-500 CE (green). Hallstatt excavated by Johann Georg Ramsauer in the mid-19th century CE. La Tene excavated in mid-19th century.

Illustration of Hallstatt graves, discovered in 1846 in Austria.

Hochdorf burial goods, c. 530 BCE. Discovered in 1977 near Hochdorf an der Enz, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. Some pieces at the on site museum, others at the Kunst der Kelten, Historiches Museum, Bern.

The Hochdorf sword (made of bronze and iron, but covered by gold foil after death).

The Hochdorf shoes.

The Hochdorf crater, with lion detail (made of bronze; height 80 cm; diameter 104 cm; capacity 500 liters).

The Vix gold torc, c. 500 BCE. Discovered at Vix (excavations from 1930-1953), now housed at the Musée du Pays du Châtillonnais à Catillon-sur-Seine, France.

The Vix crater (made of bronze; height 5 ft; diameter 4.2 ft). Made in Greece or southern Italy.

The Gundestrup Cauldron, 2nd-1st century BCE (made of bronze; height 42 cm; diameter 69 cm). The Cauldron is La Tene, but was found in Gundestrup, Denmark in a bog. Housed in National Museum of Denmark.

Details from the Gundestrup cauldron. Left—warriors playing carnyxes (war horns); right—warrior with boar helmet.

Detail from the Gundestrup cauldron. Cernunnos (the Horned God).

Detail of the Gundestrup cauldron. Human sacrifice or cauldron of rebirth?

Migration begins in the early La Tene era, 400-200 BCE.Map from Barry Cunliffe’s The Ancient Celts.

Celts in Asia Minor. Map from Barry Cunliffe’s The Ancient Celts.

The Dying Gaul, 230-220 BCE. Capitoline Museum, Rome.

Celtic warrior and wife, 3rd century BCE. Museo Nazionale delle Terme, Rome.

Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul.Bust c. late 1st century BCE, Vienna Museum of Art History

• Celtic and Roman early history• The battle of Allia, 390 BCE

• Conflict with Celtic/Gaulish tribes, 150-80 BCE• Julius Caesar made proconsul of Gaul, 59-51 BCE• Arverni tribe and Vercingetorix• Battle of Alesia, 52 BCE• Gaul largely conquered by 51 BCE; ruled by Rome until 480s CE

Vercingetorix statue at Alesia, created 1865 by Aimé Millet. Vercingetorix gold coin, circa mid-1st century BCE

Agris helmet, 350 BCEFound buried in a cave in Agris, France. Housed in Musée d’Angoulême.

Romanian bird helmet, 3rd century BCE. Found in a cemetery in Ciumeşti, Romania. Housed at the National Museum of Romanian History.

The Waterloo helmet, 150-50 BCE, found in the River Thames. Housed in the British Museum.

Old Sarum Hill fort, Britain. Inhabited on and off since 3000 BCE.

Tara, Ireland. Site contains a neolithic tomb, dating to c. 3400 BCE, and an iron age/La Tene hillfort. Also the site associated with high kingship rituals.

Recreation of a British/Celtic round house.

Lindow Man, 3rd-2nd century BCE and Danebury Fort burial, 3rd-2nd century BCE. Lindow Man found in Chesire, England. Danebury Fort Burial in Danebury Fort, England.Both housed in the British Museum.

Entremot warrior heads. Entremot a La Tene site in France, but destroyed c. 120 BCE by Romans.

.

Pillars for heads. A La Tene ritual center at Roquepertuse, France. Destroyed c. 120 BCE by Romans.

The Roman Conquest of BritainMap from Nora Chadwick, The Celts.

• Catuvellauni• Cassivellaunus, fl. 54 BCE• Cunobelinus, fl. 42 CE• Caratacus, fl. 50 CE

• Iceni• Prasutagus, d. 61 CE• Boudicca, d. 61 CE

• Brigantes• Cartimandua, fl. 50-70 CE

• Boudica’s revolt, 61 CE• Burned Colchester, London, and St. Albans

• Britain “settled” by 84 CE; ruled by Rome until 409 CE

Left—Boudica statue, by Thomas Thornycroft, 1905, near Houses of Parliament, London; right—Boudica silver coin, c. 61 CE, historyfiles.co.uk

The Romans in IrelandMap from Nora Chadwick, The Celts.

•The influence of Rome in Ireland• Loughshinny• Emain Macha•Ogam/ogham

Ogam script

The Romans in Pictland/Scotland •The Picti•A Latin term meaning painted or tattooed people, appearing in a Roman text c. 300 CE

•Cruithne (Q-Celtic form of Pretani/Welsh Prydain)•An Irish term referring to the people who lived in the north of Britain

•Hadrian’s Wall, c. 122 •Antonine Wall, c. 142 •No further attempt to conquer Pictish territory after 211

Kintore Stone. Class 1 Pictish stone. V and crest with dolphin or other sea animal.

Other side of Kintore Stone. Salmon and rod with double discs.

Aberlemno 1. Class 1 stone. Serpent, double disc, and z rod, with mirror.

Brandsbutt stone, Class 1. Ogham, serpent, v and crest.

Romanization and Christianity

•Pre-Christian religious belief• Priestly class = druids• From Indo-European words for ‘oak’ (drus) and ‘know’ (wid)

• Sacred places = nemed• Belief in the afterlife• Transmigration of the soul (in works by Pythagorus)

• Polytheism


•Britain/Wales• Influence of Rome• Constantine the Great’s Edict of Milan, 313 • Pelagius, fl. 400 • Withdrawal of Roman legions, 409/410 • Visit from Bishop Germanus of Auxerre, c. 429, to

combat Pelagianism•Gildas, fl. 540 • De Excidio Britanniae (On the Ruin of Britain)

•St. David (Dewi Sant), fl. 600-650 • Llan- place names = religious centers• Llanbadarn = church of Padarn• Llanfair = church of Mary• Llandewi = church of David

Glastonbury Tor, England, associated with Joseph of Arimathea and the Holy Grail.

Documented religious centers in early Wales

Romanization and Christianity• Ireland• Palladius of Auxerre, mid-5th century?• Killashee (from Cell Auxili, Cell of Auxilius)• Dun Shaughlin (from Dun Sechlainn, fort of Secundinus)• Earliest Easter table in Ireland was based on the 4th century

teachings in Gaul and northern Italy• St. Patrick, late 5th century?• Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus and Confessions• Muirchiu’s Life of Patrick, 7th century• Tirechan’s Life of Patrick, 7th century• Armagh (near Emain Macha, a pre-Christian site)

• St. Columba, d. 597• Iona

• St. Brigit, fl. 6th century• Kildare• Possibly a Christianization of a pre-Christian goddess,

associated with fertility (Imbolc, February 1st; Brigit’s sacred fire)

Left—the shrine of St. Patrick’s bell, c. 1100 CE, National Museum of Ireland; right—an example of a cross of St. Brigit.


•Structure of the Irish church•Monasteries and cities• Kil- prefix indicates a church settlement• Kilkenny, Killarney, Kildare

• Liber Angeli (Book of the Angel), 7th century• Asceticism• Skellig Islands

• Peregrinatio• St. Columbanus, d. 615

Skellig Michael

Skellig Michael stairway

Skellig Michael monastery


•The Picts• St. Columba, d. 597 •Oswald of Northumbria, r. 633-642• Lindisfarne Monastery•Oswiu of Northumbria, r. 642-670• Peada of Mercia, r. 653-656

• Fusion of Irish, Anglo-Saxon, and Christian artistic motifs• Lindisfarne Gospel, late 7th to early 8th century• Book of Kells, mid-8th to 9th century

The Aberlemno cross.

• The Lindisfarne Gospel. Front page, Book of Matthew. Dated to 7th century. Produced in northern England, but with Irish influences.

• The Lindisfarne Gospel. Carpet Page.

• The Book of Kells. Initial page. Dated to mid—8th or early 9th century. Irish, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon influences. Script characteristic of Northumbrian monasteries.

• Image from The Gospel of Luke, The Book of Kells.

Early Medieval Britain and Ireland: Mythology, Kingship, and Society

• Early medieval Britain/Wales• Romans leave 409/410 • Anglo-Saxon invasions/migrations, 420s-590s• Romano-British survive in the west, north, and midlands

• Modern DNA studies suggest Anglo-Saxons intermarried rather than killing off the Romano-British

• Early medieval Ireland• Conversion to Christianity c. 450-600• The “fifths”—Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Connaught, Meath

• Early medieval Scotland• Arrival of the “Scots” from Ulster and settlement of Dal Riada, c.

450-600• Conflict between Picts and Scots, c. 500-850• Creation of Scotland by Kenneth MacAlpin, r. 843-858

EponaTop carving from Hesse, Germany; bottom from Auvergne, France.

• A horse goddess but also associated with fertility• Attested in art in Europe and

in myth in the British Isles• Welsh Rhiannon• Irish Macha (Emain

Macha/Armagh)• Popular with Roman troops,

who may have spread the image

Mercury (center) flanked by EponaCarving from Alsace, France.

The Uffington Horse,Chalk carving from Wiltshire, England (dated to 800 BCE-100 CE; 374 feet long).

Lugus, Lugh, LleuStatue from Berlin Staatliche Museum.

• Associated with the sun and crafts• Place names associated with Lugh• Lugdunum (Lyon,

France)• Lugdunum Batavorum

(Leiden, Netherlands)• Luguvallium (Carlisle,

England)• Equated by Romans to Mercury and Apollo

Cernunnos, the horned godCarving from Cluny Museum, Paris, France.

• Known as the horned god• Associated with animals of

the forest• Attested in images from

India, Turkey, Greece, Gaul and in Irish character Conall Cernach

CernunnosDetail from Gundestrup Cauldron, Denmark.

Aquae Sulis (Bath, England)

• Sulis linked to Sequana, a Gaulish goddess associated with the River Seine• A goddess associated with healing• Sulis equated by Romans to Minerva

Brigindo, Brigantia, BrigitCarving in National Museum of Scotland.

• Associated with fertility• Tribal names• Brigantes of northern

Britain• Possibly Christianized in Irish St. Brigit• Imbolc, February 1st

DagdaDetail from the Gundestrup Cauldron, Denmark.

• Irish god of destruction and regeneration• Associated with a cauldron of rebirth•Name means “the good god”

The MorriganPainting by Laura Cameron, Northwest Visions Studio.

• The Morrigan, the Phantom Queen, Irish goddess of war• Often depicted as a trinity with

goddesses Nemain and Badb, who represent Panic and Death

• Irish Badb associated with Cathabodua in Continental Celtic lore

• Other battle goddesses include Welsh Agrona (River Aeron) and British Andraste

Medb (Maeve)Painting by Joseph Christian Leyendecker, 1916.

• A character in the Irish Táin Bó Cualinge (Cattle Raid of Cooley)• Said to have been Queen of

Connaught• Sovereignty goddess?

• Her name translates as “drunkenness”

• Similar names• Asvamedha (PIE ekwo-

meydho), “horse-drunk”• Gaulish personal name

Epomeduos, “horse mead”

EsusCarving from Cluny Museum, Paris, France.

• Known as Lord and Master• Associated with sovereignty goddess Rosmerta• Equated by Romans to Mercury

TaranisStatue from National Archaeological Museum, France.

•God of thunder and storms• Associated with human sacrifice on Continent• Equated by Romans to Jupiter

What Irish and Welsh myths and histories tell us• Irish Lebor Gebála, 7th-8th century CE• Book of Invasions

• Tuatha de Danaan (people of the goddess Danu) versus the Milesians• Tuatha de Danaan driven out/underground, becoming

the Sidh (pronounced Shee)• Burial mounds as home of the Sidh

•Welsh mythology speaks of the Twyleth Teg (the fair folk)• Caer Sidi (fortress of the Sidh), a name for the

Otherworld• God, goddesses, and the Otherworld in the Welsh

Mabinogi

What Irish and Welsh myths tell us about the Otherworld

•Where to find it• Mists or fog• Hostels (Togail Bruidne Dá Derga/The Destruction of

Dá Derga’s Hostel)• Wilderness areas—mountains, islands, lakes

• The Lady of the Lake and Excalibur• Burial mounds

• Newgrange, Ireland• Associated with white animals with red ears or red

people•When to find it• Samhain (Sov-whin), October 31st • Beltaine (Bel-tinne), May 1st

Newgrange, Ireland (3000-2500 BCE)

British White calf with red points

Important heroes• CuChulainn, the hound of Ulster

• The Ulster Cycle and Táin Bó Cualinge• Finn Mac Cumaill and the Fianna

• The Finn Cycle• King Arthur

• Origin of name?• Roman—Lucius Artorius Castus, fl. 2nd century AD• Welsh/British—Artos/Artaius, the Celtic bear god

• Evidence of 5-6th century AD British warleaders• Gildas mentions Ambrosius Aurelianus as “descended from the

purple”• Sidonius Apollinarus writes a letter to Riothamus, a British

warleader active in Gaul/France• First mention of Arthur by name comes in early 7th century

poems Y Goddoddin, written in north Britain: “he glutted ravens on the wall though he was no Arthur.”

Left—Statue of CuChulainn in Dublin post office, Oliver Sheppard, 1911. Right—Clive Owen as King Arthur in King Arthur (2004), Touchstone Pictures

Early Medieval Britain and Ireland: Mythology, Kingship, and Society• Kingship in British/Irish society• IE *regs = king; Latin rex, Gaulish rix• IE *teuta = tribe; Irish tuath, Welsh tud• Continental Celtic kingship terms

• Gaulish god’s name Teutates• Gaulish personal name Toutierix = tribal king

• British/Welsh kingship terms• Rhi/Ri = in personal names (Rigotamos/Riothamus, Rhiwallon)• Brenhin = king

• Irish kingship terms• Ard rí (high king)• Rí cóicid (provincial king)• Ruiri (over-king, king of many tribes)• Rí túaithe (king of one tribe)

Early Medieval Britain and Ireland• Kingship in Celtic society• Sovereignty rituals

• Goddess of the land seeks out a king• Rosmerta and Esus• Rhiannon and Pwyll (“Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed,” first branch of the

Mabinogi)• Irish feis = “feast,” from fo-aid = “sleeps with”• Gerald of Wales, c. 1185 CE

• Sovereignty ritual gone awry• The Book of Invasions

• Sons of Mil rape and kill the sovereignty goddesses Eriu, Fodla, Banba• The Destruction of Dá Derga’s Hostel

• Sovereignty goddess appears as a hag and the king rejects her• Medb in the Tain

• Offers her “friendly thighs” to any warrior who will help her in her war with Ulster

Hill of Tara, Ireland

Kingship ritual illustrated in Gerald of Wales’ History and Topography of Ireland

What does a British/Irish king do?• Important rituals/behaviors• Bravery; hospitality; generosity; hunting; truthfulness; justice

• Crith Gablach, “On Status”, 7th century—gives a weekly schedule for kings• Sunday for drinking ale• Monday for legal business• Tuesday for fidchell/chess• Wednesday for watching greyhounds hunt• Thursday for marital relations• Friday for horse racing• Saturday for judging legal cases

• British/Irish queens—Cartimandua (fl. 50-70 CE); Boudica (d. 61 CE); Medb of Connacht (fictional?)

Those ranking beneath the kings

• Freemen/women• Professional learned classes

• Druids and, later, priests• Poets (Irish fili, Welsh beirdd)• Jurists/lawyers (Irish brithemain/brehon, Welsh cyngaws and

canllaw)• Warrior class

• Welsh warband (teulu)• Irish warband (teachglach)

• Court officials• Peasants/farmers

• Serfs and slaves

British/English kingdomsMap from Peter Hunter Blair, Roman Britain and Early England, 55 BC-AD 871.

• The Invaders• Angles, Saxons, Irish, Picts

• British kingdoms• Dumnonia• Dyfed• Ceredigion• Gwent• Powys• Gwynedd• Gododdin• Strathclyde• Rheged• Elmet

• Wealh = Wales, Welsh (foreigner/slave)• Cymru, Cymro

British/Welsh kings

•Maelgwn Gwynedd, fl. 6th century•Owain ab Urien, king of Rheged, fl. 7th century• Rhodri Mawr, king of Gwynedd, d. 878•Hywel Dda, d. 950• Ruled Gwynedd, Dyfed, and Powys• Cyfreith Hywel Dda (earliest text 12th c.)

•Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, d. 1063• Ruled Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed, and Gwent

• Conflict with the Anglo-Saxons, 450-onward• The “Celtic Church” versus the Roman/Anglo-Saxon

Church• Bede the Venerable (d. 735) and the Synod of Whitby, 664

Irish kingdoms and kingsMap from Nora Chadwick, The Celts.

• The fifths• Connaught, Cruachan Ai• Ulster, Emain Macha• Leinster, Dun Ailinne• Munster, Cashel• Meath, Tara

• Niall Noigiallach (Neill of the Nine Hostages)• Ui Néill (grandsons of Niall), modern

O’Neill• Loégaire mac Néill, 5th to 6th century• Brian Boruma

• Ui Brian (grandsons of Brian)• King of Munster, 965-1002• High King, 1002-1014• Battle of Clontarf, 1014

Early Medieval IrelandMap from Wikipedia.

Scotland and its kingsMap from Alex Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, 789-1070.

• Dal Riada (NE Ulster and NW Britain)• Battle of Mag Roth, 637

• Cairpre Riata in Argyll• Fergus mac Erc in Kintyre, d. 501• Gabran mac Domangart mac

Fergus, d. 558• Aedan mac Gabran, d. circa 610

• Battle of Degsastan, 603• By 650, 7 kings and 7 kin groups,

one high king• High kings descended from Fergus

• Ferchar ‘the Tall’, r. 680-696• Reunites Scots

Dal Riada kingship stone at Dunadd, Scotland

Pictland and its kingsMap from Alex Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, 789-1070.

• Bridei mac Maelcon, d. 584• Royal center at Craig Phadraig• Possibly a son of Maelgwn Gwynedd

• By 668, Anglo-Saxon Northumbrians rule southern Picts and take tribute from the Scots

• Bridei mac Bili, d. 693• Battle of Nechtansmere, 685

(commemorated on Aberlemno Stone)

• Nechton mac Derelei, r. 706-724• Sought religious advisers from

Northumbria• Oengus mac Fergus, r. 729-761

• Dominated Dal Riada

• Aberlemno 2. Battle of Nechtansmere, 685. Class 2. Mixed Christian and Pictish symbols. Class 2 also reliefs, not inscriptions.

The union of Scots and PictsThe Stone of Scone, kingship stone of the kings of Scotland.

• Kenneth mac Alpin, r. 843-858• Moved Dal Riada court

from Dunadd to Scone• Brought relics of St.

Columba to Dunkeld

Viking raids and settlementMap from Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings.

• Viking attacks on the British Isles• Raids, 789-850

• Dorset, 789• Lindisfarne and Jarrow

monasteries, Northumbria, 793-4• Skye and monastery at Iona, 795

• Settlement, 850-950• York• The Danelaw• Dublin, Cork, Wexford, Waterford,

Limerick• Shetland, Orkney, and Hebrides

islands• Isle of Man

• Raids, 980-1014

Viking settlement in the British IslesLeft map from Henry Loyn, The Vikings in Britain. Right map from Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings

The conquest of WalesMap of Wales circa 1100, from John Davies, A History ofWales.

• Hywel Dda, d. 950• Cyfreith Hywel Dda (the Law of

Hywel the Good)• English overlordship in the

10th century• From king (brenhin) to prince

(tywysog) and lord (arglwydd)• Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, d.

1063• Ruled Gwynedd, Deheubarth,

Powys, Ceredigion, and Gwent• William the Conqueror, r.

1066-1087• Marcher lords

The conquest of WalesModern illustration of Owain Gwynedd, from Wikipedia.

• Henry I, r. 1100-1135• Powys

• Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, d. 1075• Maredudd ap Bleddyn, r. 1116-1132

• English Civil War, 1135-1154• Gwynedd

• Owain Gwynedd, r. 1137-1170• Dafydd ab Owain, r. 1170-1194

• Deheubarth• Gruffudd ap Rhys, r. 1120-1137• Maredudd ap Gruffudd, r. 1137-1155• Rhys ap Gruffudd, r. 1155-1197

• Yr Arglwydd Rhys• Eisteddfod

The conquest of WalesFuneral effigy of Rhys ap Gruffudd, St. David’s, Wales.

•Henry II, r. 1154-1189• Campaign in Wales in

1157• Submission of Owain

Gwynedd and Rhys ap Gruffudd• Revolt of Welsh princes

in 1165• Rhys established as

Henry’s justiciar in South Wales in 1170s

• Dafydd ab Owain, r. 1170-1194• Marries Emma, an

illegitimate daughter of Henry II

The conquest of WalesStone likeness of Llywelyn Fawr, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.

• Richard I, r. 1189-1199• John, r. 1199-1216• Llywelyn ab Iorwerth ab Owain

Gwynedd, aka Llywelyn Fawr (the Great), r. 1194-1240• Marriage to Tangwystl, daughter of

the king of Mann• One son, Gruffudd

• Marriage to Joan, illegitimate daughter of John• One son, Dafydd

• John’s Welsh campaign in 1210• Henry III, r. 1216-1272• Dafydd ap Llywelyn, r. 1240-1246

The conquest of WalesModern stone monument to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Cilmeri, Wales.

• The four sons of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn Fawr• Owain, Llywelyn, Rhodri, Dafydd

• Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, r. 1255-1282• Treaty of Montgomery, 1267

• Llywelyn recognized as Prince of Wales

• Edward I, r. 1272-1307• Treaty of Aberconwy, 1277

• Llywelyn retained title Prince of Wales, but lost lands outside of Gwynedd

• The last Welsh War, June-December 1282

• Dafydd ap Gruffudd, d. 1283• The Statute of Wales, 1284

Wales in 1267 (l) and 1284 (r)Left map from John Davies, A History of Wales; right map from David Walker, Medieval Wales.

Edward I holding parliament in 1278. Edward center, Alexander III of Scotland to his right and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd to his left.From The Wriothesley Garter Book, circa 1524, held by the Royal Collection.

Beaumaris Castle (Anglesey, north Wales), outer ward, built 1295-1330.

Beaumaris Castle, inner ward.

Caernarvon Castle (Caernarvon, north Wales), built 1283-1330.

Conwy Castle (Conwy, north Wales), built 1283-1289.

The conquest of Wales Henry VIII in the Whitehall Mural, by Remigius van Leemput, 17th century, Royal Collection, Hampton Court Palace, Surrey.

•Wales and England before the Tudors• The revolt of Owain Glyn

Dwr, 1400-1408• Owain a descendant of the

native dynasty of Powys• Declaration of independent

Welsh parliament at Machynlleth

• The Tudor Dynasty• Henry VII, r. 1485-1509

• Grandson of Henry V’s widow and a Welsh squire

• Arthur, d. 1502• Henry VIII, r. 1509-1547

The conquest of WalesMap from The Oxford History of Britain, 1993.

•Henry VIII and Wales• Council of the Marches

of Wales• Act of Union, 1536• Act of Union, 1543

• Edward VI, r. 1547-1553•Mary I, r. 1553-1558• Elizabeth I, r. 1558-1603• First Welsh Bible in 1588• Reformation presented

as a ‘return’ to the old ‘Celtic Church’

The Act of Union (Wales)• “His Highness therefore of a singular Zeal, Love and Favour that

he beareth towards his Subjects of his said Dominion of Wales, minding and intending to reduce them to the perfect Order, Notice and Knowledge of his Laws of this Realm, and utterly to extirp all and singular the sinister Usages and Customs differing from the same, and to bring the said Subjects f this his Realm, and of his said Dominion of Wales, to an amicable Concord and Unity, hath by the deliberate Advice, Consent and Agreement of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and the Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, ordained, enacted and established, that his said Country or Dominion of Wales shall be, stand and continue for ever from henceforth incorporated, united and annexed to and with this his Realm of England…”

• All Welsh were to have the “singular Freedoms, Liberties, Rights, Privileges and Laws” as the English

• The Principality and Marcher lordships were to be “united, annexed and joined to divers of the Shires of England”

The attempted conquest of ScotlandIllustration from a charter to Kelso Abbey, 1159. David I (left) and Malcolm IV (right). National Library of Scotland.

• Kenneth Mac Alpin, r. 843-858• Duncan I, r. 1034-1040• Macbeth MacFindlay, r. 1040-1057• Malcolm III r. 1058-1093

• Margaret, granddaughter of Aethelred Unraed, r. England 978-1016

• St. Andrew• David I, r. 1124-1153

• Mathilda, daughter of Henry I of England, was David’s niece

• Henry II of England, son of Mathilda, was David’s great-nephew

• Malcolm IV, r. 1153-1165• Nicknamed “the Maiden”• Forced to do homage to Henry II as overlord,

1163• William I, the Lion, r. 1165-1214

• Treaty of Falaise

Twelfth-century ScotlandMap from The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy.

The attempted conquest of ScotlandGreat seal of Alexander II of Scotland, 1229. British Library.

• Alexander II, r. 1214-1249• Asserted independence from

England during Barons’ Revolt, 1214-1215• Married Joan, sister of Henry III

of England• Alexander III, r. 1249-1286• Married Margaret, daughter of

Henry III•Margaret, the Maid of Norway, d. 1290• Granddaughter of Alexander III

• The succession crisis• Edward I’s “Great Cause”• John Balliol, r. 1292-1296• Robert Bruce, d. 1294

The attempted conquest of ScotlandModern statue of William Wallace, National Wallace Monument, Stirling.

• The first Scottish war, 1296-1307• The Stone of Scone

• William Wallace, d. 1305• Battle of Stirling Bridge, 1297• Battle of Falkirk, 1298• Robert Bruce, r. 1306-1329• Battle of Bannockburn, 1314• David II, r. 1329-1371

• Recognized as king of Scotland by Edward III of England in 1357

• Declaration of Arbroath, 1320• England, Scotland, and France

• The “Auld Alliance”

The Declaration of Arbroath, 1320

• “To the most Holy Father and Lord in Christ, the Lord John, by divine providence Supreme Pontiff of the Holy Roman and Universal Church…• Most Holy Father and Lord, we know and from the chronicles

and books of the ancients we find that among other famous nations our own, the Scots, has been graced with widespread renown. They journeyed from Greater Scythia by way of the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Pillars of Hercules, and dwelt for a long course of time in Spain among the most savage tribes, but nowhere could they be subdued by any race, however barbarous. Thence they came, twelve hundred years after the people of Israel crossed the Red Sea, to their home in the west where they still live today. The Britons they first drove out, the Picts they utterly destroyed, and, even though very often assailed by the Norwegians, the Danes and the English, they took possession of that home with many victories and untold efforts; and, as the historians of old time bear witness, they have held it free of all bondage ever since…

• The Most Holy Fathers your predecessors gave careful heed to these things and bestowed many favours and numerous privileges on this same kingdom and people... Thus our nation under their protection did indeed live in freedom and peace up to the time when that mighty prince the King of the English, Edward [Edward I], when our kingdom had no head and our people harboured no malice or treachery and were then unused to wars or invasions, came in the guise of a friend and ally to harass them as an enemy…

• But from these countless evils we have been set free, by the help of Him Who though He afflicts yet heals and restores, by our most tireless Prince, King and Lord, the Lord Robert [Robert Bruce]…

• Yet if he should give up what he has begun, and agree to make us or our kingdom subject to the King of England or the English, we should exert ourselves at once to drive him out as our enemy and a subverter of his own rights and ours, and make some other man who was well able to defend us our King; for, as long as but a hundred of us remain alive, never will we on any conditions be brought under English rule. It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honours that we are fighting, but for freedom — for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself…”

Left—the Stone of Scone under coronation chair of English monarchs, Westminster Abbey; right—the Stone of Scone, returned to Scotland in 1998. Now on display in Edinburgh castle.

Edinburgh Castle.

The attempted conquest of ScotlandPortrait of James IV, 16th century, Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh.

• The Auld Alliance• Scotland and France

• James IV, r. 1488-1513• Abolition of MacDonald lordship of

the isles, 1493• Battle of Flodden, 1513

• James V, r. 1513-1542• Marriage to Mary of Guise, 1536• Battle of Solway Moss, 1542

• Henry VIII’s “rough wooing” of Scotland, 1542-1550• Support for MacDonald lord of the

isles revolt• Proposed marriage of Edward and

Mary of Scotland• Battle of Pinkie, 1547

The attempted conquest of Scotland Portrait of James VI/I, by Jan de Critz, 1606, National Maritime Museum, London.

• Mary, Queen of Scots, r. 1542-1567• The Scottish Civil War, 1559-

1560• James VI and I, r. 1567/1603-

1625• “One king, one people, one law”• The proposed union of Scotland

and England• Abolish mutually hostile laws• Establish free trade• All Scots resident in England before

James’ rule to be naturalized as English

• Create a common currency, the Unite• Use of the Great Union/Union Jack

The attempted conquest of ScotlandThe Union Jack, image from Wikipedia.

• The Gunpowder Plot, 1605• Writing of Shakespeare’s

Macbeth• The instrument of union,

1606-1607• Abolition of mutually hostile

laws (only proposal accepted)• Establishment of free trade• Mutual naturalization of James’

Scottish and English subjects• Anglo-Scottish extradition

treaty• James and the Scottish Kirk

• Episcopalianism vesus Presbyterianism

The attempted conquest of ScotlandCharles I and Henrietta Maria as Apollo and Diana, Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628, Hampton Court Palace, Surrey.

• Charles I, r. 1625-1649• Commission for Surrenders

and Teinds, 1627• English Episcopalian

practices and a new Scottish prayer book and liturgy imposed on Scottish church in 1530s • General Assembly of the

Kirk, 1638• Scottish Presbyterians rejected

Episcopalianism• Charles’ Scottish war,

1639-1640• Treaty of Ripon, 1641

The attempted conquest of Scotland

• The English Civil War, 1642-1646, and its aftermath• Oliver Cromwell, d. 1658• Charles I tried for treason and executed, 1649• Scots Protestants invited Charles II to Edinburgh and crowned him in 1649• Cromwell’s forces drove Charles II into exile, fought Scots Protestant army

• The Commonwealth, 1649-1660• Cromwell as “Lord Protector”• Cromwell’s policy toward Scotland

• English garrisons in all of lowland Scotland• Punitive taxation• Scottish public records seized and taken to London• Scottish monarchy declared “redundant”• Scotland’s royal arms ritually hanged on gallows in Edinburgh• Scottish parliament dissolved, 30 MPs sent south to London

The attempted conquest of ScotlandPortrait of James II, Nicholas de Largilliere, 1685, National Maritime Museum, London.

• Charles II, r. 1660-1685• Restoration of Scottish

parliament• Scottish Kirk placed in the

hands of Episcopalians• Scottish government in hands

of English officials• Campbell earls of Argyll highly

placed in Scottish government• James II, r. 1685-1688

• Catholic and absolutist tendencies

• The Glorious Revolution, 1688

The attempted conquest of ScotlandA Lost Cause: the flight of James II after the Battle of the Boyne, Andrew Carrick Gow, 1888, Tate Art Gallery, London.

• Jacobites• Latin for James = Jacobus

• Battle of the Boyne, 1690• William III (r. 1689-1702) and Mary II (r.

1689-1694)• Scottish oath of loyalty to William and

Mary• Massacre of Glencoe, February 13th

1692• MacDonalds of Glencoe• John Dalrymple, Master of Stair

and Secretary of State for Scotland, d. 1707

• Act of Settlement, 1701• Anne, r. 1702-1714

• Act of Union, 1707• First queen of Great Britain, 1707-

1714


• The “Kings over the Water”• Jacobites

• The white rose• Jacobite toasts—“the king over the water” and “the little gentlemen

in black velvet”• First Jacobite revolt, 1715-1716• James Francis Edward Stuart (d. 1766) proclaimed James

III and VIII• Battle of Sheriffmuir, November 1715• James would become known as “the Old Pretender”

• Reactions to the first revolt• The Disarming Act, 1716• Creation of the Highland Companies (the Black Watch)• Seizure of lands of Jacobites

The attempted conquest of ScotlandPortrait of Bonnie Prince Charlie, by John Pettie, 1898, Palace of Holyroodhouse.

• The Second Jacobite Revolt, 1745-1746• Charles Edward Stuart, the Young

Pretender, “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” d. 1788• Glenfinnan, 1745• Battle of Prestonpans, September 1745• The march to London, November-

December 1745• Battle of Falkirk, January 1746• Battle of Culloden, April 1746

• 9000 English led by the duke of Cumberland versus 6000 Jacobites

• Charles fled the battle and escaped to France in September 1746

Left—Monument at Culloden battlefield; right—Hunted Down, by John Pettie, 1877, Hospitalfield House, Arbroath, Scotland.


• The aftermath of Culloden• Cumberland’s ravaging of the Highlands• Seizure of lands of Jacobites• Act of Proscription, 1746 (repealed in 1782)

• Highland dress banned• Playing of bagpipes banned• Keeping of weapons banned

• Heritable Jurisdictions Act, 1747• Abolished Scottish clan chiefs’ right to call up men

• Prison, transportation and indentured servitude, execution for captured and convicted Jacobites

The English Conquest of Ireland• Brian Boruma• King of Munster, 965-1002• High King, 1002-1014

• Marriage to Gormflaith, daughter of the king of Leinster; mother of Sihtric Silkenbeard, king of Dublin Vikings 989-1036

• Battle of Clontarf, 1014• Brian Boruma, Munster, and Limerick Vikings vs.

Leinster and Dublin Vikings• Máel Mórda mac Murchada, king of Leinster and

brother of Gormflaith

Ireland circa 1014Map from Wikipedia.

The English Conquest of Ireland• The aftermath of Clontarf

• High king (ard rí), king of Ireland (rí Erenn), and king with opposition (rí co fesabra)

• Growing connection with Canterbury• Bishops of Dublin consecrated in England in 1074, 1085, 1096, 1121• Bishop of Waterford consecrated in England in 1096• Many of these men educated in England

• The Gregorian Reform in Ireland• Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085) to Turlough O’Brien, king of Munster (1063-

1086) and king of Ireland (1072-1086), reform the Irish church!• Synods (Ráith Bressail, 1111 and Kells, 1152) led to

Europeanization of the Irish church• Archbishoprics at Cashel, Armagh, Dublin, and Tuam• Primacy of Armagh confirmed

• Pope Adrian IV (r. 1154-1159), Laudabiliter, 1155

The English Conquest of Ireland• Enter Henry II (r. 1154-1189) of England

• Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinster 1134-1171• Abduction of Derbhforgaill, 1152 (wife of Tigernan O’Rourke, king of

Brefni)• Dermot allied to Murtagh Mac Loughlin, king of Ulster and ‘king with

opposition’ 1156-1166• Tigernan O’Rourke allied with Rory O’Connor, king of Connacht and

‘king of Ireland’ 1166-1186• Dermot expelled in 1166, appealed to Henry II of England for help• Dermot’s assistants were younger sons of Anglo-Norman lords in Wales:

• FitzGilberts (Richard de Clare, aka Strongbow), FitzHenries, FitzGeralds, FitzStephens, Carews, Barrys

• Dermot regained Leinster in 1170, died in 1171; Strongbow became king of Leinster

• Henry II arrived in Dublin in 1171, established English rule by 1172• 1175, Treaty of Windsor

• Rory O’Connor submitted to Henry II in exchange for overlordship of Connacht, Ulster, and Munster

The kingdom of Henry II of EnglandMap from Coffin and Stacey, Western Civilizations, volume 1.

The Marriage of Strongbow and Aoife, by Daniel Maclise, 1854, National Gallery of Ireland.

King John’s castle, Limerick, Ireland, building begun in late 12th century (John named Lord of Ireland in 1177).

The English Conquest of Ireland• Anglo-Norman families established in Ireland

• De Clares/Marshalls in Leinster; male line died out in 1245• Fitzgeralds in Leinster, made earls of Kildare in 1316 and earls of Desmond in

1329• Butlers in Leinster/Munster, made earls of Ormond in 1328• De Lacys, earls of Ulster; male line died out in 1243• De Burghs, conquered parts of Connacht in 1235, earls of Ulster after 1263

• English institutions in Ireland• Common law, from 1172• Justiciars, from 1172• Exchequer, from 1200• Treasury, from 1217• Justices in eyre, from 1218• Chancellor, from 1232• Dublin Parliament, 1297• Archbishops of Dublin (all English) refuse to recognize primacy of Armagh• English monasteries refused entrance to Irish candidates

The English Conquest of Ireland• Ireland in the 14th century• From mid 1200s, Irish used gallóglach (gallowglass),

foreign mercenaries to fight the English [origin of the Mac Donnells and Mac Sweeneys]• The war of Edward Bruce, 1315-1318

• Edward the brother of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland and son-in-law of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster 1286-1320• Sent by Robert, but also offered the kingship of Ireland

by Donal O’Neill of Ulster• After battles in Ulster, Connacht, and Leinster, Edward

crowned king of Ireland in 1316 (Bruce killed in battle in 1318)

• Edward III’s (r. 1328-1377) policies drive the earls of Desmond and Kildare to revolt• The Statutes of Kilkenny (enacted by Dublin

parliament), 1366

The Statutes of Kilkenny• II. No marriage alliances, no fostering of children; no sale of

horses or weapons to the Irish• III. English must speak English, have English names, wear

English clothes, and never speak Irish even among the Irish; saddles are required for those with means £100/year• IV. English common law the only law• VI. Hurling outlawed• XIII and XIV. No Irish to be admitted to any church office or

monastery in English lands• XV. No contact with Irish spies (i.e. musicians, poets, singers)

Maps of Ireland before (l) and after (r) the Anglo-Norman conquestMaps from Wikipedia.

The English Conquest of IrelandPortrait of Silken Thomas Fitzgerald, water color copy of the original, by Sarah Countess of Essex, in Lucy Aiken’s Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, 1825.

• Ireland in the 15th century• Butler earls of Ormond held positions of

authority in Ireland until mid-1400s• FitzGerald earls of Kildare became most

important family from 1450s onward• Fitzgeralds and Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)

• Gerald FitzGerald, ninth earl of Kildare• Made governor of Ireland in 1513• Recalled to court in 1519 for acting

outside English authority; restored to office in 1524

• Recalled to court in 1533, imprisoned, died in 1534

• “Silken Thomas” FitzGerald, Lord Offaly, son of Gerald FitzGerald• Raised a revolt against Henry VIII in 1534• Captured in 1535, executed in 1537

The English Conquest of IrelandPortrait of Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Younger, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.

• Ireland’s new order• Creation of the position of Lord Deputy of

Ireland in 1536• Dublin parliament called in 1536-7,

Henry acknowledged as head of the Irish church, English reforms brought to Dublin

• Henry VIII declared king of Ireland, 1541• “Surrender and regrant”

• O’Neills recognized as earls of Tyrone in 1542

• 1556 plantation of Offaly and Laois• Aimed at the O’Moore and

O’Connor clans• 1560 Act of Uniformity• 1584 plantation of Munster

• Followed on the heels of a revolt led by the FitzGerald earls of Desmond

Ireland before and after the TudorsMaps from Wikipedia.

The English Conquest of IrelandRepublic of Ireland postage stamp commemorating the flight of the earls in 1607, issued in 2007.

• Continuing conflict in Ireland• The Nine Years War, 1595-

1603• Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone,

d. 1608• Red Hugh O’Donnell, d. 1601

• Submission of O’Neill and Rory O’Donnell (younger brother of Red Hugh) to James I, 1603• O’Donnell named Earl of

Tyrconnell, d. 1616• Flight of the Earls, 1607• Ulster Plantation, 1608-1610

The English Conquest of Ireland

• The consequences of the plantation of Ulster • 2 million acres seized; only 50,000 regranted to native Irish• 200,000 acres to “undertakers,” who were to build castles, maintain

garrisons, and not sublet to native Irish• 100,000 acres to the Protestant Church of Ireland• County and town of Derry seized and given into control of London

companies, who organized settlement• Much of this land bought by speculators, who rented lands back to

native Irish tenants• Native Irish tenants had no protection against eviction; English

and Scottish settlers could not be evicted without just cause• In 1613, the Dublin parliament abolished Brehon law and replaced it

with English Common law and English courts

The English Conquest of Ireland• Ireland and the English Civil War

• The Revolt of 1641 (4000 Protestants in Ulster killed)• 1641-1648: Ireland divided between native, Catholic support for Charles I,

Anglo-Irish supporters of Charles I, and Protestants in Ulster• Oliver Cromwell and the massacres at Drogheda (4000 killed) and Wexford

(2000 killed), 1649-1650• Act of Parliament, 1652

• Ireland proclaimed part of the Commonwealth• 10 million acres seized and granted to English settlers

• 80% of all land in Ireland; 50% of the arable land; 12,000 Irish transported as prisoners to the West Indies; 34,000 sent abroad as foreign mercenaries

• Bardic schools closed• Restoration, 1660-1685

• Dublin parliament restored; Catholics barred from parliament, 1672• Battle of the Boyne, 1690

• The “Orangemen” = supporters of William of Orange in Ulster

The English Conquest of IrelandMap of Ireland by 1620, from Wikipedia.

• By the reign of William III and Mary II, 12 million (out of 15 million) acres in Ireland had been seized and granted to Protestants. 4/5 of the population still Catholic.• Catholics required to pay tithe to the Church of Ireland

(Protestant)


• Penal laws, 1690-1730• Catholics forbidden to sit in Dublin Parliament• No Catholics allowed to hold government offices (military, civil, or

religious) unless they converted to Church of Ireland first• Catholics forbidden to “seduce” others into “popery”• Protestants forbidden to be “seduced” into “popery”• No intermarriage between Catholics and Protestants• Any Catholic father whose son converted to Church of Ireland became

the tenant of that son• Lands held by a Catholic father would be, upon his death, divided

between all his sons, UNLESS the eldest son was a Protestant, in which case he inherited all


• Penal laws, continued• Priests required to register their names and the names of their parish,

on penalty of branding with a hot iron; priests also required to take an oath of loyalty to William and Mary• 20,000 registered; many others exiled

• Crosses in public places to be destroyed; towers or steeples on Catholic churches prohibited; pilgrimage to holy sites prohibited

• Catholics barred from sending their children out of the country for an education (all schools, including Trinity University, now Protestant)

• Catholics forbidden to run their own schools• By 1731, ~549 “hedge” schools existed

• Catholics forbidden to practice law• No juries used in trial of Catholic defendants• Catholics forbidden to own weapons or a horse worth more than £5• Catholics forbidden to vote in parliamentary elections


• Economic laws• Irish merchants forbidden from shipping goods to the

American colonies, 1663• Imports from America to Ireland forbidden, 1670• Irish merchants forbidden from shipping livestock (pigs,

cattle, sheep) to England, 1663-1667• Irish merchants forbidden from shipping wool to England,

1699• The Act of Union, 1800

• Dublin Parliament abolished• Article 1: “…the said Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall…

be united into one Kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland…”

• Article 2: “… that the said United Kingdom be represented in one and the same Parliament…”

• 100 MPs and 32 lords from Ireland to attend London Parliament


• An Gorta Mor (the Great Hunger), 1845-1849• By mid-1700s, average peasant ate 7-11 pounds of

potatoes/day• Added to dairy products, a potato diet fairly healthy• By 1800, population of Ireland ~5 million• Napoleonic wars in Europe led to pressure for Irish

lands to produce more wheat, less grazing for cows• Wet weather hit North America and England in 1845-

1846• Root rot set in, Phytophthera infestans

The homeless. Left—“Bridget O’Donnell and children.” Right— “Scalp at Caeuermoe.” Both from The Illustrated London News, 1849.

The homeless. Left— “Scalpeen of Tim Downs at Dunmore.” Right— “Scalp of Brian Conner, near Kilrush Union-House.” Both from The Illustrated London News, 1849.

A populous village, Gweedore, County Donegal. The Lawrence Collection (1870-1914), National Library of Ireland.

A starving family, Carraroe, County Galway. The Lawrence Collection (1870-1914), National Library of Ireland.

Eviction. The Lawrence Collection (1870-1914), National Library of Ireland.


• The government’s response• Sir Robert Peel, Prime Minister 1841-1846

• Government scientists recommended burning the fields• Corn meal imported from the US• Works-programs enacted for those who had lost their houses and

lands due to the rot • Corn Laws (high tariffs on importing European crops), repealed 1846

• Lord John Russell, Prime Minister 1846-1852• Poor Law Amendment Act, 1847

• Outdoor relief given to those with their own houses and LESS THAN ¼ acre of land

• Cost of paying for famine relief put on landlords, who evicted tenants to pay lower tax rates• 300,000 evictions from 1846-1866, ~2 million people


• Emigration• Many Irish moved to Liverpool and Glasgow, looking

for industrial jobs• 1 to 2 million emigrated 1845-1850

• 25% of population lost in 5 years due to death and emigration• Loss of language worst in those areas depopulated by the

famine and emigration• Coffin ships

• 20% of passengers died during the voyages• 1815-1852: 3,466,211 emigrated from the United Kingdom • 1 million to British North America; 2 million to US;

300,000 to Australia

“The Embarkation, Waterloo Docks, Liverpool.” From The Illustrated London News, 1850.

“Scene between decks.” From The Illustrated London News, 1850.

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandThe Union Flag, from Wikipedia.

• Acts of Union for Wales, 1535/1546• Act of Union for Scotland, 1707• Act of Union for Ireland, 1800

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland

• Before the devolution movement• English as the primary language

• Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in Wales, 1699• Scottish Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SSPCK), 1708• National schools versus hedge schools in Ireland (~549 hedge schools

existed in 1731)• Ordinance Survey mapping

• 1791 in Scotland; 1801 in Ireland; 1805 in Wales• Brian Friel, Translations, 1980

• Anglicization of landlord class• Native law abolished; native poets without patrons

• Anglicization of Church hierarchy• Service in British army


• Emigration, clearances, and transportation of rebels• Scotland

• Clearances, 1770-1850• ~70,000 emigrated 1760-1803• ~22,000 emigrated to Nova Scotia, 1815-1838• ~500,000 emigrated to Canada or the U.S., 1852-1910

• Wales• ~60,000 emigrated 1850-1870

• Ireland• ~260,000 emigrated 1820-1840• ~1-2 million emigrated or died due to famine/exposure, 1845-1850• 2,830,000 emigrated 1850-1900

• Total numbers: • 1815-1852 ~3,466,211 emigrated from the United Kingdom (1 million

to British North America; 2 million to US; 300,000 to Australia)

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPlaque commemorating two of the leaders of the 1820 insurrection, Stirling, Scotland.

• The road to devolution• Political reform in Scotland

• United Scotsmen, 1790s• Provisional Government of

Scotland declared in 1820 when weavers went on strike

• Reform Act of 1832• From 4,239 voters to 65,000

(1 in 126 to 1 in 8)• Edinburgh and Glasgow both

acquired a second MP• Education Act of 1872• Establishment of Secretary of

State for Scotland, 1885

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPortrait of J.E. Lloyd (founder of Cymru Fydd and Welsh historian), by Ivor William, at the National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth, Wales.

• The road to devolution• Political reform in Wales

• Gwyneddigion, 1770• Reform Act of 1832

• From 1 in 8 adult male voters to 1 in 5

• Liberation Society formed in 1840s• Aimed for more parliamentary

reform and end of state support for the Church of Wales

• Cymru Fydd (The Wales To Be), 1885• Pushed for a legislative assembly• By 1892, Welsh MPs called for

disestablishment of the church, education reforms, land tenure reform, and self-government

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPortrait of Robert Burns, by Alexander Nasmyth, 1787, Scottish National Portrait Gallery.

• Cultural revival• Wales

• Honourable Society of the Cymmrodorion, 1751• Eisteddfodau (sing. Eisteddfod), 1789-present• University of Wales, National Library, National

Museum (founded 1885-1907)• Scotland

• James MacPherson, Works of Ossian, son of Fingal, 1760s

• Gaelic Society of London, 1777; Highland Society of Scotland, 1784

• Celtic Studies program founded at University of Edinburgh, 1882

• The antiquarian movement• Robert Burns, d. 1796• Aneurin Owen, d. 1851, Ancient Laws and Institutes

of Wales• Dr. William Price, d. 1893

Robert Burns, “Bruce’s March to Bannockburn,” 1793.

• Scots, wha hae wi’ Wallace bled,• Scots, wham Bruce has aften led,• Welcome to your gory bed,• Or to Victorie!• Now’s the day, and now’s the hour;• See the front o’ battle lour;• See approach proud Edward’s

power—• Chains and Slaverie!• Wha will be a traitor knave?• Wha can fill a coward’s grave?• Wha sae base as be a slave?• Let him turn and flee!

• Wha, for Scotland’s king and law,• Freedom’s sword will strongly draw,• Free-man stand, or free-man fa’,• Let him follow me!• By oppression’s woes and pains, By

your sons in servile chains,• We will drain our dearest veins,• But they shall be free!• Lay the proud usurpers low!• Tyrants fall in every foe!• Liberty’s in every blow!—• Let us do or die!

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandCrofters’ cottages, Uig, Isle of Skye, from Our Journey to the Hebrides, by Joseph and Elizabeth Robins Pennell, 1890.

• Land tenure reform in Scotland• Crofters and cottars• Highland Land Law Reform Association, 1880• Crofter’s Party, 1885• Crofters’ Holding Act, 1886

• Gave Scottish crofters fixed rental tenure and fees

• Congested Districts Board, 1897• Made land available to crofters and cottars

• Industry• Mining of coal• Ironworks• Cattle and leather• Cotton and linen• Glass, breweries, soap• Railroad industry, 1826 onward• Shipbuilding• Population 1,265, 380 in 1755; 2,889,000 in

1851

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPhotograph of the military camp of Llanfair Talhaearn, c. 1886, the People’s Collection Wales, Denbighshire Record Office.

• Land tenure reform in Wales• Welsh National Land League,

1880s• “The Tithe War,” 1886-1891

• Industry• Mining of lead, copper, coal• Ironworks• Cotton mills, potteries• Railroad industry, 1850s

onward• Population 500,000 in 1750;

1,163,000 in 1850

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland• Devolution in Scotland

• Call for home rule by 1910, supported by the Scottish Liberal Party• Representation of the People Act, 1918

• From 779,012 voters (1910) to 2,205,383, including women over 30• Scottish Labour Party

• 1918 platform: 1) the complete restoration of the land of Scotland to the Scottish people and 2) the self-determination of the Scottish people

• Government of Scotland Bill proposed in 1924, but failed• National Party of Scotland (founded 1928) joined forces with other nationalist

parties to form the Scottish National Party, 1934• London parliament sought to placate Scottish calls for Home Rule

• Secretary of State for Scotland became a real office in 1926• Offices dealing with Scottish issues moved to Edinburgh in 1934-1936

• Secretary of State Tom Johnston (1941-1945)• Scottish Council on Industry• North of Scotland Hydro-electric Board• Emergency medical system for war workers (predecessor for the

National Health System)


• Scottish National Party petitioned for an independent parliament, 1949• 2 million signatures on the petition, but no interest shown by other Scottish

political parties• Theft of the Stone of Destiny, Christmas Day 1950• The National Plan for Scotland, 1965• By the late 1960s, SNP began to push again for devolution• Parliament proposed a (powerless) Scottish Assembly, 1975• Development of North Sea oil fields, 1969 onward• Scotland Act 1978 (should Scotland have its own assembly government?)

• 32.9% yes—30.8% no (40% approval required)• Claim of Right for Scotland, 1988

• Scottish Constitutional Convention, which called for a Scottish Assembly• Scotland Act 1998

• 75% approved; Scotland’s parliament restored in 1999• Scottish independence referendum, 2014

• 44.7% yes—55.3% no (simple majority required)

Scottish referendum of 1997, by council (maps from Wikipedia; green = yes, pink = no)

• Question 1: should Scotland have its own parliament?

• Question 2: should the Scottish parliament have tax-varying powers?

• Scottish independence referendum, 2014 (map from Wikipedia)•Green = yes; pink = no (the darker the shading, the larger the percentage yes/no)

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland• Welsh Home Rule Bill, 1914• Representation of the People Act, 1918

• From ~900,000 voters (1884) to 1,172,000, including women over 30• David Lloyd George (1863-1945), Prime Minister 1916-1922

• Debates over nationalization of the coal industry (nationalized in 1947)• By the 1920s, neither Labour nor Liberal Parties called for Home Rule• Plaid Genedlaethol Gymru (the National Party of Wales), 1925• Council of Wales formed, 1948

• A council that would advise parliament on Welsh issues, but no other powers

• Cymdeithas ar Iaith Gymraeg, founded 1885 reconstituted in 1960s• Secretaryship of Wales established in 1964• Wales Act, 1978 (should Wales have a separate assembly government?)

• 58% of electorate voted, with 75% voting against the act• Wales Act, 1998 (should Wales have a separate assembly government?)

• 50.3% for, 49.7% against

Welsh Act, 1997Left—map of Wales c. 1500; right—map of Welsh Act voting, 1997 (from Wikipedia).

• Question: do you agree there should be a Welsh assembly? green = yes; blue = no

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPortrait of Daniel O’Connell, by Bernard Mulrenin, 1836, National Portrait Gallery, London.

• The road to devolution• Political reform in Ireland

• Dublin Parliament began to relax penal laws, debated the right of Catholics to vote (!)

• The United Irishmen (1791) and Wolfe Tone (1763-1798)• Revolt in Leinster and Wexford, summer of

1798• Daniel O’Connell, 1775-1847 (“The

Liberator”)• The Catholic Association, 1823

• O’Connell ran for MP of County Clare in 1828

• The Catholic Emancipation Act, 1829• Allowed Catholics to run for office and

admitted Catholic MPs to Parliament• Also raised property qualifications to vote

from £2 to £10

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPortrait of Thomas Davis, c. 1840, LibraryIreland.com.

• Cultural revival in Ireland• Royal Irish Academy, 1785• Young Ireland, 1842

• Established by Thomas Davis (1814-1845), a Protestant

• Published a weekly journal, The Nation

• After Davis’ death formed a militant group, the Irish Confederation (1846)

• Irish Republican Brotherhood, 1858• “Fenians”

• Catholic University of Dublin, 1855• The Gaelic League, 1893

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPhoto of William Ewart Gladstone, by London Stereoscopic Company, c. 1890.

• Land tenure reform (and more) • William Ewart Gladstone, 1809-1898

• Prime minister four times from 1868-1898

• Disestablishment of the Church of Ireland, 1869

• Irish Land Act, 1870• Gave all Irish tenants same rights

as Anglo-Irish tenants in Ulster• The Land League, 1879

• Nationalization of Irish lands• The Irish Land Act, 1881

• Set fixed rental tenure and fees• Lord Ashbourne’s Land Act of 1885

• Provided £5 million to help tenants buy land

• Irish Land Act, 1909• Forced landlords to sell lands

Irish Land League poster, c. 1881, from Wikipedia.

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPhoto of Charles Stewart Parnell, by Matthew Brady and Levin Corbin Handy, c. 1875, Library of Congress.

• Call for home rule• Charles Stewart Parnell

(“The Chief”), 1846-1891• MP for Meath, 1875-1891

• Gladstone’s Home Rule Act, 1886• Gladstone described the union

between Ireland and England as “a paper Union obtained by force and fraud, and never sanctioned or accepted by the Irish nation—the offspring of tyranny, of bribery and fraud.”

• Gladstone’s Second Home Rule Act, 1893

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPhoto of Irish forces outside Liberty Hall, 1916, from Wikipedia.

• The Home Rule party• Sinn Fein, 1905

• Meaning: “we ourselves” or “ourselves alone”

• Home Rule bill voted on again in 1912, 1913, and 1914• Signed into law by George V, r.

1910-1936• The Irish Volunteers and the Citizen

Army• The Easter Rising, 1916

• Padraig Pearse, 1879-1916• Declaration of a Provisional

Government, with Pearse as President.

Proclamation of the Irish Republic, 1916

• “We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland, and to the unfettered control of Irish destinies, to be sovereign and indefeasible. The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right, nor can it ever be extinguished except by the destruction of the Irish people. In every generation the Irish people have asserted their right to national freedom and sovereignty… Standing on that fundamental right and again asserting it in arms in the face of the world, we hereby proclaim the Irish Republic as a sovereign independent state, and we pledge our lives and the lives of our comrades-in-arms to the cause of its freedom, of its welfare, and of its exaltation among the nations…”

Left—Statue of Dying Cuchulain, by Oliver Shepherd, 1911. Installed at Dublin Post Office in 1935; right—Eamon de Valera in British custody, 1916, from irishtimes.com.


• The Irish Convention, June 1917-March 1918• Eamon de Valera, 1882-1975

• Formation of the Irish Republican Army, 1917• Michael Collins (d. 1922) as Director of Intelligence

• Dáil Éireann, 1919• War between Dáil, IRA and British forces 1919-1922

• Black and Tans• The Anglo-Irish Treaty signed December 1921• The Irish Free State, 1922-1937

• Civil war, 1922-1923; De Valera formed Fianna Fail (Warriors of Fal), 1926• Eire, 1937-1949• The Republic of Ireland, 1949-present• President (Uachtarán) and Prime minister (Taoiseach)• Queen Elizabeth II visited in May 2011

Devolution in Wales, Scotland, and IrelandPhoto of Belfast graffiti, 1990s.

• Northern Ireland• “Solemn League and Covenant,” 1912• Ulster Volunteers and the Provisional

Government of Ulster, 1913• Home Rule in Northern Ireland, 1920-1972

• The Anglo-Irish Treaty, December 1921

• Bloody Sunday, January 30, 1972• 13 unarmed civilians shot dead by

British troops in Derry• Northern Irish parliament suspended

• Northern Ireland Assembly Government, 1998-present

• IRA agreed to cease fire in 1994, 1997, 2005• Sinn Fein and Democratic Unionist Party

formed a coalition government, 2007• Continuity IRA, 1986/1994-present• New/Real IRA, 1997-present

“Cornwall has a unique and special culture heritage. An increasing number of people describe themselves as Cornish and it is important in all our equality and diversity work that we actively recognise Cornish as a minority group and continue to support the Cornish Language and the Cornish indigenous culture.” Cornish Republican, 6/27/10 http://thecornishrepublican.blogspot.com/2010_06_01_archive.html

http://thecornishrepublican.blogspot.com/2010_06_01_archive.html

Cartoon by Michael Cummings, for the Daily Express, 1974.