&

9

:

2014

2

3

1: ............................................................................. 4

2: ......................................................................................................................... 10

3: ......................................................................................................................... 14

4: ..................................................................................................... 19

5: .............................................................................................. 38

6: (Eddy currents) .................................................................................. 65

7: (Ultrasonic testing) ................................................................................ 94

8: ............................................................................................... 115

4

1: 1.1 () ASTM E-1316, , , , /, , . / . . . , . , , , . , . : 1) 2) , 3) ' 4) 5) 6) 7) . , . , . , , . . . . , , , .

5

. . (.. ) . - - /. , 100 99,9% (!) R=0.999100

90.5%, 9.5%, 1 10 . , , . :

/

:

(, , , /) ( , ) (, ) (, , ,

) ( , ) (, , )

6

, , , , , ,

, / , /, , , , , , ,

, , , , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , , ,

/ , , , , , ,

1: . . . . 473 SNT-TC-1A . (ultrasonic testing - UT), (radiographic testing - RT), (eddy current testing - ECT), (liquid penetrant testing - LPT), (magnetic particle testing - MPT), (infra-red testing - IRT) (acoustic emission testing - AET). .

7

.

. .

. .

. . , , , , ..

. .

. . . .

. .

. / .

- . . . . .

.

.

.

8

. .

. . . .

.

. .

. , . .

. . (). , . .

/

. - . , , , .

, , . .

. ( 5 mm). .

.

. .

. . /

, , ,

.

. .

9

. . .

10

2: / /. , /, . . , . ' . . :

1.

2.

: .

3.

: , .

4.

: , , , .

.

: ' .

2.1

: . . RT UT. : , , . RT UT. : . RT UT. : . UT RT. : . MPT LPT.

11

2.2

: / , . . . . MPT LPT, ECT, UT. : . -. MPT, UT, ECT LPT. / : , (, ) . . . : . . MPT, LPT UT, ECT. : . . . UT MPT. 2.3 : ( , ). . MPT LPT. : , . : , . , , . MPT LPT. : . . MPT .

12

2.4

: . - ( , ) . . . . MPT LPT, ECT, UT. : , . ( e-) ( e-

: H , .

) . . . , . UT, ECT MPT, LPT RT. H . : : . : , , . : . . , .. : . . . ' . (, ) . / . : () . . : H2. To , . ,

13

, , - . :

2.5

. , , () .

(/delamination) , , / ( ) /

14

3:

(Visual Testing) . . 1 1980. (, , ) 300 mm 30 ( 3.1).

3.1:

. . . , 1955, . . , . . / . . , . CCDs (charged coupled devices), . CCDs . , , .

15

Remote Visual (Indirect) , , , , CCD .. Borescopes- ( 3.1) . . ( 3.1), ( ). .

3.1: ) , )

, ( 3.2) . CCD. ( CRT , LCD ).

16

3.2:

CCD (Charged Coupled Device) (CCD) CCD ( ). CCD pixel. (chip). pixel . pixel on off. pixel pixel. pixel . , . CCDs . ( 3.3).

3.3:

17

. . . CCD CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) . / . 20+ (megapixels) . ( ) , , .. IV. , . , 1

:

/. . , , // , , , ... . , . . , , , .. /. , . . .

18

1. , 2. 3. , 4.

, , . . ( , ) . .

19

4: I. . . . . field testing . . III. (. 4.1) . () . . (UV) .

4.1:

IV. . spray , , , , , . /.

20

4.1:

(black light). 315-400 nm. . . . . ( , ) . . . . 4 . . 1 (pre-cleaners). 2 . 3 4 . . . , , , . . . , . . . .

21

. , . . . "" (, ) (. ). . . . .

4.2:

, : lg

: - sl

: - sg : - . :

=0 ( ) 0

22

- . ( ) 6:1 ( , UV) 40:1. . . ( ) . :

/ -, ,

. . :

. . . . :

23

1. 2. ( ) 3. 4. . :

, ""

,

( ) . . . . V. . . ' :

( )

.

. ( 4 C 50 C). . .

24

- . . . . ( ) . , . . . - - . . , , , . . . 10'-15' . . . : , . . . . , , . .

25

. . "" . 7'-30' 60' . . , . . VI. . 4.1. . , (-) , - , . :

1. 2. / 3. 4. ,

() ( 4.3) / ,

( 4.4) / / ,

C ( 4.5) / / D ( 4.6)

() ( 4.3) /

/

26

( 4.4) / C

( 4.5) / / 4.1:

: 1. 2. spray 3. 4.

: 1. UV 2. 3.

4. 5.

B () D () D . . . :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

: 1. 2. 3. 4.

27

4.3: (- -)

28

4.4: (- -)

29

4.5: (I-C II-C)

: 1. .

2.

-. 3. 4. - 5.

, C (I-C) C , , . .

30

, , , . :

1.

2. :

1. ( )

2. 3.

(-) (-) , . . - :

1. 2. 3. 4.

: 1. 2. 3. spray 4. 5.

: 1. - 2. 3. 4.

(-) - , . ( ) -. . - :

1. 2. - 3.

- : 1. 2.

31

3. 4.

: 1.

2. 3. 4.

, C (II-C) -C , . . . :

1. , 2. 3. 4.

: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. - -C.

32

4.6: (-D)

VII. . .

33

. . . - - . . - - . , . . . / . . . . . 0,8 1,2 mW/cm2 . . . VIII. LPI . . :

( ) (, , )

34

4.2:

4.3:

IX. , . :

1. ( ) 2. 3.

( ) .

35

LPI , . . ( ) , . - :

1. 2. ( ) 3. 4. 5. 6. ( ) 7.

. LPI, / . , . :

1. 2. 3. 4.

LP. :

1. ( , , ) 2. ( )

. 3.

4. , 5. ,

,

36

X. LPI : :

37

38

5: . - MKE . , (DC AC), ( , ). . O / . , . , . . , . . . ( ). O ( ) . . . . . ( ) H . 1 Gauss 1 Tesla (SI).

39

O . H. Wilhelm Weber . , . . , . To 5.1 .

5.1: , . , =/. r. . . . , 1.003. , . 0,9996 . .

40

. . :

1. () 2. () 3. ()

R =/ ( ). ( ) . . , . . 5.2 . . .

5.2: -

41

- . . , 5.3. . . . , , .

5.3: -

5.4, . . . 5.5 . 180 . - - . , 5.6, . . ( 5.7).

42

( 5.8) . . .

5.4: -

43

5.5: -

5.6: -

44

5.7: -

45

5.8: - Ma . ( 5.9). , ( 5.9).

5.9:

, . . - , 5.10. , . . ( 5.11). . . , , .

46

5.10:

5.11:

. . , ( 5.12). .

47

5.12:

( ) , , . 45 90.

( 5.13).

5.13:

, . . . ( 5.14).

48

5.14:

, .. . . , . . . . (DC) . . (AC) , . 50Hz (60z ) . . . .

49

. ( 5.15) . . .

5.15:

( 5.16), . .

5.16:

( 5.17). . ( 5.18) .

50

5.17:

5.18:

(P) Watts (W) (V) (I) P = V x I: Joule, . ( ). , - - . . ( 3 Volt) (P=VI) . . 70% (RMS). 100 100

51

. (35% ). ( ). . . , . 60 Hz 3 mm. To (skin effect) . . . . - . . (contrast) . - Joule. E - in-service . Joule . . . . . . . . , . Fe Fe . Fe - . . . , , ( 5.19).

52

5.19:

. . , . , ( ) . /. , . . , , . 2 . 1 Curie (~770

2C

). , , ( ). . .

. . AC. AC .

53

. 3 gauss MPI. III. (field testing). . ( ). . . . , (, ). . . . AC DC. ( AC). 5.1 . . , .

5.1:

54

. . (, ..). ( 5.2). .

5.2: (prod) . . . . .

5.3:

. . . .

55

MPI. L/D>2 .

5.4:

IV. : 1. 2. 3. ( ) . . . . . , .

. . . . ( 5.5), .

56

, . . ( 5.5). . (Joule effect) . ( ). . . . ( 5.6). . . . ( 5.6). - - .

5.5: ) )

57

5.6: ) )

.

1. 2. 3. 4.

. . . 2

. , , .. . . . . , . . . - . .

58

. . . . . . . . . , , . . , . . . ( ) . . . . . . . :

, :

59

(, , , )

/ . , : (AC DC): AC , DC -. : . . : . . - . : UV . . : . .

:

. , . : VI. . , . : , . . . . . .

60

. . . / (. ) .

. . . , . - "" . 6 mm. . 1 mm . 5.7 5.8 .

5.7: ) )

61

5.8: ) )

' : 1. 2. 3. 4. , 5. , 6. 7. , , 8. 9. , / (, ) 10. VII. //. ( ) () . . , , , , .

62

. :

, ( )

, , . :

. :

(, ) ( )

, / . :

, :

63

( )

:

VIII. 1. , ( ) 2. . 3. "on-line" . 4. . 5. . 6. 7. . 8. 9. . 10. . . 11. . . 12. .

64

13. . 1. . 2. (). 3. . 4. . . 5. ( ). 6. . 7. . 8. .

65

6: (Eddy currents) . 6.1 . 20 . 6.1.1 H 19 . 1820 Christian Oersted -- . 1831 Michael Faraday - - . Joseph Henry . 1834 Heinrich Lenz . ' 1864 James Maxwell 1879 D.E. Hughes . 6.1.2 1940 Dr. Friedreich Foerster . 1960 . . 1974 Intercontrolle . . - 1980 . . 6.1.3 :

A /

66

- . 6.1.4 : - , , , .. 6.2 H . 6.2.1 . 7. . 6.2.2 1824, Oersted . Faraday Henry . . . : 1. VR Ip2. . (p=primary ). 3. ( 6.1). VL Faraday . VL 90

4. V . L

. . . . : XL =2fL (1) L=T N2A

l 1.26 106

(2) XLf= =

67

L= ( Henry) = = = l= 1.26 106

6.1:

5. . Vs (s=secondary) 1806. V

. s Is Vs. s7. s.

( ). 8. 180

6.2. Lenz . .

68

6.2:

( ) ( ). (, ..) VL

69

. VR

( ) ( ) . 6.2.3 VR VL 90. V

= 2 + 2. H V Ip VR. 6.3 . V

.

6.3: 6.4 ' .

70

6.4: ( R LH =arctan(

. = 2 + 2

L

Ohm : /R). =

=

=

, .

6.5:

6.3 (). 6.3.1 - 1. . ( 6.6)

71

2. . 3. . ( 6.7). 4. . () (edge effects) ( 7.6). . 5. (/). 6. . . To () 1/e=36.8% :

= 1/ : = (mm), = 3.14, f = (Hz) = (H/mm) = (% IACS) 3. 7. . H 1 rad (=57.3o ) . .

72

6.6:

6.7: ) , )

6.8: ) )

6.3.2 . 1. .

73

2. , ) ) ( 6.9). 3. . ( ) . . 4. , .

6.9:

6.3.3 , , , - (lift-off distance). O . . . . . . .

74

. . . . . 50Hz 10MHz. . . 7.1 . . 6.1:

. . , . . - - . . "" -/ . 6.4 6.4.1 . :

75

AC ( ). (multi-frequency testing).

.

AC . . . :

/

AC . , . . :

(lift-off, )

(. )

, . . , , . 6.4.2 .

76

6.10. . . .

6.10:

. ( 6.11 ) . . ( , ) (lift-off) .

6.11: ( 6.12)

. . . .

77

. . . .

6.12:

. . 6.13) . . 6.13).

6.13: ) )

( ) . .

78

. . , . (edge effects). : ( 6.14a), , . 90

( 6.14c), .

( 6.14b), ( 6.14d), . pancake ( 6.14e), . ( 6.14f), (lift-off). ( 6.15), , . .

79

6.14: : (a) , (b) 90, (c) , (d) , (e) pancake, (f) .

6.15:

( 6.16) 90

-, (through transmission) . ( 6.17) . / . / . .

.

(through transmission) ( 6.18). .

80

6.16: ) - )

6.17: ) )

6.18:

( 6.19), , , , .

81

. ( 6.20) . .

6.19:

6.20:

( 6.21) . (, ) .

82

6.21:

6.4.3 . . , . : 1. , , . 2. . :

3. . 6.22 . , ( ) .

83

6.22:

6.5 - (y-) (x-). , ( 6.23a). , ( 6.23b). .

6.23: a) b) . . ( 6.24). .

84

6.24: H

. . . 6.25 . 6.25) . 6.25) .

85

6.25: (a) (b) . . y- x- L, L

. 6.25b) ( ). , . . . 6.26 . (, , ) (, ) .

86

6.26:

( ) 6.27.

6.27:

87

(lift-off) . . , . - () 6.28). . ( 6.28)) . . . . , . ( 6.28)) . (lift-off). . .

6.28: ) ) ) - .

) ) )

88

. ( ) . . "" . . . 6.29 .

6.29: ) () ) () .

89

6.30:

6.30 . ( ). . : 1. 2. : 1. H . . . 2. . . ' , - .

90

To 6.31 (, 6.31) (, 6.31) . 5 mm 20 mm. . , " " " " . ( ) . y- . 6.31). .

6.31: ) )

) )

91

- , . . 6.32 carbon/epoxy. . , , , .. , . 6.33 , . ( 6.33). ( 6.33). "" . ( 6.33).

6.32: -

92

6.33: ) ) ) 6.6 . , , , - , , . , / . . : 1. 2. - 3. 4. , . . 5. . - - . 6. /. 7. . 8. , .

93

9. . : 1. . . 2. - . . 3. . 4. 5. . 6. 7. .

94

7: (Ultrasonic testing) 7.1. . , . . ( ) 20 kHz. . . , , , .. , 1870 Rayleigh " ". Curie 1880 Lippmann 1881 . Sokolov 1929 ' . . ' . pulse-echo 1942 Sproule Firestone . . Abrahams, Sproule Krautkramer. '80 '90 . . (Lamb & Rayleigh waves). 7.2 . . 20 Hz - 20 kHz . 20 kHz . 500 kHz - 25 MHz. () . . , , . . ( 8.1)

95

( 8.1) . , .

7.1: , ) )

(- ) Rayleigh. , ( 7.2).

7.2: Rayleigh

96

, . ( Lamb Love) , . 7.3, . , , (dispersive) . 20- .

7.3: Lamb ) )

. V . . :

= 2(1 + ) = , = (1 )(1 + )(1 2) , , Poisson, G . ( 7.4).

97

8.4: T : = V (, , Lamb, Rayleigh) f . . O d ' . ' , /2d. , . - 88% 12% . . Vl=V

( ) ,

l To : = 1 2

1 + 22 100% =100%-R :

= 2121 + 22 100%

1, 2 . , R . 7.1 : a) - b) -. a) =V=7.89 gr/cm3 x 5.79 km/sec = 45.7x106 kg/m2 sec =1 gr/cm3 x 1.48 km/sec = 1.5x106 kg/m2 sec = 12

1+22 100%= 87.7%

98

b) =1.2 kgr/m3 x 0.343 km/sec = 0.0004x106 kg/m2 sec = 12

1+22 100%= 99.999%

, , . (. 7.5) . ( ). Snell (. 7.5) :

11

= 22

, VL1 1 VL2 , 90. . Snell 90 . 1

2.

,

, . " ." , .

7.5: ) ) Snell

, . . , ,

VL1=VL1'

99

. .

7.6: -

( 7.6). . Snell .

11

= 22

= 31

= 42

, . 90 . , Rayleigh. , . 2 . . 1 . 2 .

100

7.7: ) 1cr , ) 2cr

4.2: Y 10

.

1480 m/sec 5960 m/sec 3240 . 7.6 : , 10

1480= (2)

5960 2=44,4

, 10

1480= (4)

3240 4=22,3

. (. 4.1b). . - - 10%-15% 12% 15%. :

101

gel

. . - - (near field & far field). 7.8 . :

= 24 = 24 D: , f: , V:

7.8:

. . . . ( ) 2 . , . :

2 = 1.22

(D) , (f) , (V) ( ) .

102

7.9:

, . (attenuation). H :

. 30% 50% 3-D .

. . ( dB/) . .

( , , , ..) . .

decibels . dB 1 A2 :

103

I=20log10

. . , .

(A1/A2)

7.3 30 . . / . LCD . , triggering, .. . (flaw detectors) . 7.3.1

/ . () . (. , ). , , . . , (SiO2) titanate (BaTiO3

) . Curie 1880. (. 7.10) (. 7.10) .

7.10: ) ) , . 50, (magnetostrictive) . ,

104

. titanate , 60 zirconate titanate (PZT: Pb[ZrxTi1-x]O3

. . . .

). , Curie , . .

7.11:

( 7.10) . . (resolution) . . . . , ( ) .

, (). .

. - .

105

o 1/4 , . 7.12 .

7.12: ) )

. . . , ( ) . . PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride)

. . PVDF . : 1. PVDF . 2. PVDF . 3. PVDF . :

106

1. PVDF . 2. . M (Noncontact)

EMAT (Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer) (7.13) . . () . Lorentz .

7.13:

: 1. . 2. . . 3. . 4. ( ) . 5. (Shear Horizontal) . .

107

: 1. . 2. 3. Laser

laser 1970. . laser, "" laser . H "" . . : 1. laser non-contact . 2. laser 25 cm . .

. , 3 dB 6 dB . (. 7.14).

7.14:

108

"Q" o . Q . Q . Q ( 7.15).

7.15:

. . , , . . . . , . . (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) , (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) . . 150 MHz .

109

. . . , , . , , 50 o

C.

7.16:

. , 7.17.

110

7.17: (. ). - -. "" . . delay lines. ( ) "" . , . , , , . delay line . . delay lines . .

. . . . C-scan, , through-transmission, ..

7.18:

111

( ) . . .

7.19:

, . , , . : 1. . : ) / ) 2. . , : ) ) 3. 4. . 5. .

112

TOFD TOFD (time-of-flight-diffraction) . . (time-of-flight) . (-). pulse-echo , . , . TOFD 2.25-15Hz

7.20: TOFD

113

7.21: TOFD

Phased rray Phased Array . . . (beam steering) . . . "" , . .

7.22:

114

. A-scan ( 7.20). A-scan . A-scan . . To A-scan ( 7.23).

7.23: A A-scan E B-scan C-scan. B-scan

. B-scan . . B-scan A-scan. , B-scan. . / . 7.24 B-scan. .

115

7.24: A -scan

C-scan . . . . 7.25 C-scan carbon/epoxy.

7.25: A C-scan H D- scan C-scan,

(time of flight) . .

116

7.26: A D-scan

B-scan C-scan , . . . . 7.27 . . C-scan . pulse-echo , .

117

7.27: / . . .

. .

7.28:

. , , .

7.29:

118

8: 8.1 . . () . ASTM E610-82 (AE) : , . . . (.. ) . "" . A/D (analog-to-digital) . . . , . 100-300 kHz, . , , , , . , , . , . , . , , , 20 1200 kHz. , 1950 . . Kaiser . () . 8.2 8.2.1 Kaiser

119

O Kaiser

.

.

"" .

,

,

.

8.1: Kaiser felicity

1

2 ( 2 < 1 ). : FR=P2/P

Felicity Ratio , .

, . , ,

. 0.9,

1

Kaiser effect

Felicity effect

P2 P1

120

. Felicity 0.95

ASME .

. 8.2.2 . , , , .. . 8.2.3 (in-situ on-line). - - (8.1) (8.1) . . (expert knowledge) . , Kaiser . .

121

8.2: C/E ) vs ) vs ( sec). . 8.2.4 , . (linear location) (planar location). - - . . . . .

( )12

d D T V=

122

8.2.5 . , . . , , . . /. 8.3 / : , . 8.3.1 . , , , , , , . 3.1 . (, ) .

(. ) (. ) - (. ) ( Barkhausen)

8.1:

123

8.3:

. , . . . . , . . , , , . , . . . 8.3.2 , . . ( ), , , . 7 . H . . .

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500-0.06

-0.04

-0.02

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

124

. . . decibel (dB) :

= 20

1mV. dB/m . , , .. . . . . ( ). . ( ) 1/r r . (Lamb, SH) (Rayleigh) 1/r2

. 1 .

8.4: , .

125

. . . . , . "" . 8.5 C/E. .

8.5: , . 8.4 -

126

, "" , / . 8.4.1 ' (transducers). , . , . . . 8.4.

8.6: , , . Angstrom (10-10

m).

. 100dB. 20kHz .

127

8.7:

( 8.7). AIRBORNE,

8.8 8.8 resonant () . 2 (150 kHz) 1 .

8.8: ) ) resonant

)

)

128

resonant ( ) . . . .. . ( ). . , , . , , . , , V mV. . . resonant 100300 kHz, 20-1200 kHz. 8.4.2 analog-to-digital (A/D) (bits) /sec . /D 40z 18 bits. H y, . N bits, 2 DR=20log(2 . : N ) . , , . . , . , , .

129

8.9:

8.4.3 .. , . , . . : ) :

, . .

.. . .

. ,

, .. ) :

. .

. .

. . .

130

:

. 100 300 kHz.

. . . .

. . . . guard

,

.

online ,

,

... 8.5 . , , , . , . , , . , , :

: , Felicity Ratio ..

(..): .

: . (modal analysis):

, .

131

. (conventional AE), .. (quantitative AE). , , . , , , , . , , , . (Scanning Electron Microscope-SEM) . , , , . , , counts . , , (pattern recognition) 8.6 , . . , , . . , , ( dB), . , . , . , , , . , . , 40 dB. , . ,

132

. :

it Definition Time (HDT) .

it Location Time (HLT) .

Peak Definition Time (PDT) .

: HLT HDT 2 x PDT . 8.10 HDT . : . , , . , - , . , , .

(Counts). (Amplitude).

(Energy). H

(Duration).

(Rise Time). (Time). H (Average Frequency). , ..,

. , (Events).

133

8.10: DT

. , .. , ... . , in-service.

8.11: AE

134

8.7 . . :

2 3 ( )

8.12. 8.12 a) b) . . 8.12c) . . . Kaiser Felicity. 8.12d), 8.12e) . x y ( 8.12e) ( 8.12d). To 8.12f) 6 . . 8.12g) . . (.. ).

135

8.12: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Y 8.8 , , , , , , , .. . . 1 . , . . 110% .

136

. , . . . . . 8.13 . .

, B , C , D , E , ,

8.13:

, . 1970 . Monsanto - . , 1983, ASME , Monsanto. 1988, 5000 . 8-30 ( ) . (, )

137

. , . ( ). load-hold. Felicity, load-holds .. ( 8.14) , , . 6 . , , , , . . , 95% 6 . 100%. , . . :

, 100% (. 50 1 ) in-service -

( shut-down )

138

8.14: 20.000 95 AE , : - 8.9 H AE , , .., , . , . , : , . . . , , . , , . , . , . , . . , . . , , , . . , , . . , . , .

139

, . , , , . , . , . , . .

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: (Eddy currents) 7: (Ultrasonic testing)