a faculty woman's observations on women in engineering

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-28, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1985

A Faculty Woman's Observations on

Women in Engineering

BANU ONARAL, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-This paper raises questions related to the lagging partici-pation of women in the engineering profession from the point of viewof an engineering educator, a foreign-born engineer, a wife, and amother. An attempt is made to pinpoint factors which appear to hinderthe entry of women into engineering and especially prevent them fromconsidering the academic option. Views from a different cultural andsocial environment may elucidate issues by bringing a new perspective.This in turn may help single out and focus on possible underlying causes.

INTRODUCTIONT ODAY women engineers constitute a small, yet well1 adjusted and accepted part of the engineering com-munity in many developed and developing countries of theworld. This is not to claim that subtle and elusive formsof discrimination have been completely eliminated or willbe eliminated in the near future. Some would even arguethat discrimination endures, invisible yet pervasive. Per-ceptions and attitudes reinforced by the differential treat-ment of women in the work place over many centuries can-not realistically be expected to reverse or be wiped outinstantaneously. Nevertheless, it is generally true that inmany societies of the world, women today enjoy careeralternatives and opportunities as never before available.A few of the women who have launched engineering

careers in the post-1960's era may take the present atmo-sphere of encouragement and support within the profes-sion for granted. The majority of us, however, recognize,appreciate, and cherish, with respect and gratitude, theperseverance, resourcefulness, patience, and at times,sweat and tears of the women scientists and engineers ofthe pre-1960's in paving the way for us [1]-[5].We are equally thankful to countless unsung pioneers

who had the courage to work and advance in other uncon-ventional fields; no doubt, they had to brace many obsta-cles standing in the way of their professional achievementand progress while opening countless doors. Needless tonote our debt to a large number of social scientists sincethe turn of the century for their concern with the condi-tions of the past, present, and future generations ofwomen. These studies have generated a vast body of lit-erature probing into the factors and circumstances behindthese conditions, and have strengthened positive attitudestoward the role of the women in the society at large [6]-[91.

Manuscript received July 1, 1985.The author is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-

neering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104.

Nowadays, to perform as a productive and successfulengineer, to be recognized and rewarded for our hard work,we do not need to qualify as eccentric or idiosyncratic,not even as exceptional or extraordinary [10]. We are notan oddity in our own professions. We do not need to besuperior in any special way. Opportunities seem withinreach. Incentives -are offered [11]-[13]. With sufficientpredisposition, exposure, preparation, self-confidence,and motivation, plus a fair dose of luck as in any otherprofession, we can afford to have regular aspirations andgoals as wives and mothers, and still enter and hold on toa fulfilling engineering career. That a whole generation ofwomen have their destiny open to be "absolutely any-thing," including a career in engineering, is a long-awaitedrelief [14].

In electrical and computer engineering, in particular,career prospects have recently been brighter compared tomany other disciplines [15]-[17]. The demand for electri-cal and computer engineering graduates has been on therise due in major part to the proliferation of newly createdhigh-technology positions. Many expertise areas are ex-periencing unprecedented growth and expansion. Thesenew openings need to be replenished with new talent re-gardless of gender or any other personal attributes. Theresulting thinning in the competition, however temporary,tends to create an atmosphere of unconventionality whichcan be conducive to increased participation by women andminorities. Although precise statistics remain elusive atthis time, we are told that the nontraditional outlook, es-pecially in computer-related areas, has encouraged theflow of the female entrepreneurial and executive talentjudging from the increasing number of companiesfounded, headed, or managed by women in these specialtyareas.

Historically, such "vacuum" periods have served as thebest antidotes against conservative attitudes in the profes-sional establishment. The situation can be likened in manyrespects to the circumstances experienced in Turkey, mycountry of origin, and some other Middle Eastern, East-ern European, and African countries (broadly referred toas "industrially developing countries" today) followingWorld War I. In their quest for industrialization, thesecountries were determined to build up the necessary pro-fessional base left either nonexistent or depleted by wars.One recourse was to tap into the resources of the femalepopulation, hence, the education of women became a highpriority item [18]. This environment facilitated the pene-

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ONARAL: FACULTY WOMAN'S OBSERVATIONS ON WOMEN IN ENGINEERING

tration and rapid rise of women into the professional ranksin these countries. The current higher levels of represen-tation of women in the professional work force as a per-

centage of the working urban women, compared to theircounterparts in Western and Northern European andNorthern American countries (or, more generally, indus-trially "developed countries"), can be understood underthe light of this observation [19]. The conservative struc-ture of the professional establishments in these "devel-oped" countries, which have started the industrializationprocess as early as the 18th century, did not offer similarfavorable conditions and prevented a parallel movement ofthe women into the professional ranks [20]. Consequently,the participation of the women in the so-called male-dom-inated professions [21] has lagged in the latter countriesdespite the wave of liberation which marked the last sev-

eral decades. I will address other aspects of this issue laterin the paper.

In this paper, I intend to raise questions related to thelagging participation of the women in the engineering

profession from the point of view of an engineering edu-cator, a foreign-born engineer, a wife, and a mother. I willattempt to pinpoint factors which appear to hinder the en-

try of women into engineering and especially prevent themfrom considering the academic option. I hope that viewsof a person raised and educated in a different cultural andsocial environment can elucidate some issues by bringinga new perspective. This in turn may help single out andfocus on possible underlying causes. In due respect to thecomplexity and intricacy of the issue at hand, I will notpresume to have answers to these questions and I will re-

frain from advice; instead, I will share with you obser-vations and impressions that I have gathered as I assumedmy various roles as a woman. The reader must be fore-warned that, due to the nature of the topic and in spite ofmy genuine wish to the contrary, I cannot help but injectanecdotal information into the discussion. Nor will I shyaway from relating my experiences growing up in mycountry of origin, Turkey, where I have spent my forma-tive years and received a major part of my education andtraining in engineering.

OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIENCES

That women of the last several decades have registereddramatic gains in professions beyond those traditionallyconsidered female occupations, that they have come dis-tances never dreamed possible before, cannot be disputed[22]-[27]. A large number of studies and statistics docu-ments the spectacular strides made by women, especiallyin engineering [27]-[40]. They substantiate and encour-

age an optimistic outlook and point to a stronger partici-pation in the future.Why are we then still concerned, perhaps even discour-

aged at times? Why do we wonder about reasons that are

stopping intelligent women from considering engineering

as a worthwhile career and joining the ranks of the prac-ticing engineer either in industry or academia? We ponderobstacles preventing them from seizing upon the availableopportunities. Everybody agrees that future prosperity de-

pends on optimum usage of human talents and resources,and that wasting intellect is an unforgivable mistake of far-reaching dimensions. Nevertheless, a hard look at the sta-tistics suggests that the percentage of women in engineer-ing is still soberingly low [25], [26], [34] and will remainso in the foreseeable future unless factors which come intoplay in the career selection process are carefully sorted,studied, and understood. The situation in the engineeringacademics is considerably worse. Only a meager percent-age of engineering professors today are women [36]-[38],[40].

I must confess to feelings of uneasiness each time I walkinto my class of prospective electrical and computer en-gineers, and I cannot help but notice the ratio of womento men students, yet to exceed a humble 10 percent. Pleas-antly surprising, yet vaguely disturbing, is the skewed rep-resentation in aptitudes. Almost without exception, thewomen students in electrical and computer engineeringcourses that I have taught in the last four years at DrexelUniversity have faired far better than the male students.They have all been well above the average in academicperformance and typically exceptional in personal traitssuch as self-confidence, determination, motivation, andintelligence. Only the extremely naive would dismiss thefact as mere coincidence.Many studies have shown that the success-oriented

characteristics, and my colleagues and I have observedthese in our female students, are common to those whosucceed despite the pressure of being in small numbers.We still recognize in these women the pioneer-someonebrave enough to try unknown territory or, at least, the am-bitious achiever driven to be the best. Have the othersfallen by the wayside for not coping with the demands ofequality in opportunities? Where is the woman student justas good as the next average male student in class?As many insiders to the engineering work force would

acknowledge with all due respect, the profession offersample job opportunities, worthwhile work, and sufficientroom for versatility in capacities and inclinations otherthan superior mathematical predisposition. Controversialclaims to innate gender differences in basic analytical, es-pecially mathematical abilities not withstanding [41]-[44],we must view the situation as a sign of warning. Clearly,some factors in encouraging and persuading the womento pursue a career in engineering have been overlooked.

According to some researchers, the "triple penalty" en-countered by women originates from culturally perpe-trated notions of self-doubt and incompetence, the per-ceived inappropriateness of a career in science, orengineering coupled with actual discrimination [10]. Oth-erwise, I would count more women in my classes and myjob as an academic advisor would not involve comfortingthe occasional anxious woman advisee whenever her gradepoint average points down to a distressing 3.0. I am yet tocheer a male advisee up for a similar mishap!

For relief, I would like to note that when I graduatedover a dozen years ago as an electrical engineer in Turkey,women students constituted approximately one-fourth ofour class. We fitted well the class curve in all quantified

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measures and qualifications. We were as relaxed as anyother college student going through the engineering cur-riculum, and did not feel the need or the pressure to excelor distinguish ourselves in any particular way. Five yearsago, after completing my doctoral and some postdoctoralwork in the United States, I returned to Turkey and joinedthe Faculty of my alma mater for a semester, and I founda similar ratio of women in the Department of ElectricalEngineering indicating a leveling off which had taken placein the last generation. I will elaborate on this point later.Upon my return to the United States, I took a position

at Drexel University as the second woman Faculty to teachin electrical engineering [45]. That year, four new Facultyfrom Drexel received the Engineering Research InitiationGrant offered by the National Science Foundation. Out ofthe four, three were women. Two of us were originallyTurkish; the third, a Yugoslavian, is currently on the Fac-ulty of the University of Illinois. Since that time, the otherTurkish woman Faculty has been tenured as the firstwoman Faculty in our College of Engineering. Three otherwomen Faculty have since taught in our Department; twoare from Yugoslavia and Hungary. Two of my six currentgraduate students are women, one originally from Chinaand the other from Iran. Of four women colleagues hold-ing faculty positions in electrical engineering at local areauniversities, two are from Greece and Yugoslavia, respec-tively. Turkish colleagues in electrical engineering whohave chosen to practice in the United States either in theindustry or universities tell me that they are generally theonly woman in their Departments. Statistics on the womanscientists and engineers in the United States corroboratethis anecdotal information [25], [26], [34], [36]-[38],[40].The historical conditions which led to a stronger partic-

ipation of the wbmen in engineering are not peculiar orlimited to some of the developing countries of the MiddleEast or Eastern Europe, but are common to many otherdeveloping countries in the Far East or Central and South-ern America which have undergone a similar industriali-zation process [46]. A brief review of historical eventswhich encouraged and prepared the women to activelyparticipate in technical areas in these countries is in order.Due to my origin and background, I will concentrate onTurkey as a case in point.

SOME HISTORICAL FACTSThe collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World

War I marked the beginning of the new Turkish Republicfounded under the guidance of a visionary leader, Ataturk,who recognized the potential of the women in rebuildingthe country devastated by years of war. All professionalranks had either to be replenished or created. Among manyother refortns targeting the modernization of the nation,he promoted the rights of women and provided opportu-nities in sharp contrast with past conditions of women inTurkey [ 18]. Parents were strongly urged to- educate theirdaughters; the female children were encouraged to con-sider all professions as equally acceptable. Urban fami-lies, especially those of upper socioeconomic status and

headed by well-educated parents, complied enthusiasti-cally [19]. The strong correlation between the father'sprofession and mother's education and the success rate ofthe women entering unconventional professions is akin tothe phenomenon currently observed in developed coun-tries [47]. The family background obviously is a strongfactor in the early exposure, encouragement, and prepa-ration stages.

According to one theory, children of lower class or ruralfamilies, although actively recruited, experienced more ofan adjustment problem than the upper class urban women[19]. These women, therefore, enjoyed the freedom tomove into professions requiring long periods of speciali-zation such as law, medicine, sciences, engineering, andacademics; they established themselves as credible profes-sionals and rose to their fair share of responsible positionsin the professional establishment. The large number of rolemodels fueled the interest of the following generations,increasing the number of women who chose to practiceengineering.

It is a historical irony that, in many of these developingcountries, the preservation of traditional family values andstructures, or at least their resistance to rapid change, isrecognized as one of the important factors which has con-tributed to the advance of the first generation professionalwomen. Despite the industrialization movement, the sur-vival of extended families meant that women could con-centrate on their education and/or career while family el-ders supervised the rearing of the children and managedthe household duties. In addition, affordable housekeepinghelp was available as a result of population shifts fromrural to urban areas. Aided by these circumstances, thepercentage of the women in specialization professions, ascompared to all women in the labor force, reached un-precedented proportions and has since been considerablyhigher than figures in developed countries [19].

However, with the progress of industrialization, thetransition to nuclear families, coupled with scarcity ofhousekeeping labor which naturally shifted to industrialjobs, created conditions similar to those found in devel-oped countries. In the meantime, child care support ser-vices failed to fill in the gap satisfactorily. By the thirdgeneration which coincided with mine, the percentage ofprofessional women in engineering appeared to reach aplateau. The leveling off was also detected in medical andlegal professions. Nevertheless, with more women enter-ing the work force, the actual number of participants hasbeen on a steady rise. A fortunate byproduct phenomenonhas been to secure the concept of the woman doctor, law-yer, scientist, or engineer in the minds of a whole nation.This has in turn facilitated the movement of female talentinto the professional ranks regardless of socioeconomicbackgrounds [48].

I must note here that, despite the high ratio in the pro-fessional ranks, women in these countries have not beenproportionately represented at top executive levels or inpolitical capacities except for few cases. This can partlybe explained by the fact that while women were gainingprofessional expertise, traditional attitudes to protect or

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to bar them from the political intricacies of the work placeor public office prevailed. The more conservative natureof male-female relationships, as compared to Westerncultures, might also have interfered with the informalmeans of communications essential in the climb to posi-tions of power. Forming critical contacts and establishingties with mentors are paramount to professional mobility[49]. Generally deprived of such strategic connections,women in technical fields have been largely confined totechnical staff or midmanagerial positions. Apparently,similar stifling obstacles also impede the ascent of thewomen through the corporate structure in developed coun-tries.

THE APPEAL OF ENGINEERING

In order to attract its share of bright women, the statusas well as salary and promotion prospects offered by theengineering profession must be a fair exchange for invest-ment in a relatively taxing engineering education. Com-pared to careers in science, engineering provides the ad-vantage of early professional entry at the bachelor'sdegree. We must face, however, the fact that in this coun-try, partly due to its undergraduate nature, engineeringdoes not enjoy the same prestige as professions requiringgraduate training such as medicine and law. Therefore,social and monetary returns may not justify the demandsof an engineering curriculum. In many other developed ordeveloping countries, medicine and law education alsostarts at the undergraduate level and the academic timingat which equivalent advanced degrees are awarded closelycompares to those in engineering. These societies typi-cally view engineering as one of the prestigious profes-sions and compensate engineers with comparable rank andmonetary rewards. Despite widespread equalization of op-portunities both in education and employment of engi-neering in this country, I suspect that this issue of pres-tige, however subtle, indirectly affects the career decisionof otherwise eligible and willing women and retards astronger participation. Obviously, a discussion of the ram-ifications of this topic as it concerns the engineering com-munity as a whole is beyond the scope of this paper.More distressing perhaps are the statistics indicating

that only a miniscule percentage of the engineers in aca-demia are women [36]-[38], [40]. Although I do not haveaccess to current figures, one suspects that the percentageof those holding tenure track or tenured engineering fac-ulty positions is even smaller [26].A related concern is whether the highly technical and

focused character of engineering has sufficient appeal forwomen. Generally, for whatever innate reasons or culturalbiases, women are more inclined to pursue a career inliberal or humanitarian areas. Both in developing and de-veloped countries, the largest number of women opts forcareers in behavioral, social, and life sciences. A studyon Turkish women which I have used heavily in preparingthis paper has been written by a group of 17 women con-tributors [18]. An editorial note in the introductionsounded almost apologetic about the fact that social sci-ences are dominated almost exclusively by women in Tur-

key. Perhaps due to early sensitization to broader issuesof life, many women have a strong predisposition for ver-satility in life, hence, seem to prefer a more diversifiedand eclectic education. Studies have reported that eventhose who choose engineering are more likely to convergetoward more humanitarian areas such as environmentaland biomedical engineering [47].

CAREER AND FAMILY

A paper of this nature would not be complete withouttouching upon the effect of family responsibilities on theperformance of the woman engineer. Clearly, many ofthese issues concern all women working outside the home,and hence, are not specific to the case of the woman en-gineer.

First, we must admit to aspiring young women that, sofar, statistics correlating family life with professional re-sponsibilities have been dismal. They reveal that a major-ity (52 percent) of executive women-if executive positionis chosen as measure of high level responsibility-haveeither never married or are divorced or widowed, and that61 percent are childless, as opposed to only 5 percent ofmale executives [50]. Worse yet are studies ranking themarried men at the top and the married women at the bot-tom of the list of desirable lifestyles for professionals, withsingle women and single men in between in the given order[51]-[53].

Frequently, the popular press does not miss a chance towarn those among us who "want to have our cake and eatit too," "that we can have some of it all the time or all ofit some of the time." And, as horror stories would go, thefamily life of the professional mother is likened to a "jug-gling act," a "zero-sum game in which whatever the ca-reer gets the family doesn't." In more mathematicalterms, we would be told that we are facing an insoluble"problem with more unknowns than equations." Theselives would be populated with husbands having problemscoping with changes [54] and the guilt-ridden "mythicalsupermoms" [55]-[58]. Then, overwhelmed and unableto deal with the pressures, the professional women would"downshift from the fast track" in throngs. In simplerEnglish, they would quit [59] and are labeled "dropouts."There is evidence, however, that many leave the rigidityof large corporate structures for the flexibility of beingtheir own boss [60].Those of us who have practiced engineering in industry

or academia with reasonable success would candidly ac-knowledge that the realities of our lives are hardly sensa-tional [61], [62] to the point of wondering sometimeswhether we are missing on things that others do not. In-deed, we do have our moments of frustration and times ofhigh pressure when performing under deadlines, espe-cially when children are young. We become wizards atorganizing our lives such that contingency plans take overwhenever original plans fail; when children are sick, wetreat ourselves to the best ever on-the-job crisis manage-ment training. We form ingenious and infallible networksof support if we live and work away from our own familiesand friends.

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Indeed, an actively supportive partner is, if not a neces-sity, highly recommended. We would not mind a husbandwho collaborates with us or, at least, appreciates and com-prehends what we are up to. I have known women col-leagues who envy Dr. Dresselhaus [63] and Dr. Estrin[64], for example, in the proper choice of their partners.But this is beside the point.As much as I resent singling out the family as the cul-

prit, may I suggest that a better solution to the awkwardtiming problem confronted by many young women aspir-ing for an academic or industrial career is long overdue?The Ph.D. degree necessary to qualify for these positionstypically takes us to our late twenties when our plans tostart a family seriously conflict with the demands of ini-tiating a research career. The energy and time investmentcurves for both facets of our lives coincide and peak to-gether. As a veteran of such a period, and in due fairnessto newcomers, I will confess that it has not been easy. Nodoubt, institutional strategies to accommodate the simul-taneous ticking of the biological and tenure-decision clockswould be a strong incentive to attract larger numbers ofqualified women to the academic ranks.

Yet, after souls are searched and things are said anddone, those of us "who have done it" will tell "thosemeant for it," that a career in engineering, industrial oracademic, is not only feasible but also quite worthwhile.

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Banu Onaral (S'76-M'78) received the B.S. andM.S. degrees in electrical engineering from Bo-gazici University, Istanbul, Turkey, in 1973 and1974, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from theUniversity of Pennsylvania, in 1978 where she wasa Fulbright Scholar.

She is currently an Associate Professor in theDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineer-

_ing and the Biomedical Engineering and ScienceInstitute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA. Hermajor research areas are linear and nonlinear sys-

tems analysis of interfacial phenomena with emphasis on bioelectrodes andbiological signal processing. She has been responsible for various educa-tional projects to integrate interactive computing and graphics into the un-dergraduate signals, systems, and digital signal processing curricula.

Dr. Onaral is a member of the AAAS, ASEE, the BioelectrochemicalSociety, and Sigma Xi.

1985 IndexIEEE Transactions on Education

Vol. E-28

This index covers al items-papers, correspondence, reviews, etc.-thatappeared in this periodical during 1985, and items from prior years that werecommented upon or corrected in 1985. The index is divided into an AuthorIndex and a Subject Index, both arranged alphabetically.

TheAuthor Index contains the primary entry for each item; this entry islisted under the name of the first author and includes coauthor names, title,location of the item, and notice of corrections and comments if any. Cross-references are given from each coauthor name to the name of thecorresponding first author.

The Subject Index contains several entries for each item, each consistingof a subject heading, modifying phrase(s), first author's name-followed by+ if the paper has coauthors-and enough information to locate the item.For coauthors, title, comments, and corrections if any, etc., it is necessary torefer to the primary entry in the Author Index.

AUTHOR INDEX

A

Ablgren, David J. Synthesis of a small microcomputer-A project forundergraduate laboratories; T-EMay 8565-68

Alexder, Charles L, Change ofGuard (Edtl.); T-EFeb 852Ayers, Jerry B., and Aaron S. Collins. An evaluation model for curricula innovation

(Corresp.); T-EFeb 85 52-55

B

Baizan, Covadonga Fernandez, Libia Perez Jimenez, and Victoria Rodellar Biarge.A general overview ofthe professional activities ofwomen in the computerand electrical engineering fields in Spain; T-ENov85233-235

Biarge, Vietoria Rodelr, see Baizan, Covadonga Fernandez, T-ENov 85 233-235Bradlow, H. S, see Sherlock, B. G., T-EAug85164-168Br_ley, Jenny, see Heober, Amoretta M., T-ENov85 222-228Brittain, James E From computor to electrical engineer' The remarkable career of

Edith Clarke; T-ENov85 184-189Buaten,StevenM.,seeDiCesare, Frank, T-EMay85 69-75

C

Campbell, Bonlt J., and Tobi A. Roffman. Women in engineering: Programs forreentry and career change; T-ENov85215-221

Ciaquepalsi, Ross_na, Carlo Defl'Aquila, Maria T. Fogli-Mu-Ciaccia, VittorioPicciarelli, Rosa Stela, and Grazia Verrone. The relationship between

Piaget-type questionnaire scores and academic achievements ofengineering freshmen (Short n.); T-EMay85 111-114

Collier, Michel. The use of viewdata as a distance-education and assessmentmedium (Corresp.); T-EFeb8555-58

CoEllns, Aaron S, see Ayers, Jerry B., T-EFeb 85 52-55Czandersa, A. W., see Harwood, Vivienne J., T-EMay 85105-110

D

Davis, Janes L, and James F. Hoburg. Enhanced capabilities for a student-orientedfinite element electrostatic potential program; T-EFeb 8525-28

Dell'Aquils, Carlo,see Cinquepalmi, Rossana, T-EMay85111-114DeRasso, Pul M.,se DiCesare, Frank, T-EMay85 69-75DiCesare, Frank. Steven M. Bunten, and Paul M. DeRusso. Microcomputers for

data acquisition, control, and automation-A laboratory course forpreengineering students; T-EMay 8569-75

Dresselbaus, Mildred S. Reflections on women graduate students in engineering; T-ENov85 197-204

E

Estrin, Thela, Guest Ed Women in engineering: A decade of progress, 1975 -1985 (Edtl.); T-ENov85 181-183

F

Feldmian, James M., and Michael B. Silevitch. Design as a central component inregular lecture courses-Incentives and disincentives; T-EMay 85 85-91

Fernandez Baizn. Covadouga, see Baizan, Covadonga FernandezFoglif-Mu-Clatia, MariaT,see Cinquepalmi, Rossana, T-EMay85111-114Franecs, Wiliam P., and Linda M. Ottenstein. An evaluation of a CAI system for

teaching Fortran (Short n.); T-EAug 85169-173

G

Girija, H. M,seeVenkataraman, K., T-EMay85115-116 (Original paper, Nov 83164-168)

Green,Dols N. An improved MiDler effect model for high-frequency behavior; T-EAug85125-130

H

Hainline, Douglas, see Shapiro, Judith, T-ENov 85229-232Hanrahn, H. E An open-ended computer package for signal processing teaching

and design; T-EAug85155-163Harwood, Vivienne J., and A. W. Czanderna. American Vacuum Society short

courses for scientists, engineers, and technologists (Short n.); T-EMay 85105-110

Heober, Amoretta M., Irene C. Peden, Jenny Bramley, and Mary Ann Seagraves.Women engineers and scientists in the Army; T-ENov85 222-228

241

a faculty woman's observations on women in engineering

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