A Comparative Survey of California Penutian Harvey Pitkin; William Shipley International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 24, No. 3, Franz Boas Centennial Volume. (Jul., 1958), pp. 174-188.Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-7071%28195807%2924%3A3%3C174%3AACSOCP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 International Journal of American Linguistics is currently published by The University of Chicago Press.

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http://www.jstor.org Sat Jan 19 05:57:59 2008

A COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA PENUTIAN

In his classification of North American Indian languages, Sapir expanded the Penutian group to include a large number 3. Lexicon of othenvise unassigned languages of the 4.1. Consonant correspondences Pacific Coast north of California as well as 4.2. Vowel correspondences some of the languages of Mexico. This larger 4.3. Diffusion grouping was based mainly on morphological 4.4. Reconstructions similarities along with some lexical resemthe blances. 1. In the discussion which follows, Shafer, in two articles in IJAL, made an term Penutian will be used to designate the attempt to untangle some of the sound corlanguages of California to which Dixon and Kroeber originally applied the name,' i.e., respondences for the original Penutian the Wintun, Maidun, Yokutsan, htiwokan languages. His appraisal took fair cognizance and Costanoan families. The implication of of the considerable problem involved. I t was genetic relationship among these families is the first attempt to search for regular sound one of the concepts to be considered and correspondences but, as he himself recognized, the effort was hampered by the relaevaluated in this paper. When Dixon and Kroeber proposed a tively inadequate quality of the descriptive combination of these five families into a new materials to which he had access. More recently, Smadesh has used the stock, their conclusions were arrived at, Penutian languages as subjects for the testalmost unwillingly, on the basis of a high frequency of resemblant lexical forms. Some ing of certain methodological innovations in morphological comparison was also at- comparative linguistics. His research has tempted. This hypothesis of genetic rela- resulted in the proposal of a large linguistic tionship has been accepted by Radin,2 grouping which he calls 'Penutioid', the Sapir,3 Whorf,4 Shafer,6 Swadesh,G and member languages of m-hich are scattered from Canada through to the Andean area of Hymes.' South America. R . B. Dixon and A. L. Kroeber, Linguistic All of the above investigations have relied Families of California. UCPAAE 16.47-118. on scant and often poorly recorded descrip(1919). Paul Radin, The Genetic Relationship of the tive material. Even the latest of these-the North American Indian Languages. UCPAAE work of Swadesh-is based on brief word14.489-502. (1919). lists, usually unphonemicized and almost Edward Sapir, Central and North American always morphologically unanalyzed. The Languages. Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th Edition, 5.138-141. London and New York. only modern synchronic descriptions available are Stanley Newman's Yokutss and L. (1929).

1. Introduction 2. Correspondences

* Benjamin Lee Whorf, The Comparative Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan. AA 37.600-608. (1935). Robert Shafer, Penutian. IJAL 13.205-219 (1947); Notes on Penutian. IJAL 18.211-217. (1952). Morris Swadesh, Perspectives and Problems of Amerindian Comparative Linguistics. Word

10.306-332. (1954) ; Problems of Long-Range Comparison in Penutian. Lg 32.17-41. (1956). D. H . Hymes, Some Penutian Elements and the Penutian Hypothesis. SJA 13.69-87. (1957). Stanley Newman, Yokuts Language of California. VFPA 2. New York (1944).

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3

A COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA PENUTIAN

175

S. Freeland's Sierra M i ~ o kNo lexicon has .~ ever been published to supplement either of these descriptions. Penutian investigations have followed a pattern of supplying to the literature new and bold, but undemonstrated, hypotheses of wider and wider relationships,1 while those suggestions already in the literature have stood uninvestigated for the last half century. Mere speculation based on the use of imaginative techniques which are themselves open to question is of doubtful value. One cannot use a suspect technique to establish a relationship nor a hypothetical relationship to validate a technique. I t is now appropriate to begin in a more thorough way to examine some of the proposed linguistic affiliations by applying rigorous comparative methods insofar as it is possible. Penutian investigations have more to gain from comparisons initiated at the closest level of genetic connection than they do from those proceeding in the reverse direction. The predication of any stock is based on the correspondences between its members and not on undemonstrated wider affiliations with exterior languages. Only now are we beginning to collect extensive and accurate material on the Penutian languages. Until this work is carried forward and the pertinent data are made available, the nature of the genetic relationships, even within the smaller family groupings, cannot be clarified, nor can the families as such be unequivocally established on a genetic basis. No series of sound correspondences has been published either between or within the Penutian families. Neither phonological nor morphological cognates have been demonstrated. Further, the significant factor of diffusion has remained uninvestigated, even though the borrowing ofL. S. Freeland, Language of the Sierra Miwok. IJAL Memoir 6. (1951). l o Specifically, Sapir, Whorf and Swadesh, opera cit., and Edward Sapir and hlorris Swadesh, Coos - Takelma - Penutian Comparisons. IJAL 9.132-137. (1933).

linguistic material undoubtedly plays an important role in the development of the relationships to be examined here. But even a t the closest level of genetic relationship difficulties beset the investigator. One of the families (Costanoan) is extinct and the other four are rapidly becoming so. In these circumstances much of the lexical richness characteristic of living languages is forever gone. Only by rigorous methods can adequate reconstruction be accomplished from raw data such as those available in Penutian. Our goal is the establishment of regular correspondences among the five families and, concurrently, the identification and analysis of diffused material in the various languages. By this means we hope to demonstrate what genetic relationships do, in fact, exist among these languages.ll

2. The tentative consonant phonemes so far demonstrable for Proto California Penutian (hereafter written PCP) are listed below, along with the number of sets which occur in the lexicon as presumed reflexes for

" The sources from which the data in the present paper were obtained are: A. L. Kroeber, The Yokuts Language of South Central California, UCPABE 2 (1907); A. L. Kroeber, The Valley Nisenan, UCPAAE 24 (1929); Madison S. Beeler, Saclan, IJAL 21.201-209 (1955); and the following unpublished hlSS. Barrett, S. A,, Patwin field notes; Bright, Elizabet,h, Patwin field notes, Survey of California Indian Languages; Broadbent, Sylvia, (a) Southern Sierra Miwok and Chukchansi Yokuts field notes, (b) reconstituted forms for Rumsensurvey of California Indian Languages; Callaghan, Catherine, Lake Rliwok and Plains Miwok field notes, Survey of California Indian Languages; Lamb, Sydney, Yuki and Huchnom fieldnotes, Survey of California Indian Languages; Lee, Dorothy, Wintu lexicon; Newman, Stanley, Yawelmani Yokuts lexicon; Pitkin, Harvey, Wintu and Nomlaki field notes, Survey of California Indian Languages; Shiplep, William, Maidu and Konkow field notes (supported in part by Wenner-Gren Foundation grant), Survey of California Indian Languages; Uldall, H. J., Nisenan texts, made available through the courtesy of the American Philosophical Society.

176each phoneme :

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VOL. XXIV

DOVE, TO EAT ACORN SOUP, EEL, FINGER, FRIGHTENED, FULL, GRANDFATHER, GRBSS,HOT, IN-LAW, TO KISS, LIGHTNING, LION, OAK, POISON OAK, POND, THIS, T H R E E , TO T I E TOBACCO, TOUGH, T W O

(2),

(I), VAGINA,

TVOMAN

(1).*ph: Mm p- Ww ph-, Wp ph-, Yy p, Ych ph-, Mil ph-(p-),Mip p-, Miss p-, Crr p-. ABOVE (I), TO BLOW, TO BOIL, EGG (2), FEATHER, TO FLOAT, HEAT, H I L L (I), K N E E ,T O KKOW, BODY LOUSE, TO SWELL, T H R E E .

Two PCP clusters have also been reconstructed: *kw (10) and *nt (5). All of the PCP phonemes approximate the phonetic qualities of the reflexes they represent except *X which is a convenient cover symbol for a set of greatly divergent reflexes. At the present stage of our analysis many single items demonstrate unexplained reflexes in otherwise acceptable sets. Some of the reflexes of this type will ultimately prove to be spurious. Others, however, are doubtless valid and attributable to unknown conditioning factors. All such special reflexes stand in the present lexicon and are included parenthetically in the formulas which follow :I2*P: Mm P, Ww P, WP P, YY b (PI, Ych P, Mil p, Mip p, Mics p, Miss p, Crr p. ANT, BELLY, BOY, C H I E F (I), CHILD (I),The following abbreviations are used for the various languages and dialects: C Costanoan family, Cm Mutsun, CPmr Proto Mutsun Rumsen, Cr Rumsen (Henshaw), Crr Reconstituted Rumsen, Cscl Santa Clara Costanoan, Cscr Santa Cruz Costanoan, Csjb S u n J u a n Bautista Costanoan, Cs Soledad Costanoan, Hu Huchnom, M Maidun family, iLlk Konkow, Mm M a i d u , Mn Nisenan, Mi Miwok family, Mico Coast Miwok, Mics Central Sierra Miwok, Mil Lake Miwok, hlins Northern Sierra Miwok, Mip Plains Miwok, Misac Saclan Miwok, Miss Southern Sierra Miwok, PM Proto M a i d u n , P W Proto W i n t u n , P Porno, W W i n t u n family, Wn Nomlaki, Wp Patwin, Wt T r i n i t y County W i n t u , Ww W i n t u ,Wa W a p p o ,Y Yokutsan Family, Ych Chukchansi Yokuts, Ychaw Chawchila Yokuts, Yk King's River Yokuts, Yp Poso Creek Yokuts, Ys Sierra Yokuts, Y t Toltichi Y o kuts, Yy Yawelmani Yokuts, Yya Yaudanchi Yokuts, Yu Y u k i .12

*b: Mm b-, Ww b, Wp b-, Yy -b-, Mip -pp-, Miss p-. OLDER BROTHER (I), BUTTERFLY, T O DIG (I), DIMINUTIVE, DOWN (I), T O DWELL,EARRING, TO EXHORT, FOOD, IMPERATIVE, LEAF

(I), MORROW (I), SALT (I), T O

SIT

(I),

STORY, STUMP, WOOD.

*m: Mm m, Mk m, Mn m, Ww m, Wn ni, Wp m, Yy m, Ych m, Mil m, Mip m, Mins m, Mics m, Miss m, Crr m, Cni m.BREAST, TO BURY,FACE,

CEDAR, FIVE,

CLOVER,

TO

COUGH, TO DANCE, D.4Y,

T O DRINK FLY, INDIAN

(2)FOG

(~WO

occurrences),

(I),TO

GRANDMOTHER, MOUTH

HAIR

(2),

(I),

KNOW, T O MAKE, MILK, MOON, MORROW

(2),

(I),

NEGATIVE, OWL

(2),

REDWOOD,

SHAMAN, TO SMOKE, SQUIRREL, T H A T THIGH, THOU, THUNDER, WHO, TVOMAN

(I), (2).

*w: Mm w, hlk w, Ww w, Wn -u-, Wp w, Yy w (-u), Ych w (-u-), Yt -u, Mil w, Mip w, Mics w, Miss w, Crr w, CPmr w.BLUE, BRAIN, TO CHEW, CHIN, COTTONTAIL

(2), COYOTE (3), CRANE, CREEK, T O CRY, FOG (2), FOX, FROG, G R E E N (I), H I D E (2), HOWL,LIGHTNING, LOOK, MEDICINE, OLD LADY, RIVER, T O RUN, TO S E E K , T O SPEAK.

*t:Mm t, Mk t, Mn t-, Ww t, Wn t-, Wp t, Yy t (t-, -d), Ych-t- (s-), hlil t (t), Mip t, Mics t-, bliss t (-t-), Crr t-, Cm t, Csjb -tx-, Csj -c-. AGENTIVE (two instances), BLACKBIRD,OLDER BROTHER

(2),

YOUNGER

BROTHER,

NO.

3

A COMPARATIVE

SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA PENUTIAN

177

(I), COCOON *n: Mm n, Ww n, Wn -n-, Wp n, Yy n, instances) Ych n, Mil n, Mip -n-, Mins -n- (-D-),Mics FATHER, F E A T H E R (I), FINGERNAIL, F O G (2), n, Miss -n- (-nn- or -99-), Crr n. FROG, FROST, GRASSHOPPER, G R E E N (2) ABOVE (I), ALLATIVE, APPROACH, ARROW, BASKET, YOUNGER BROTHER, TO COME, H A I R (2), HOLE (2), IN-LAW, L E A F (I), LEG, LITTLE, LOCATIVE, HEAD LOUSE (I), OWL (I), EARRING, E E L , EGG (I), ELDERBERRY, E X CREMENT, EYEBROW, FOREHEAD, H E A R T (2), RACCOON (two instances), TO REST, TO ROAST, I, MEDICINE, MORROW (I), MOTHER, MOUSE, SHAMAN, S P I N E , STUMP, T O T H I N K (2), TO NEGATIVE, NOSE, NOW, OAK, RAFT, SIDE, THAT T I E (2), T W O (2). (2), T H I N K (2), THOU, T H R E E , TO T I E (2), T W O *th:Mm t, WW th-(t-,) -t-, Wp th- (t-), (I), U R I N E , WHO. Yy t, Ych th,Mil t- and -t-,Mip t, Mins t-, *I: Mm l (-w), Mk 1, Mn l (-d- and -w), Mics t-, Miss t-, Crr t, Cm t-. Ww 1 ( I - , -d- and -y), Wn 1, Wp 1 (-y-), Yy 1 COTTONTAIL (I), DANCE, EAR, F I R E , TO (-w or -y), Ych 1 (-n-), Mil 1 (-y-), Mip 1, S P I T , THUNDER, TONGUE, WEASEL. Mins -1- (-yl-), Mics -1- (-yl-), Miss l (-wly*d: Mm d-, -d- and -n, R'w d-, -d- and and -w or -y), Crr I-, -r- and -r (-y- or -w-1 (-r-), Mil t- and -dd- (-t-), Mip t-, Miss and -y). ABOVE (2) (two instances), BLACK, TO -tt- (-n-). BLOOD, CEDAR, END, TO FALL, HEAD LOUSE BLOW, TO BOIL, OLDER BROTHER (I), BUCK(2), H E A R T (I), NECK, STICK, T O T I E , T O S K I N , BUTTERFLY, CHILD (2), CHIPMUNK, WIPE. CLOVER, COALS, COTTONTAIL (2), COYOTE (I), CRAWL, DEAF, DOVE (two instances), EAGLE *s: Mm s, Mk s, ?tin s-, Ww s, Wn s-, ELBOW, FEATHER (2), F I S H , FOOT (I), Wp s, Yy s (s), Ych S- and -s- (8-), Mil 8-, GOPHER, GOOSE (two instances), HAIR (2), H I D E (I), H I D E (2), H I L L (I), H I L L (2), H O L E -88- and -s, Mip s-, Miss s, Crr $ (s). (I), HORN, HOT, H O U S E (2), TO L E h D , LEG, CHICKEN HAWK, CHIPMUNK, COCOON LIGHTXIXG, LIVER, LONG AGO, MOUSE, NECK, RATTLE, TO DIG (2), TO DWELL, EAGLE, ELK, NO, OAK, TO O P E N PODS, OTHER, PAINTED, FINGERNAIL, F I R E , FORMERLY (2), GALL, LEAF (2), LUMINARY (two instances), MOUTH REDBUD (two instances), TO RUN, TO SEINE, (I), OLD LADY, REDWOOD, T O SMOKE, S P I N E , TO SING, SMOKE, STAR (I) (two instances), S P I R I T , T O STAY, STICK, STREAM, TESTICLES T H E R E , TO T I E (I), TONGUE, TROUT, T U B E (two instances), VAGIXA, VALLEYWARDS, THIRST, TI-IREE. W H I T E , WOMAN (2), YELLOWHAMMER. *X: Mm h (?), Ww s ( I - , i-and -I-), Wn s*r: Mm -d-, Mk -d-, Ww -r- and -r (-I-), (1-), Wp s ( I - ) , Yy t- and -I-, Ych s-, Ys s-, Ych Mil h- (6-,-t- and -I-), Mip s- and -1- (h- and Wp -r-, Yy -t- and -1 (-i-), -t- (-8-), Mil I-), Mins s- or h-, Mics s- or 5-, Miss h- and -11-, Mip -tt-, Miss -11-, Crr -r, Cm -r-. DIRT, FULL, BODY LOUSE, MEAT, SUGAR, -I-, Crr r (t- and x-), Cm r- (t-), Cscl r-, T I E D UP. Cscr r-, CPmr t-.BUCKEYE, TO BURN

(2),

CHILD

RATTLE,

CRADLE,

DICE

(two

COPULATE, T O COUGH, TO COUNT, EYE, T O EAT ACORN SOUP, FRIGHTENED, H O U S ETO KILL, TO LEAD,

(3),

LUNGS

(two instances),(2), SKUNK, (2), TO STINK,TO TO

NOSE, T O PACK, RATTLESXAKE, ROCK, R O T T E S SALIVA, TO S E E , T O S I T SMELL, SNAKE, S P I R I T , STAR WEAVE, T O WHISTLE.

*E: Mm 6 (s), Mk 6 (s), Mn s, Ww c, Wn 6-, Wp c- (k-), Yy 6, Ych 6, Mil c (s-), RIip E, Miss E, Crr ts- and -6-.APRON, BLACKBIRD, B L U E , BUCKEYE, TO BURN FOG

(I), TO CHEW, TO CHOKE, D I C E , DOG (I), (I), H E A R T (I), H I D E (I), INDIAN (2), T O

178

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMERICAN LINGUISTICS PODS, SIDE, TO

VOL. XXIV

KISS, KNIFE, MEAT, TO OPEN SPLIT, SQUIRREL,URINE.

*j: Mm j, Mk j-, Mn -j-, Ww y, Wn y, Wp y, Yy y, Ych y, Mil j, Mip j, Mics j, Miss j (-I-). BLUEJAY, CHIEF (I), DERIVATIVE SUFFIX, DOG (2), TO FLY, FORMERLY (I), TO GO, HOUSE (2), INDIAN (I), OLD, OLD TIME, REST, SHAMAN, TO SPEAK. *k: Mm k, Mk k-, Mn k-, Ww k, Wp c-, ; -k- and -k (kh-), Yy 1 (g-), Ych B (g- and -k-), Mil k, Mip k (h-), Mins k, Mics k, Miss k (6- and -?), Crr k (8-, -x- and -s), Cm k- (s). ALLATIVE, BASKET, BLACK, BLACKBIRD, CHIEF (2), COCOON RATTLE, COTTONTAIL (2), CROW (two instances), DOWN (2), DRY, EAR, EEL, EGG (2), END, FISH (2), FOOT (I), FROG, GUN, HEART (I), HOLE (2), I, INDIAN (2), LITTLE, LION, LIVER, LONG AGO, HEAD LOUSE (I), OLD, ONE, OWL (I), PEEK, SEMEN, SMOKE, TO SMOKE, SQUIRREL, TO STAY, THIRST, TOOTH, WART, WATER (two instances), WHISTLE, WOMAN (2). *x: Mm 6-, -k- and -k, Ww x- and -c-

andk-),Mk h, Mn h, Ww h Wn h, Yy h (?), Ych h, Yya h, Mil h (?), Mip h, Mics h, Miss h. BUZZARD, EGG (I), TO FLY, FORMERLY (I), INTERROGATIVE, MORROW (2), NEAR, OLD TIME, STILL, THINK (I), YES. *h: Mm h7-), (?

(I-, y-, or

(It- and -k-), Wp 6- or kh-, -x- and -k, Yy x,Ych x (-xw),Mil -kk- and -k, Mip -kk-. CLOVER, CRANE, CRY, DRY, FEATHER (2), TO HAIL, MEAT, PITCH, POND, SKUNK. *q: Mm k, Ww q, Wp k, Yy x-, -g- and -K (-k- or -K-), Ych x-, -g- and -It (-k-), Mil k, Mip j-, -k-, and -k, Rilics -k-, Miss t-, -k- and -p (-g), Crr k (6-, x- and -@), Pmr k ( 6 ) . C ANKLE, ARROW, BUTTERFLY, CONJUNCTION, TO COUGH, CREEK, DIRT, ELBOW, FINGER, TO GO, GOOSE, HILL (I), HOLE (I), HOUSE (I), KNEE, NOSE, MOUTH (2), SNAKE, STAR (2), TOUGH, FITOOD.*?: Mm ?, Mk ?, Mn 7, Ww 7, Wp ?, Yy (h-), Ych 7, Mil ?, Mip ?, Mins ?- and -h-, Mics ?- (h-), Miss ?- (h-), Crr ?. CHILD (2), COYOTE (I), DEAF, DRINK (I), EEL, FORMERLY (2), HAIR (I), OLD LADY, TO CARRY A PACK, TO ROAST.

3. The items in the lexicon are written phonemically wherever possible. Certain symbols are thus not obvious as to phonetic content. The most important of these are: vocalic /y/ which, in the Maidun and Miwokan languages, represents a high central vowel and /c/ which always stands for [ti31 except in Mil where it is [ts]. The various accent marks indicate conditions of stress, not pitch, in all the languages. The lexicon follows: ABOVE (1). Mm ?epin, Mk hipin, Mn hipin; Ww pan-; Yy tipin, Ych sipin; Cscr rini. ABOVE (2). WW 7ole.l; Mil li.le, Miss liile?. AGENTIVE SUFFIX. Mm -toto each other; Ww -to%. Mm ALLATIVE. -nak; Mil n&kah to reach, end. ANKLE. Mm -sukG; Ww haqam. ANT. Mm py6jr; Mil putliukon. WW APPROACH. hina to arrive; Mil ?inaj. APRON. Wp coli; Yy donis. ARM. Mm jfm; Ww qede. ARROW. Mm n6K; Ww doqos, no%, Wp noko. BACK. Mm kfw; Ww yay, Wp kowa; Miss ke.wy?. (Note also: Yu Bblki, Hu K6.1kfh, Wa Kblll?.) BASKET. WW Keni; Mil K6ni. BEAR. Mn kaepa; Ww di.1 bear meat; Mil kdle. (Note also: Wa cfcca.) BELLY. Mm pft excrement; Ww pot guts, Wp pot guts; Yy bidik excrement; form reconstructed by Callaghan for Mil and Mip *pdtkul; Crr tpftin. (t indicates reconstitution by Broadbent.) BLACK. Mm ku16 dark, Mn kyljr; Ww culu.li ; Mil khwul, Mip kulG ?lu7, Mins kawyyly ?, Mics kawyyly ? night, Miss kawlyto?. (Note also: Psw Bili, PCBli.)

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A COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA PENUTIAN

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BLACKBIRD. Mm dakht; Yy dak, Ych d&xld; Mil dakhat. BLOOD. Mm sed6, Mk s6de., Mn sed6j; Ww teedi red. T BLOW, O. Wn phu.la; Ych pho.so?; Mil p68801 lungs, Mip p6hka1, Miss pohkal. BLUE. Mm siw black; Ww di1o.w-, Wp kilo.ke black; Yy diyugay green, Ych 6i?iwBaj. green; Mil giwii- green, Mip diwiity green, Miss Eiwiwwi yellow. BLUEJAY. Mm kAjhisky, Mk k&.ska.s;WW dayik, Wp dayet; Yy taytay, Ych dayday; Mil dajiik, gajiic, Mip shjsi?, Miss tajiEEu ?. BOIL, Mn p61 to bubble; Ww phot(uma); TO. Ych phutmoth;Mil ~6801. BONE.WW saaq blood; Yy diy; Mil kiccaw blood, Mip kiEEaw blood, Miss kyEEyE; Crr tEaE. BOY.Mm 69; Ych po6-; Mil pdtu, Mip pan6e ?. BRAIN. WW WU.;Mil wdna. BREAST. Mm mPn; Ww pimit, Wp Pemet; Yy minbix milk, Ych mini& Yya m6niE; Mil mfiu, Mip mdusu; Crr h u g . (cf. MILK.) BRIDGE. Mm j$k; Ww kawi, Wp doece; Yy de.la.lun. BROTHER, OLDER (1). Mm b6ky father (this form is not cognate with any of the other Maidun words for father); Ww labe., Wph laebe-, Wpr laeben, la.be(cu) (cu = my) ; Yy nibed (where ni- almost certainly represents a frozen possessor in the first person). O BROTHER, LDER (2). Mil ?at&&,Mip ?at&EEi;Crr ttitka, tt&ks. BROTHER,YOUNGER. Mm 76su older brother; Ww tes in-law; Yy nepeg, nepsay, ne?gay (in this case, the ne-, like the ni- in OLDER BROTHER (I), may be taken as an old first person possessive pronominal prefix); Crr tt&wsis. BUCKEYE. 66 tree, Mk, c&. tree, Mn Mm 6a. tree; Ww cati digger pine; Cr EaE, Cm Eatia. BUCKSKIN. Mm ~ 0 1 6 ; Ww quele elkhide, Wph kolay ; Yy waeyu? (cf. HIDE (2).)

BURN, (1). Mm 66; Mil c6up. TO BURN, (2). Mm tj.; Yy tulu. TO BURY, Mm thm; Ww durn-. TO. BUTTERFLY. Mk bhybalalth; Ww saysayboloq; Mil wo1601ok. BUZZARD. Mm ?as, Mk hy.s; Ww hues, Wp hues; Ych hos; Mil hdus, Miss hutawe?. CALL,TO. Mm jawi call by name; Ww qo(.)l mouth, language; Mil j&jju to ask for. CEDAR. Mm m$n; Ww moeri tamarack; Miss momok. CHICKEN HAWK. Ych Si?wa?; Callaghan's reconstructed Mil and Mip *sj,jju. CHIEF (1). Mm jop6ni head man, Mk jep6ni; Mil hdjpu, Mics hayapo, Miss haja.pu?. (Xote also P hdjja.) CHIEF (2). Mn hdk; Wp sektu; Mip Eeka. CHILD (1). Mm t6 (also, t6p daughter bone in handgame); Yy witeb. CHILD (2). WW %la., Wp e1a.y; Mins ?ehe.ly ?, Miss ?eselly?. CHIN. Mm haw&, Mk 6a.wA. tooth; Ww dow jaws; Yy ?a*as, Yya awaSi (possible metathesis in the Y forms); Mil hewwe, Mip hewme?, Miss ?awa.ly. to chew; Crr t?&mig.(Note also Shasta 68wa.k.) CHIPMUNK. Mm wisla, Mk wisla lizard; Yy hislo? mouse; Miss pisu ?. CHOKE, Mm bidis; Ww pic-. TO. CLOUD. Mm j&; Ww qa.h, Wp kier; Yy kiley. CLOVER. WW xolom wild sunjlower, Wp sa.1; X y xolom. COALS. wale; Yy sa.luw. Wp COPULATE. Mm hydjr; Ww sire; Yy titi; Cm rutus. COCOON RATTLE. Mm sok6t; Wph sikokay, Wpr sokot; Miss hokohha?. COME, Mm j6; Ww hina to arrive, Wn TO. hena. ; Mil ?6oni (cf. TO APPROACH), Miss pynny'. CONJUNCTION. Mm -kan and; Ww qa or. COTTONTAIL (1). M m te161; Ych the+; Miss tivwe?. COTTONTAIL (2). Mm w6kkes (possibly

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EAGLE. Wp su.1; Yy toxi!, Ych wiw8ul'; Crr tsi ?irx. DANCE, TO.Mm wet6m; Yy ha.tam. EAR. Yy tuk, Ych thdli; Mil ?&lok, Mip DAY.Ww hima. morrow; Mil hfi, Mip soMoto? (perhaps with metathesis), Mins ~ 6 m myesterday, Miss hi ?e.maj. (cf.MORROW,tooko$u?, Mics tooko8u ?, Miss tolkoh; Crr i ttuxs, Cm tuksus. with forms from the same word family) EARRING. Mm bond ear; Wp bono. DEAF. Mm 761; Miss ?o.li?me? deaf EAT. P M *p6; PW *ba-. (Note also Wa person. DEMONSTRATIVE. hed6 near, had&far, pa?, and Yana b&?iia-eat mush with hands.) Mm Mn hod0 far; Ww ?ew this, Wp ?ew this; Yy EAT ACORN MUSH. Mm hiip; Ww Idp. EEL.Wp 7openek; Mil ?updnnik. k e this, here, Ych he., hew, gew, Yw xe.; Crr EGG (1). Ww 1u.; Yy hon, Ych hoti; Miss t ?ewey. DERIVATIOR'AL SUFFIX (verbs from nouns). hoggu?. (Note also Yu h5 and Hu k6.) EGG (2). Mm phkphk, Mk pitkpak; Wp Mm -j; Ww -ya. phakphak;Mil ph&kphak. DICE. Mm cat&tta to rattle; Miss catatta. ELBOW. Mm silk wrist, ankle; Ww DIG, to (1). Mm b&; Ww (ha)pa; Ych haqa(m), Wp 6oke1, takel; Yy zigiw; Mil wa. ye?. DIG,TO (2). Mm s$k; Miss sype.. eiplik; Crr tkdlus (metathesis?). ELDERBERRY. Mil kiten; Crrt Ein(in)an DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX. Mm -be; Ww -PO. DIRT.Mm KMo country, time, M n Bodo; elder tree. ELK. Wp sawaeto; Yy sohgoy; Mip Ww qir, Wph Ber, Wpr Itir; Yy xotoy, Ych h&alu. xuEoy; Mip j6ttok, Miss tolle?; Crr ?Eire.

from *w6lkes); Wp welek; Crr tweren, fweyrin. TO. COUGH, Mm 4 0 ; Ww 4uh-. COUNT, Mm h6m-; Ww ia.rn-, Wn TO. 3ia.m-; Mip 16llam. COYOTE (I). Mm 70161, Mn ?ole; Mil ?61e, Mip 2ol6tti 7, Miss ?ahe.li 2, Mics ?a$e0li; Crr t6res bear. COYOTE (2). Mk h6no; Ww sedet, Wp sedew. COYOTE (3). Wt darawa, Wp hayu dog; Yy kayiw, Ych kayu?; Mil h&ju,Miss haju dog. (Note also Wa hayu dog and P haiyu dog.) CRADLE. tj.ty; Mil tcinuk. Mm CRANE. Mm whksi; Wp wa.k; Yy wa.xat; Mil w&ak. TO. CRAWL, Mm 1j.B; Mil I&taj. CREEK. Ww waqat; Ych wagay, wagat'; Mil wiiwwe, Mics wak&l, Miss wakalmyto? ; CPmr *wak/Ei/os. CROW. Mm kbkka; Wp ka.k, Ych gagnay, Crr tk&karu. CRY, Mm wbk; T w waca.; Yy wa.xal, TO. V Ych waxlith. CUT,TO. Mm -Bys, -kut; Ww gic-; Yy liiti.

DOG.Mm sj., Mk sy., Mn suku; Ww sukuh, Wp cucu, Wn sukut; Ych de.xa, Yw de.sas; Mip EciuEu?, Mics Eukii?, Miss cuku?. (Note also Wa Eu.Eu?, Yana sfisu, Chirnariko side and resemblant forms in other neighboring languages. Also, Spanish chucho, and Russian suka bitch.) DOVE. M *pdl; Wp polok; Yy ?uplalli, P Ych ?uplalli; Mil pdllu, Mip huldlli?, Miss Yulu.wi?; Crr txdnueim, Cm xunnun, Cscl liilu. DOWN. Mm kanhj, -kinu; Ww ken-, Wp cen-. DRINK (1). Yy ?ugun, Ych ?ugno?; Mil ?iigsu, Mip ?dssu, Miss ?uhu.; Crr tuk. DRINK (2) Mm mo. I, m6m water, Mk m6, also m6m water; Ww meam water, Wn mem water, Wp me.m water, Wpr meamol. DRY. Mm -B&l;PW *khon-. (Note also Yu k6n.) DUCK. Mm w&t-, Mk haatma; Wph khay; Yy haj.na; Mil w&tmaj, Mics h&t, Miss wallaj . DWELL, TO.Mm bis; WTV b6 -be locative auxiliary, b0.s residence.N

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END.Mm khn; Wlv keru- to finish, ?aka1 used up; Mil k6tut. EXCREMENT. Ww kina, Wp tena; Mil k6nuh defecate, Mip kj.na. EXHORT. Mm betBj declaim; Ww bic-. EXHORTATIVE. Mm -pe?e; Ww -bo-. EYE.PM *hien; Ww luy egg, Wn luy eye, lut egg, Wp si.n forehead; Mil $6t, Misac sette (but Beeler is uncertain about the reading of the vowels in this form), Mins sunty ?, Mics sytty ?, Miss hynty ?; Crr xin. (Note also Yu hQnt forehead. The forms in this set are part of a word family which includes EYEBROW and FOREHEAD given below.) EYEBROW. hinfskylyly; Wp sindeki; Mm Yy timit; Mip sempbkkaj ; Crr tsyimpur.FACE. Mm mussd; Mins maskafiy ?, Mics ma.ka8y ?, Miss mattalki ?. FALL, TO.Mm -da\v; Ww dil-, also tal. FAT.Mm h$t; Ww hu.(m), Wp hu.(m); Yy hixna? a fat one; Mil s6tta; Cm saure. (Kote also Wa h6mmiB.) FATHER. Mm thtta, Mn t6; Ww -ta.n-. FEATHER (1) Mm but6 hair, fuzz, Mk fiot; Wp pote; Mil p6tte, Miss posa?. FEATHER (2). Ww Bala(q); Yy xaapal, Ych x&.pAl'wings; Mil ~Ble, Mip Bale?, Miss hala?. (Note also Yu kh6ph,Hu kehs and Wa khaphe ?.) FINGER. Mm kipby digit; Ww Baha-, Wp dopom; Yy xappal, Ych xB.p&P;Mil l i ~ p u m . FINGERNAIL. Mil tii, Mics tissy hand, Miss tissy? hand; Crr ttus. FIRE.Mm sB, Mk sB; Ww sas luminary, Wp san sun; Yy Sa.pa to burn; Crr tsoto (These items are probably in the same word family with the forms under LUMINARY below.) FISH (1). Mm lumit to fish; Wpr lobe fishnet; Yy lopit, Ych lopis; Miss lapiasaj. FISH (2). Mil kjtac; Crr tkiniq/r. FIVE.Mm mBwykjr, literally one hand. In Mip, Mics and Miss the word for jive contains the element ma- even though there is no cognate word for hand in these languages.

FLOAT, TO.Mm py.r pi p6 to swim; ; Ww pho(se.la),Wp phow(tho) Yy ?e.pi. FLY. Wp homo.tay; Yy mo.riay; Crr tmumure. FLY, TO. Mm kBj ; Yy hoyon, Yya hayin; Miss hule-ty.. FOG (1).Mil mic-; Crr tmBEar. FOG (2). Mm tlw ; Wn t'umi.. FOOD. Mm b&t acorn meal; Ww b a t ; Mil wB~$a coarse acorn Jlour. (cf. TO EAT.) FOOT (1). Wn liole; Yy lialassa? leg; Mil k610, Mip k0l6? toe, Miss ky1a.y to dance; Crr tk6ro. FOOT (2). Mm phj ; Ych p&w? leg. (Kote also Yu mip6.n, Hu mipdn, Wa pe.) FOREHEAD. Mm syndakjt, Mk sj-.ndaliSt, Mn syn; Wp sim; Yy &nu face toward. FORMERLY (1). Mm h6jja; WTV ho-n, Wpr hoya; Mics hoy6e-, Miss hoje.non. FORMERLY (2). Mm -?us-; Ww ?us-. FOX. Mm h$w, Mk h&.w; Ww ha.w, Wp hasw; Yy ?a+ca?, Ych ?awux. Mm FRIGHTENED. -h6p; WW Bilep; Yy te ...; Mil qBlpi, Nip sell6j afraid, Miss hele. FROG. watak; Mil wat/iBak/t sounds Wp of a frog. (Kote also P wata?, wataq.) FROST. Mm ?ityk cold; Wp to.k(oma); Yy topol, Ych so.por, Mli tipmoti, Miss hityp; Crr tterx. FULL. WW par-, Wph paro.; Mil p611a.

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WWsilih; Mip siwwen. TO.Mm -Boj, Mk -Boj ; Ww qaya., Wp Hayi.; Yy xuru; Mil hokii. GOOD. Ww cal-; Ych gay 6s; Miss cyty ? GOPHER. Mm hi16 ground squirrel, Mk hi.10 ground squirrel; Ww yila(l). GOOSE. Mm Ij.lyB, Mk lj..lyli, Mn la.laB; Ww 1a.q; Ych la%?; Mip lakjtalu?, Miss laglag; Crr tlalk, tlBlak. (Kote also Wa lukh, Yana la.laki, Chimariko lalo, Shasta kararBx, P lala and lal.) GRANDCHILD. Mm sAk; Mil chcco. GRANDFATHER. Mm ?6pa, Mk pb; Ww ha.pa father; Yya bafi, Mil pBpa, Mip pB.pa? Miss paapa?; Crr ?pap. GRANDMOTHER. kamid; Mil hBma Yy Miss ?ama; Crr m6n.GALL. GO,

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GRASS. Mm $6; Mil pdta. HOUSE (3). P M *h?; Ww luet,Wp 1u.t; Yy GRASSHOPPER. Mm tjrl; Wp taram, b r a p ; ti?; Miss ?u.Eu?; Crr trukwa, tr6k, Cscl Yy tamawut, Ych 6a.riuwug. ruwam. (Note also Yu h6, Hu h;n.) GREEN. Mm tit, Mk ?e.titit; Mip Eyti?ti?, HOWL. Mm ~ 0 %Miss wo?o.ku?. ; Miss cititti?. HUNT,TO. Mm hiin; Ww liodu-; Ych GUN. Ww liulu.1; Mil k6ono. (cf. English xoyniri; Mil ?6nah, Miss halki.. gun.) I. P M *nilk; PW *ni, Wp cu my, Wsuisun HAIL. Mm 6 ~ 1 9 ;Ww kil, Wp 6el; Yy *necu our; Y nap (all dialects) ; Mil kSnni, xoawit, Ych xovis; Mil diwgi, Mip sawfina?, Mins kanni?, Mics kaqn, Miss kanni?; Crr Miss saawina?. 1-ka, Csf kana, Cs kana, Cscr kan, Csjb kan, HAIR (1). P M *?on6; Wp ?aria; Yy Cscl kan. ?otow, Ych ?66$w; Mics h&nna-, Miss IMPERATIVE. Mm -be-, -pi; Ww -be?. hanna?; Crr t?uri. INDIAN (1). Mm mAjdy, Mk mfijdy, Mn HAIR (2). WW tomoy, Wn tomor; Mip m&jdyk; Ww wia-. Wp wi.-; Yk maye, Yt told?, Miss tolkoh ear; Cscl tima, Csj timax. mai; Mip miiw, Mins miawyk, Mics miwwy 3 , (Note also Yu and Hu tdl, Wa t'61.) Miss miwwy?; CPmr *mukwe, Ccarquin HAND (1). Mm by- or so-; Ww se(m), Wp muhue [muwe], Cs mue. se(m) ; Mil ?ukku, Mics tfssy ?, Miss tissy ? ; INDIAN (2). Yy yokod, Ych yiik6d; Mil Cr is, Cs issu. k6oca. HAND (2). PM *m&.;PW *ma foot. IN-LAW, Mm p&t;Ww pite. HEART (1). Wn didik; Mil diddidik. (ProbINSIDE. Mm ?in; Ww ?el-, also ?ol above able diffusion.) (cf. Mm ?o- with the head); Mil liile top, HEART (2). Mm hBn; Ych honholi; Crr high, Mics liile top high, Miss bale?. INTERROGATIVE-DEMONSTRATIVE. PM thon lungs. HIDE (1). Mm -s&la, Mk -sa.la; Ww *he/o; PW *he/o; Yy ha., Ych hi/a; Mi ceday; Yy duluy, Ych do.nut; Mil gdluk, hintikaga how. Mip tSlka?; Crr tturum, tEitul. (Note also Wa cilla.) KILL, TO. Mm h6-(no); Ww ioma; Yy HIDE (2). P M *wold buckskin; Yy wa.yu> to.lio. buckskin; Mil kuw6elu (cf. Spanish cuero KISS, TO. Mm do$& dob6t; Ww-dup-. leather.) KNEE. Mm poli6s; Ww phuyeq. HILL (1). WWphdyuq; Yy pulia.1. KNIFE, STONE. Mm dfimmi; Ww debe(t). HILL (2). Wn col-; Ych tulul'. TO. KNOW, Mm mfik; Ych me;. HOLE (I). Mm ?Gllolok smokehole; Ww LEAD BY HAND, TO. Mm h6j ; Ww se.li. holoq, Wp holok; Mil tSlokh, Miss hollop LEAF (1). Mm bot6; Mip pfite?. cave, hollaw hole. LEAF (2). Mm SAW foliage; Ww sala; Mi HOLE (2). Mk tdk, Mip tu.ke?. HORN. dayas, Wn liili (ad Shafer); Yy gfianim; Crr 20.8. WW LEFT SIDE. Mm -duk-, Mn daku; Ww thaw; ?igil', pigel', Ych xoyeb; Mil killi, Mip killi?, Miss killi?; Crr tEi.rx. Yy taaca?. LEG. Mm tBl; Wn tole; Crr ttolz. HOT. Mm $ilis; Ww pila., Wp pilas. LIGHTNING. Mm ~ $ 1 1 (metathesis) ; Mip HOUSE (I). Ww qewel, Wn kel, Wp kewel; wdl?ep, Miss willopa?; Crr tw6xop. Ych xo?. LION. Mm pekdn; Ww patet ;Mip pfiawuk; HOUSE (2). Mm ?Qj; Mil w6eji. (If these forms should prove to be related to those in Crr tpenek house cat. LITTLE. P M *Eat creature; Ww kuete; Yy HOUSE (I), it will be possible to postulate gudi?; Mil HdEEi. (Note also Wa kutiya.) something like PCP *kwe/oli.)

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Mm kflla, Mk khllh; Ww kila, Wp cela; Ych kb-10s; Mil kblla, Mip kylla, Miss kylla; Crr ?$ire, Cs sfde. LOCATIVE SUFFIX. Mm -te; Ww -ti; Mil -to -t, Mics -t. LONG AGO. Ww ke1e.-; Mil kelhc-. LOOK, Ww win-; Mil wel6ete. TO. LOT OF. Mm pi; Ww bo(y); Yy mani?. LOUSE, EAD (1). Mil k6et, Miss ketty?; H Crr tkax. HEAD (2). Mm di; Ww don(os); Yy LOUSE, ti ?it. LOUSE, BODY. Mm pedks, Mk p6de.s; Ww pheres, Wp pheri.; Yy patat, Ych patis head louse; Crr tpor JEea. LUMINARY. Ww sas, Wpr sas, Wph sa; Yy sasa? eye. LUKGS. Mm huhli; Ww loso, Wp khossul.

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Wn dol-; Mil dolbomen. Mm -men-; Ww mina, Wn NEGATIVE. mena; Ych -men-. NEW. Mm b6j; Ww po.. NO. Mm wijje; Ww ?clew; Mil h6lla; Crr ta/e/okwi/e, tkbey, Cm ekwe, Cscl elekic. NOSE. Mm hi(ky) literally smeller; Ww liniq mot, sono, Wpr linik, Wph lenek, Wn sono; Yy tinili, Ych sinik; Mil hdk, Mip hbuk, Mins huk, Miss hukis he smells; Crr t?u.s, Cscl 16ni. NOW. Mil nih, nem this is; Crr tney, Cs n6ni, Cscr naha.

OAK. Ww penel black oak; Yy YPin acorn on ground, Ych bayiti acorn; Mil pen61iron oak. OLD. Mm k&j; Ww kiye., Wph 6eya.k old man. MAKE, Mm mb.: ; Ww mala.. TO. OLD LADY. Mk ?Bsyw; Crr t?Bwisorn old MAN. Mn -dy, Mk -dy, Mn -dyk; Ww man, t?a/ewB- old. -thu.; Ypc taat, Yt taati, Yk taati; Mico ONE. P M *wykte.; Ww liete-, Wp ?ete-; taiyic, Mip shwwe, Miss th.Ei? elder brother; Yy yet', Ych yet'; Mil kdnne, Mip kenhaty ?, CPmr *tca.re-s, Csj tare-s, Csjb tare-c. Mics kege?, Miss kegge?. OPEN PODS. Mm disyl kisyl; Ww 6ew(Note also Yu ?a.tht.) OTHER. Mm 6Aj; PW *kha.l. MEAT. Mm sj.(m); Ww 6i.r; Yy 6ixil; OWL (1). Mil tdkkuli, Mip tukdlli, Mins Mil sbkki, Mip hukku ?. tdkkuli; Crr ttbkun. MEDICINE. Mm wen6; Wph wene; Mil OWL (2). Mk hj..hyrn, Mn hj.mhymi; Ych w6neh, Mip w6ne? eye medicine, Mics hihhienb ; Mics sbkkumi? (perhaps this wonha 2. belongs with the forms in OWL (I)), Miss MILK. Mil mdu; Crr mus. (cf BREAST, also huhhumi?; Cs uumiB, Cscr umi8. Chinook jargon m68muB (?) cow.) MOON. Ww dana(1); Mip kom6?, Miss PACK, TO. P M *hh.. Ww io.(m); YS , kome?; C korme, kolme (ad Shafer). somol. MORROW (1). Mm b6nek, banhk light; PACK, CARRY A.Wp ?aha.; Yy ?&.pa.. TO Wp behna. PAINTED.Mm bBl; Ww mala. (cf. to MORROW (2). WW hima.; Yy hij.am, Ych make) ; Mil mhlak design. hi. ; Mil ?&wwehmorning, Miss hi?e-may. PALM. Mm t'ht'a; Ww daw. MOUSE. Mil solbkkon; Crr tEblon. PEEK.Mm -lifj; Ww kid-, Wp khe.wi. MOTHER. n6; Ww ne-, Wp nakhu; Yy Mm PENIS. Mm k6s; Wp yot; Yy tot'oy, no ?om; Crr Bna. Ych got'. MOUTH (1). Mm sfm, M k simmy nose, PITCH, RESIN. Mm dakhm; Ww ceki; Yy Mn sim; Yy sama?. (Note also Wa Sfma sa.xal, Ych ba.xaF. nose.) PLURAL PRONOUN SUFFIX. Mm -cy -ce; MOUTH (2). M k kbmbo (from *kbnbo ?); Ww -te.(rum). POISON OAK.Mm p6s; Ww potgom Ww qo.1, Wn qo.1, Wp ko.1; Crr txai.

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poxom, Wp fiokhom. POND. Mm pakhn; Ych paxis. PUBERTY RITES. Ww bala jirst menses; Mil bhla menses; PC *patyan blood. RACCOON. ?athta; Mil tdte. Mm RAFT. hlm n9 (ad Dixon) ; Mil nhu. RAT. Mm 6dmby (with regressive assimilation?), Mk dhmbd; Ww dude-, Wp tubes. RATTLESNAKE. Mk sol&; WW Mil hol6omaj. REDBUD. 191; Ww luli JiTower, Wp 101. Mm REDWOOD. Mm sumd spruce; Ww sumu(h) ; Crr tsumen. REST, TO. Mm tdj sleep; Mil tdje, Mics tyyj, Miss ty.j. ROAST, Mm ?itus; Mil ?itaj. TO. ROCK. Mm 76; Ww so.(n); Yw yakaw; Mil hoku, Mip s6wa, Mipleasanton saw&., Misac sagu, Mics gawa?, Miss hawa?; Crr tirek. ROPE. Mm &dB; Ww beak. RUN,TO.Mm weld; Ww witi.1, Wp witi.1; Miss hywaty..

SALIVA. Mm jakitn; Ww 10s; Mil hhkkoj; Crr trus. SALT (1). Mm bit, Mk b&; Ww bo.- deer liclc. SALT (2). Ww wel; Yy kuyu?, Ych khuyu7; Mil k6jjo salty, Mip k6j ?ot salty, Miss kojjo?; CPmr *akwes, Crr taks, taw6 salty. SEE, TO. P M *deli&; Yy sil'i; Mil ?dte, Mics Byjge, Miss hyjge.. SEEK, TO. Mn w&l; Ww win see; Mic welgy. SEINE, O. Mm 691; Ww suy. T SEMEN. Tliw k u y Ych lies. SHAMAN. M *j6m. Ww yom-, Wp P yomta; Mil jomta. This is almost certainly a diffused form; cf. Wa ydmmto?; Pne yomta. TESTICLES. WW siwi, Wn sewit; Crr SHARP. Mm f6k; Ww dice.. SIDE. Mm dAn; Ww dan. ts6lIos. SING. Mm s61; Ww da.w-; Mil k6ja; Crr THAT (I). Mm m9; Mil m&a. THAT (2). Mm ?ani, ?uni this; Ww Puni; tEunuy. SIT (1). Mm by.:; Ww bu-. Mil nee this one; Crr tnu-, dti they.

SIT (2). Mm ha. :; Ww -la ; Mil h6wo; CPmr *takwar, Crr ttakarap. SKUNK. Mm waj ?6; Ww x6.; Flip kho.; Yy cox, Ych soxw;Crr xom wildcat. SLEEPY. Mil Xckopati; Crr Btan sleep. SMELL, TO (trans.). Mm hi; Ww sube, Wn susba. SMOKE. Wph lelak (metathesis?); Mil khal; Cm bar, Crr tkar. SMOKE, O. Mm sCtk; Mil sdmki; Crr T tshkum. SNAKE. Mrn hhsky; Ww 1dq worm; Miss ke.hu ? (metathesis?) worm. SPEAK. Mm wdje; Yy wiyi. SPINE. Ww sutu- tail, Wp soto; Yy kutug (metathesis?), Ych gutox. SPIRIT. Mm 79s dazed; Ww les, Wp sel (metathesis). SPIT, TO.Mm flip; Yy tuh; Mil tdkih. SPLIT, TO.Mm -das; Ww bc-. SQUIRREL. comok; Mil cdmuk; Crr Wp ttsumuk. STAR (1). Mm lylj.; Ww luli JEower. STAR (2). Ww 1uyu.q star, porcupine; Mip holl6kay. STAY,TO. Ww suk stay, stand, remain; Mil sdkuh. STICK (1). Mm dj. thicket; Mil tdmaj, Mip tdmaj . STICK (2). Mm 6& stick, tree; Ww dues; Crr ?ti$. STILL. Ww ha.na; Mil hhali. STINK, TO. Mm hissa; Ww lala; Yy tikit'; Mil hdkuh. STORY. Mm betdj; Ww bol-. STREAM, DITCH. m s6w river; Mip sa.?a. M STUMP. Mm 26sdum; Ww ?oltubas; Mip toppok. SUGAR. Mm suditli; Ww xurxur; Mil k6j koj sweet. SWELL,TO. Mm pd; Ww phow-, Wp pholti; Mil p6-.

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THERE.Mm 66j other; Ww xa.1 other; Crr txliya. THIGH. Mm m&wa; Ww makas; Mil mdjja. THINK (1). Mm hd; Wn ha.1-. THINK (2). Ww tipna.; Yy tipna shamanistic power; Mip tdnnim, Miss tyntynny . THIRST. Mm syk, Mk sik; Yy hasak. THIS. Ww pi; Crr tpina-. THOU.P M *min; PW *mi; Y ma? (all dialects); Mi mi? (all dialects); Crr ?me, Csc men, Csjb men. THREE. Mm sbhy; Ww p a n d (analogy with TWO?);Yy so'pin, Ych sopin; Crr tkhpes, Csc kapxan. THUNDER. Mnz -t$mtjm; Ww thumu. (kus) ; Miss timmele.li 7. TIED UP.Mm budd; Ww pili. TIE,TO (I). Mm d61; Wlv doli, Wn dolla. TIE, TO. (2). n/Im p j t p$n to untie; Mil pitkati, Mics t6poon. TOBACCO. Mm p&n; Mip p&?umm&?to smoke tobacco, Miss pa?mu? tobacco smoke. (Note also NE Mono pahmuh.) TOSGUE.Ww tahal, Wph tahal; Yy talxat ; Ycu thalxas. TOOTH. Mm dik; WW si-, Wp si.; Yy te.yiy; Mil kut, Mip k b ~ t , Miss kytty?; Cm sit. TOUGH. Mm pAk sinew; Ww paq bone, paqa. tough, Wp pak bone; Yy pikil sinew, Ych pikil' sinew; Miss pasu.ka? sinew. TWO (I). PM *p6.n; Ww pa.le-, Wp pampa (by assimilation from *panpa ?), han- twins; Yy bonoy, Ych ponoy. TWO (2). Mil %$$a, Miss ?oti.ko?; Crr t?utis, Csj uci, Csjb utxi. TREE.Mil ?&lwa,Miss la'ma?; Cm arwe. (cf. Spanish &rbol,tree.) TROUT. WW sdlat; Yy dal'im, Mil hdul. TUBE. M m luld stem of plant, j6lulu flute, Mk 1u.l leg; Ww li.lus flute, Wp 10.101 JEute; Mil luldumaj kingsnake, Miss lu.la? flute.N

Mip ?&a?, Mins ?ota.gy?. (Note also Wa tqpic.)VAGIKA. Ww ldep, Wn pu.1 (metathesis); Mil llippe mouth, Mip Ij.p6? mouth. (cf. the meaning of Mm p j i s h ?&niclitoris, literally vagina tongue.) VALLEY. Mm koj6; Ww daraw. VALLEYWARDS. koj6na; Miss ?olo.win. Mm VOMIT, TO. Ww ?oq(ca), Wp ?ok(ti); Yy huxus, Ych hoxian.

Ww ditik; Mil sitkil, Miss senne?. WATER. w kiki ice; Mil kiik, Mip kiik, W Misac kiko, Mics kikky, Miss kikky?; C (all dialects) si. WEASEL. Wph thasi.; Mil c&ti (metathesis?). WEAVE. Mm his; Ww li-. WHISTLE, Mm hdk; Wlv (phu)lu.ra; TO. Mil hGujak. WHITE. Mm k6 snow, k6w gray, Mk ?e*kok6n, Mn kowi; Ww xasyi; Yv djolol, Yk tcoyoyi; Mics kel6lli. (Wote also Yu 661, Hu 661, Wa k&y%I.) WHO.Mm hom6n; Mil m6nti; Crr t a M ? (sic). WING. Mm j6 feather, wing; Ww qa(n), Wp ka(n). WIPE.Mm d&;Ww diat. WOOD. M k b&bak liveoak; Ww baqi thicket.WART.

YELLOWHAMMER. Ww dilew, Wp &.yak; Yy tiwissa?; Mil dij&ak,Miss tiwwaj (metathesis?). YES. P M *heh6; Ww ho-, Wp ?ow; Yy hoeho?, Ych hu.hu?, Ychaw ha.ha?, Ygash hoshd.; Miss hya?y.. WOMAN (1). P M *p6. daughter; Ww fio.qta, Wp hoketa; Mil p6occi. WOMAN (2). Mm kyl6, Mk kjrsle, myh6le (dialect), Mn kyle; Yy mokiy, Ych mukela; Mil k6lle; Crr6 txwan.

Mm dd; Ww dunus, duen, Wp tusnu; Yy duyo. urinate; Mil 76coh urinate,URINE.

4.1. Twenty consonant phonemes are provisionally established for PCP. Over and above these there are a few lexical sets which

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have consonants of infrequent and irregular occurrence in three articulatory areas: (1) those specific glottal correspondences containing alternations of / ? / with /h/: NO, ROCK, DEMONSTRATIVE; those specific (2) dental or alveolar correspondences containing alternations of /n/ with various dental stops; MOUSE, BODY LOUSE, NEAR, RAT, FAT, END, CEDAR, MOUNTAIN, LION, EYE; (3) those alternations within the palato-velar area adumbrated by Dixon and Kroeber, and characterized by Shafer as 'zipper' correspondences. The majority of the irregular reflexes are of this type. Consonant symbolism-diminutive, augmentative or emphatic-is involved in these sets and, although such symbolism is well attested in some of the descriptive material, it has not yet been systematically analyzed. The vowel qualities in the immediate environments of these consonants probably account for some of the complexities. Since these two factors are not yet too well understood, it is necessary to postpone the identification of the three or four consonant phonemes which are undoubtedly present in the palato-velar area in PCP. No evidence for glottalized consonants in PCP has been found even though three of the five constituent families have such consonants in their modern forms. Miwok and Costanoan lack glottalization except for Lake Miwok, which has a glottalized stop series of somewhat rare and restricted occurrence. I t appears that glottalization may have diffused into Penutian, presumably from the north. The segment *kw is assumed to represent a consonant cluster derived from the juxtaposition of a velar and a labial, and conditioned by the presence of a back rounded vowel or by loss of a vowel between /k/ and /w/. I n all the modern languages consonant clusters occur only fortuitously and in dimorphemic combinations (the Rumsen dialect of Costanoan is an exception), and the syllable canon is CV(C). This was very likely the situation in PCP.

4.2. Four discernible vocalic situations are found in the material: (1) the vowel reflexes are identical; (2) there are front-back alternations, e.g., between /e/ and /o/, /i/ and /u/, and /i/, /Y/ and /u/; (3) there is vowel harmony in disyllabic morphemes; (4) a syllable is lost. I n either of the last two situations, the quality of the original vowel cannot be reconstructed a t present, nor can the provenience of the numerous front-back alternations be ascertained. Both the Yokuts and the Wintun families demonstrate the presence of vowel ablaut and vowel harmony, while Maidun, on the other hand, is characterized by the frequent reduction of disyllabic forms to monosyllables.

4.3. To Boas must go the credit for insisting that diffusion is widespread among American Indian languages. Diffused elements and traits must be detected and separated before the details of genetic relationship can be worked out. The areal spread of glottalization mentioned above and the possible borrowing of the high central vowel from Uto-Aztekan into the Penutian languages of the Sierra are examples of phonemic features which may have spread into Penutian from genetically unrelated languages. We propose to exercise care, on the phonemic and lexical levels, in the segregation of such material. We have not reconstructed segments to represent these features. Within the Penutian stock there is also evidence for diffusion of /i/ from Patwin into Lake Xliwok. This is thought to be recent and presumably has no genetic implications. Examples of possible lexical diffusion included in the lexicon are: ALL,BACK, BEAR, CHIN, DOG, EAT, EGG (2), FAT, FEATHER (2) FOOT (2), GUN, HAIR (2), I, INDIAN (2), LITTLE, MAN, MILK, MOUTH (I), SHAMAN, THOU, TOBACCO, URINE, and bird and animal names. I n the case of the pronouns, forms similar to those in Penutian are spread widely throughout North America. Items

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the forms /bihi/ and /hibf/ are both attested for jingernail. The role of metathesis has been noted elsewhere by American comparativists.16 In a number of instances several semantically related glosses have interwoven historical developments: BLACK and BLUE; CRANE and CRY;EGG (2) and EYE; INTERROGATIVE and DEMONSTRATIVE; NOSE,SNOT and TO SMELL; LUMINARY, EYE and FOREHEAD;CHIN and TOOTH; etc. Numerals and kinship terms are examples of serial or system elements upon which analogy may operate. The Wintu words for two and three are a case in point as are the various kinship systems in the several families (not systematically quoted in the present paper). These latter must be compared as groups, inter alia, with a good deal of shifting of glosses wherever the segmental 4.4. An initial comparison of all five reflexes seem to be sound. Penutian families is useful in order that the There is much evidence to suggest that problem of subgrouping may be assayed. PCP, like most of the modern Penutian As Greenberg points out, reconstructions languages, had a disyllabic canon. The are facilitated on intermediate levels of predominance of monosyllables in the relationship with one eye backward to the reconstructions which are suggested below proto-language and one eye forward to the demonstrates clearly t,heir provisional present.14Such general preliminary examina- nature :I6 ABOVE (1) *Xiphin, AGENTIVE *tot,, ALLAtion is not primarily designed to provide TIVE *-nak, APPROACH *h/ ?in&, APRON morphemic reconstructions but to indicate *Eol/ni, BASKET *keni, BELLY *pi/ut, BLACK the smaller areas where detailed analysis would be most fruitful. Further research *kuIu, BLACKBIRD *Eakat, BLUE *Eilokwe, will proceed to extensive reconstruction of BRAIN *wa..., BREAST *mVn, OLDER BROTHER single families and binary comparisons of (1) *be..., BUCKEYE *Eat, BURN (2) *tu, BUTTERFLY *b010q, BUZZARD US, CHILD the families so constructed. Some methodological problems must be (1) *tep, CHOICE *pic, CLOVER *xolom, COCOON RATTLE *soko..., CONJUNCTION *qa, mentioned : such as CHIN,EAT,FEATHER (2), FOOT (2), (2), INDIAN, MAN, SHAM-IN and URINE are strikingly similar to forms found in neighboring non-Penutian languages.13Some of the words, e.g., EGG (2), are probably diffused within Penutian. I t is impossible a t this time to determine either the direction of the borrowing or the wider genetic affiliations of the languages Shipley participating in a set like, say, NOSE. points out that Yukian and Penutian (especially Yokuts) share as many resemblant forms as have been previously postulated for Yukian and Hokan. This is a typical context in which the question of diffusion versus common genesis is of crucial importance. The question of Yukian affiliations must be reopened with relation to the general problem of diffusion in Penutian.HAIR

Metathesis appears likely as a historical process in such sets as ELBOW, LIGHTNING OLD LADY, SMOKE, SNAKE, SPIRIT, TOKGUE, WEASEL AND YELLOWHAMMER. We VAGINA, also have evidence of metathesis on the ' 5 Mary R. Haas, Natchez and the Muskogean synchronic level. In hlaidu, for example, Languages, Lg 32.61-72 (1956). N.b. wide, page 67.Shipley, Some Yukian-Penutian Lexical Resemblances, IJAL 23.269-274 (1957). l 4 Joseph H . Greenberg, Essays in Linguistics (University of Chicago Press 1957), page 50.l 3 William l 8 Several reconstructions have been set down on the basis of reflexes in only two or three of the languages. I t is clear t h a t such reconstructions are particularly untrustworthy. Some of them will undoubtedly be discarded in the future.

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*-j , DIMIXUTIVE SUFFIX *pe/o, *ken, DRINK (2) me/om, DWELL *bV, EAT ACORN MUSH *XUP, EGG (2) *phak, FINGERNAIL *ti/us, FIRE *sa..., FLOAT *phV, FOG (1) *mVE, FOG (2) *tu..., FOOT *kole/o, FORMERLY (1) *hojen, FORMERLY (2) *?US, FOX *h/ ?am, FORNICATE *Xi/y/uCV, FRIGHTENED *...Xep, FULL *par, TO GO *qVj , GRASS *pO/U ..., GREEN *tit, HAND (2) *ma, HEART *hon, HILL *phuq, HOLE (1) *holoq, HOLE (2) *tuk, HOT *pila, HOUSE (1) *qewel HOUSE (3) *XuC, HOWL *WO?O, *nikan I (possibly two morphemes *ni *ka), IMPERATIVE *be, INDIAN (1) *mVw, INDIAN (2) *k06, IN-LAW *pVt, INTERROGATIVE *hV, TO KILL *Xe/o, TO KISS *Eo/up, KNEE *pho/uq, TO LEAD BY THE HAND *Xe/oli, LEG *tol, LIGHTNING *wi/ule/op, LITTLE *kut, LIVER *kVl(l)V, LOKG AGO *kel... BODY LOUSE *phe/orV, LUMIKARY *sas, TO MAKE *ma... , MEDICINE *we/onV, MILK *mu, MORROW (I) *bena, MOTHER *ne/o, MOUSE *Eolo... (cf. RAT), MOUTH (1) *sVm,N

(2), *qV11/1, NECK *do], NEGATIVE *men, NOSE *XVilVq, NOW *ne..., OLD *kej, OWL (1) *tukun/l, TO PACK *XV, PITCH *Eaxa, POBD *paxV, RAFT *nu, REDBUD *lul, REDWOOD *sumV, TO REST *tuj, TO ROAST *?itV, SALT (1) *bV, SALT (2) *kme/oje/oC, SHAMAN *jom, SIDE *Em, TO SIT (1) *buyTO SIT (2) *Xak~\~a, SMELL TO *Xi/u, SMOKE *kal, TO SMOKE *suk, SXAKE *Xuq, SPEAK *wVjV, SPIKE *suto, SPIRIT *XVs, TO SPIT *tuC, SQUIRREL *EVmVk, STAR (1) *luli, STAY *suk, STICK, WOOD *EVs, STILL *han/l, TO STINK *Xi/u..., TO SWELL *pho/u, TESTICLES *se/okwV, THAT (1) *mV, THAT (2) *nV, THIGH *mVkwa THIRST *sVk, THIS *pi, THOU *mVn, THREE *sVpVn, THUNDER *thi/um, TO TIE (1) *doll TOUGH *pVqV, TTVO (1) *pe/on, TWO (2) ?o/ut, TUBE *li/uli/u, URINE *Eu..., VAGINA *li/up, VOMIT *h/?oq, WATER *kik, WEASEL *Ea..., TO WEAVE *Xis, TO WHISTLE *XuC, TO WIPE *dV, WOOD *baq, YES *h/?e/o, WOMAN ( I ) *poC, WOMAN (2) *kVle.