a cognitive theory of...a cognitive theory of the etiology of fear jason m armfield ba...

A COGNITIVE THEORY OF

THE ETIOLOGY OF FEAR

Jason M Armfield BA (Psyc.&Pol) (Hons)

This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

School of Dentistry, The University of Adelaide

September 2008

Supervised by Professor A. John Spencer

Australian Research Centre for Population Oral Health

School of Dentistry, The University of Adelaide

426

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466

APPENDIX A – FIRST PAGE OF PUBLISHED

PAPERS

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APPENDIX B – CORRESPONDENCE WITH

EDITORS AND REVIEWERS

A separate 85-page document providing all correspondence with editors and reviewers has been

made available to the board of examiners.

NOTE: Appendix B is available on a CD housed with the print copy of the thesis which is held in the University of Adelaide Library.

476

APPENDIX C – HIERARCHICAL REGRESSION

STATISTICS FOR STUDY 2

Table C1

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of spiders on gender, negative evaluation,

loomingness, and the vulnerability variables

Predictors R2 R2 Change F Change F (equation) df

Step 1 .18 .18 9.38** 9.38** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .25 .07 8.24* 9.53*** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .76 .50 41.84*** 35.94*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. ** p < .001. *** p < .0001

477

Table C2

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of spiders on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .18 .18 9.34** 9.34** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .30 .12 14.93** 12.22*** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .60 .30 14.73*** 17.08*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

** p < .001. *** p < .0001

Table C3

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of spiders on gender, negative evaluation, the

vulnerability variables, and loomingness


Step 1 .18 .18 9.38** 9.38** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .76 .58 48.46*** 42.42*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .76 .00 .04 35.94*** 7, 80

Loomingness

** p < .001. *** p < .0001

478

Table C4

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of spiders on gender, negative evaluation,

the vulnerability variables, and loomingness


Step 1 .18 .18 9.34** 9.34** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .58 .40 19.69*** 18.98*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .60 .01 2.96 17.08*** 7, 80

Loomingness

** p < .001. *** p < .0001

Table C5

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of cockroaches with the vulnerability variables,

loomingness, negative evaluation, and familiarity

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .67** .46** .49** .82** .32* .31* .42** .17

2. Avoidance - .31* .54** .61** .39* .41** .49** -.11

3. Dangerousness - .24 .42** .20 .50** .34* -.01

4. Disgustingness - .41** .21 .14 .52** .03

5. Uncontrollability - .39** .28* .44** .03

6. Unpredictability - .35** .15 -.08

7. Loomingness - .24 .10

8. Neg. Evaluation - -.13

9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p < .001.

479

Table C6

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance with potential conditioning experiences with

cockroaches

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .57** .24 .11 .06 .01 -.08 .04

2. Avoidance - .10 .03 .05 .11 -.07 .16

3. Exp. 1 - .66** .33** -.03 .13 .06

4. Exp. 2 - .31* .13 .14 .10

5. Exp. 3 - -.10 .01 .23

6. Exp. 4 - .33* .24

7. Exp. 5 - .03

8. Exp. 6 -

Note: Exp. 1 = Harm/pain/illness inflicted on self; Exp. 2 = Harm/pain/illness seen inflicted on other; Exp. 3 = Harm/pain/illness heard about being inflicted on other; Exp. 4 = mother’s fear; Exp. 5 = father’s fear; Exp. 6 = Fear witnessed being demonstrated by other. * p < .01. ** p < .001.

Table C7

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of cockroaches on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .23 .23 12.34*** 12.34*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .26 .03 3.56 9.66*** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .73 .47 34.78*** 30.67*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001

480

Table C8

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of cockroaches on gender, negative

evaluation, loomingness, and the vulnerability variables


Step 1 .27 .27 15.97*** 15.97*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .35 .07 9.57* 14.91*** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .57 .22 10.10*** 14.93*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C9

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of cockroaches on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .23 .23 12.34*** 12.34*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .73 .50 37.40*** 6.09*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .73 .00 .23 30.67*** 7, 80

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

481

Table C10

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of cockroaches on gender, negative

evaluation, the vulnerability variables, and loomingness


Step 1 .27 .27 15.97*** 15.97*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .53 .25 10.85*** 15.02*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .57 .04 7.32* 14.93*** 7, 80

Loomingness

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C11

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of snakes with the vulnerability variables,


Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .81** .71** .60** .83** .57** .32* .57** -.42**

2. Avoidance - .62** .54** .80** .57** .41** .58** -.43**

3. Dangerousness - .50** .69** .50** .40** .60** -.32*

4. Disgustingness - .54** .50** .38** .64** -.38**

5. Uncontrollability - .60** .31* .51** -.46

6. Unpredictability - .19 .47** -.18

7. Loomingness - .45** -.09

8. Neg. Evaluation - -.43**

9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p < .001.

482

Table C12


snakes

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .66** .05 .04 .05 .04 .14 .02

2. Avoidance - .01 .05 .11 .07 .03 .04

3. Exp. 1 - .24 -.08 -.06 .21 -.01

4. Exp. 2 - .22 .16 .14 .11

5. Exp. 3 - .17 -.00 .25

6. Exp. 4 - .13 .15

7. Exp. 5 - .15

8. Exp. 6 -


Table C13

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of snakes on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .41 .41 29.64*** 29.64*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .41 .00 .23 19.66*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .76 .35 29.65*** 36.73*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001.

483

Table C14

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of snakes on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .37 .37 25.29*** 25.29*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .39 .02 3.04 18.27*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .69 .30 19,35*** 25.65*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001.

Table C15

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of snakes on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .41 .41 29.64*** 29.64*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .76 .35 29.92*** 43.11*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .76 .00 .54 36.73*** 7, 81

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

484

Table C16

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of snakes on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .37 .37 25.29*** 25.29*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .68 .31 19.64*** 28.83*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .69 .01 2.79 25.65*** 7, 81

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

Table C17

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of rats with the vulnerability variables,

loomingness, negative evaluation, and familiarity.

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .78** .77** .66** .88** .58** .41** .57** -.41**

2. Avoidance - .57** .74** .74** .52** .45** .66** -.51**

3. Dangerousness - .55** .79** .57** .37** .55** -.32*

4. Disgustingness - .65** .46** .28* .68** -.46**

5. Uncontrollability - .63** .34* .57** -.41**

6. Unpredictability - .51** .42** -.25*

7. Loomingness - .20 -.24

8. Neg. Evaluation - .41**

9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p < .001.

485

Table C18

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance with potential conditioning experiences with rats

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .67** -.04 .09 .12 .11 .22 .25*

2. Avoidance - -.08 -.00 .14 .16 .25 .27**

3. Exp. 1 - .52** .18 .07 -.03 .03

4. Exp. 2 - .26* .16 .10 .08

5. Exp. 3 - .24 .19 .31**

6. Exp. 4 - .42** .39**

7. Exp. 5 - .26

8. Exp. 6 -


Table C19

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of rats on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .38 .38 27.19*** 27.19*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .45 .07 10.47* 23.61*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .81 .35 37.72*** 49.16*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

** p < .001. *** p < .0001.

486

Table C20

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of rats on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .47 .47 37.54*** 37.54*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .56 .09 17.25*** 35.51*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .73 .18 13.36*** 31.70*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. ** p < .001. *** p < .0001.

Table C21

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of rats on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .38 .38 27.19*** 27.19*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .80 .42 43.32*** 55.78*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .81 .01 2.67 49.16*** 7, 81

Loomingness

** p < .001. *** p < .0001.

487

Table C22

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of rats on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .47 .47 37.54*** 37.54*** 2, 86

Gender

Step 2 .70 .23 15.40*** 31.16*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .73 .04 11.35* 31.70*** 7, 81

Loomingness

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C23

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of ducks with the vulnerability variables,


Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .60** .60** .30* .72** .24 .08 .43** -.02

2. Avoidance - .39** .29* .60** .20 -.13 .44** -.08

3. Dangerousness - .41** .64** .32* .28* .30* -.03

4. Disgustingness - .33* .31* .10 .28* .00

5. Uncontrollability - .34** .15 .28* -.08

6. Unpredictability - .25 .21 .02

7. Loomingness - -.02 .04

8. Neg. Evaluation - -.06

9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p< .001.

488

Table C24


ducks

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .48** .10 .08 .13 .17 .15 .06

2. Avoidance - .25* .16 .23 .09 .08 .11

3. Exp. 1 - .43** .19 -.03 -.13 .13

4. Exp. 2 - .48** -.09 -.16 .33**

5. Exp. 3 - .04 .11 .50**

6. Exp. 4 - .43** .17

7. Exp. 5 - .04

8. Exp. 6 -

Note: Exp. 1 = Harm/pain/illness inflicted on self; Exp. 2 = Harm/pain/illness seen inflicted on other; Exp. 3 = Harm/pain/illness heard about being inflicted on other; Exp. 4 = mother’s fear; Exp. 5 = father’s fear; Exp. 6 = Fear witnessed being demonstrated by other. * p < .01. ** p< .001.

Table C25

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of ducks on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .19 .19 9.74** 9.74** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .19 .19 .78 6.74** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .60 .41 20.78*** 17.49*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

** p< .001. *** p < .0001.

489

Table C26

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of ducks on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .19 .19 10.28*** 10.28*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .21 .02 1.68 7.47** 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .49 .28 10.81*** 10.88*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

** p< .001. *** p < .0001.

Table C27

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of ducks on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .19 .19 9.74** 9.74** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .60 .42 21.20*** 20.47*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .60 .00 .44 17.49*** 7, 80

Loomingness

** p< .001. *** p < .0001.

490

Table C28

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of ducks on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .19 .19 10.28*** 10.28*** 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .45 .25 9.24*** 10.92*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .49 .04 6.31 10.88*** 7, 80

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

Table C29

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of rabbits with the vulnerability variables,


Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .47** .62** .34** .74** .25 .28* .16 -.09

2. Avoidance - .45** .38** .61** .31* .17 .34** .17

3. Dangerousness - .40** .59** .26 .43** .01 -.10

4. Disgustingness - .44** .38** .35** .21 -.01

5. Uncontrollability - .40** .29* .19 -.04

6. Unpredictability - .45** .05 .08



9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p< .001.

491

Table C30


rabbits

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .35** .07 .05 .18 .21 .11 .17

2. Avoidance - .01 .14 .21 -.06 .07 .10

3. Exp. 1 - .40** .26* -.08 -.09 .23

4. Exp. 2 - .50** -.01 .09 .39**

5. Exp. 3 - -.00 .02 .51**

6. Exp. 4 - .41* .22

7. Exp. 5 - .16

8. Exp. 6 -

Note: Exp. 1 = Harm/pain/illness inflicted on self; Exp. 2 = Harm/pain/illness seen inflicted on other; Exp. 3 = Harm/pain/illness heard about being inflicted on other; Exp. 4 = mother’s fear; Exp. 5 = father’s fear; Exp. 6 = Fear witnessed being demonstrated by other. * p < .01. ** p< .001.

Table C31

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of rabbits on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .03 .03 1.48 1.48 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .10 .07 6.49 3.21 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .61 .51 26.29*** 18.06*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001.

492

Table C32

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of rabbits on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .13 .13 6.28* 6.28* 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .16 .03 3.01 5.29* 3, 84

Loomingness

Step 3 .48 .32 12.25*** 10.48*** 7, 80

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C33

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of rabbits on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .03 .03 1.48 1.48 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .61 .58 30.23*** 21.32*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .61 .00 .03 18.06*** 7, 80

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

493

Table C34

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of rabbits on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .13 .13 6.28* 6.28* 2, 85

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .47 .34 13.13*** 12.04*** 6, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .48 .01 1.06 10.48*** 7, 80

Loomingness

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C35

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of cats with the vulnerability variables,


Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .47** .47** .32* .73** .35** .11 .17 -.10

2. Avoidance - .35** .67** .43** .37** .15 .66** -.57**

3. Dangerousness - .35** .58** .35** .35** .29* -.12

4. Disgustingness - .37** .31* .35** .64** -.50**

5. Uncontrollability - .46** .24 .19 -.28

6. Unpredictability - .24 .24 -.14



9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p < .001.

494

Table C36

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance with potential conditioning experiences with cats

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .53** .18 .12 .14 .24 .21 .14

2. Avoidance - .10 .13 .12 .29* .26 -.09

3. Exp. 1 - .54** .44** .26* .18 .37**

4. Exp. 2 - .56** .10 .10 .25*

5. Exp. 3 - .05 .06 .36**

6. Exp. 4 - .29 .31**

7. Exp. 5 - .23

8. Exp. 6 -


Table C37

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of cats on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .43 .43 32.93*** 32.93*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .43 .00 .09 21.75*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .61 .17 8.95*** 17.92*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001.

495

Table C38

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of cats on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .43 .43 32.93*** 32. 93*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .43 .00 .09 21.75*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .61 .17 8.95*** 17.92*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

*** p < .0001.

Table C39

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of cats on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .43 .43 32.93*** 32.93*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .59 .16 8.15*** 20.06*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .61 .01 2.65 17.92*** 7, 81

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

496

Table C40

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of cats on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .43 .43 32.93*** 32.93*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .59 .16 8.15*** 20.06*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .61 .01 2.65 17.92*** 7, 81

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

Table C41

Correlation matrix of fear and avoidance of guinea pigs with the vulnerability variables,


Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Fear - .66** .38** .40** .51** .13 .23 .19 -.19

2. Avoidance - .41** .69** .63** .29* .24 .48** -.15

3. Dangerousness - .39** .62** .27* .15 .30* -.17

4. Disgustingness - .58** .30* .23 .43** -.13

5. Uncontrollability - .35** .32* .36** -.27*

6. Unpredictability - .43** .09 -.18*

7. Loomingness - -.10 -.06

8. Neg. Evaluation - -.33*

9. Familiarity -

* p < .01. ** p < .001.

497

Table C42


guinea pigs

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Fear - .50** .24 .20 .25 .13 .15 .16

2. Avoidance - .18 .12 .18 .28* .17 .18

3. Exp. 1 - .53** .27* .10 .25 .24

4. Exp. 2 - .47** .05 .11 .45**

5. Exp. 3 - .16 .30 .48**

6. Exp. 4 - .40* .44**

7. Exp. 5 - .20

8. Exp. 6 -


Table C43

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of guinea pigs on gender, negative evaluation,



Step 1 .07 .07 3.04 3.04 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .13 .06 6.15 4.20* 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .33 .20 6.11** 5.72*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. ** p < .001. *** p < .0001.

498

Table C44

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of guinea pigs on gender, negative

evaluation, loomingness, and the vulnerability variables


Step 1 .23 .23 12.67*** 12.67*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .31 .09 10.54* 12.89*** 3, 85

Loomingness

Step 3 .59 .28 13.55*** 16.54*** 7, 81

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

* p < .01. *** p < .0001.

Table C45

Hierarchical regression statistics for fear of guinea pigs on gender, negative evaluation, the



Step 1 .07 .07 3.04 3.04 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .32 .25 7.69*** 6.45*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .33 .01 1.24 5.72*** 6, 73

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

499

Table C46

Hierarchical regression statistics for avoidance of guinea pigs on gender, negative

evaluation, the vulnerability variables, and loomingness


Step 1 .23 .23 12.67*** 12.67*** 2, 86

Gender

Neg. Evaluation

Step 2 .58 .36 17.61*** 19.22*** 6, 82

Dangerousness

Disgustingness

Uncontrollability

Unpredictability

Step 3 .59 .00 .75 16.54*** 7, 81

Loomingness

*** p < .0001.

500

APPENDIX D – WORD LISTS FOR STUDY 5

Recall lists

Table D1

List of baby-related words, word valence and frequency

Word Valence Frequency *

enjoyable Positive 961

horrible Negative 1077

worthless Negative 350

soothing Positive 293

calm Positive 699

charming Positive 1345

frustrating Negative 535

fulfilling Positive 14

irritable Negative 335

crying Negative 74

disruptive Negative 380

enchanting Positive 155

boring Negative 1090

refreshing Positive 412

infuriating Negative 50

satisfying Positive 685

needy Negative 239

stupid Negative 2380

defiant Negative 356

huggable Positive 12

* Mean frequency = 572.10

501

Table D2

List of spider-related words, category and frequency

Word Category Frequency *

insect Stimulus 746

jump Stimulus 863

alarm Response 1678

patterned Stimulus 305

unwanted Response 792

terrified Response 158

bulbous Stimulus 75

web Stimulus 578

furry Stimulus 174

worry Response 807

horror Response 1949

squashy Stimulus 19

panic Response 1633

thorax Stimulus 64

scream Response 362

discouraging Response 109

spin Stimulus 89

shake Response 231

fangs Stimulus 103

sinister Stimulus 700


502

Table D3

List 1 of spider-schema words, category and frequency


lazy Miscellaneous 699

controllable Uncontrollability 99

unsafe Dangerousness 368

repulsive Disgustingness 122

usable Miscellaneous 297

unmanageable Uncontrollability 90

expected Unpredictability 1584

harmless Dangerousness 634

reliable Unpredictability 2176

erratic Unpredictability 395

handsome Disgustingness 1616

drab Miscellaneous 130

sluggish Uncontrollability 216

non-hazardous Dangerousness 9

diseased Disgustingness 178

unpredictable Unpredictability 668

unavoidable Uncontrollability 386

poisonous Dangerousness 420

appealing Disgustingness 68

smart Miscellaneous 1357


503

Table D4

List 2 of spider-schema words, category and frequency


industrious Miscellaneous 130

uncontrollable Uncontrollability 221

safeguarding Dangerousness 18

fascinating Disgustingness 1599

unusable Miscellaneous 91

manageable Uncontrollability 378

unexpected Unpredictability 2058

harmful Dangerousness 790

unreliable Unpredictability 475

unmoving Unpredictability 68

grotesque Disgustingness 292

colourful Miscellaneous 1095

fast Uncontrollability 1864

hazardous Dangerousness 690

hygienic Disgustingness 123

predictable Unpredictability 923

avoidable Uncontrollability 128

non-dangerous Dangerousness 1077

disgusting Disgustingness 404

unknowing Miscellaneous 68


504

APPENDIX E – COPIES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Paper 2 – Questionnaire

517

Paper 3 and 4 – Questionnaire

522


526


539

APPENDIX F – HTML AND JAVASCRIPT CODE

STUDY 5

Code for the computer program can be obtained from the attached CD.

NOTE:

Author advised CD never produced.

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