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A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah
Baartman District Municipality
January 2020
Project Title:
A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality
Program prepared by:
CEN Integrated Environmental Management Unit
36 River Road
Walmer, Port Elizabeth. 6070
South Africa
Phone (041) 581-2983 • Fax 086 504 2549
E-mail: [email protected]
For:
Sarah Baartman District Municipality
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality - Overview................................................................. 11
Scope of the CMPr ............................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the CMPr ................................................................... 15
Structure of the CMPr ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone .......................................................... 41
Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone Management ............................................................................... 45
Identifying ‘priority areas for management’ ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Objectives per priority area ............................................................................................................................................................... 50
Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies ..................................................................................................... 51
Appendix 1: The Public Participation Process .......................................................................................................................................... 52
Approach to Public Participation ........................................................................................................................................................... 52
Public Workshops and stakeholder meetings .................................................................................................................................... 53
Stakeholder engagement throughout the process ............................................................................................................................. 53
Review of the Draft Coastal Management Program .......................................................................................................................... 54
Appendix 2: Description and Assessment of the Coastal Zone with Management Recommendations – Methodology and Approach .... 55
Identifying ‘priority areas for implementation’ ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Recommendations and Implementation Strategies .............................................................................................................................. 58
Appendix 3: Koukamma Local Municipality .............................................................................................................................................. 59
Overview of the coastal zone ................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Segment 1A: Bloukrans River mouth to the Groot River mouth (Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area) ................................................ 61
Segment 1B: East of Groot River mouth to south-east of Tsitsikamma River mouth ............................................................................ 79
Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM Coastal Zone ................................................................................................ 92
Appendix 4: Kouga Local Municipality .................................................................................................................................................... 117
Overview of the coastal zone .............................................................................................................................................................. 117
Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...................................................................................... 117
Coastal Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................................. 131
Coastal Development ...................................................................................................................................................................... 131
Segment 2A: East of the Tsitsikamma River mouth to the western border of the Cape St Francis Settlement .................................. 134
Segment 2B: The western border of Cape St Francis Settlement to Romazini Valley ........................................................................ 147
Segment 2C: Romazini Valley to the south-western edge of Paradise Beach .................................................................................... 156
Segment 2D: Western edge of Paradise Beach to north of Marina Martinique ................................................................................... 172
Segment 2E: North of Marina Martinique to Noorsekloof Road .......................................................................................................... 184
Segment 2F: Noorsekloof Road to south-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth ......................................................................... 198
Segment 2G: South-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth to western edge of Gamtoos River mouth ....................................... 209
Segment 2H: Western edge of Gamtoos River mouth to Van Stadens River mouth .......................................................................... 216
Management Recommendations for the Kouga Local Municipality .................................................................................................... 225
Appendix 5: Sundays River Valley Local Municipality ............................................................................................................................ 267
Overview of the coastal zone .............................................................................................................................................................. 267
Segment 3: Sundays River mouth to the western border of Cannon Rocks ....................................................................................... 269
Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality Coastal Zone ....................................................... 288
Appendix 6: Ndlambe Local Municipality ................................................................................................................................................ 307
Overview of the coastal zone .............................................................................................................................................................. 307
Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...................................................................................... 307
Coastal Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................................. 318
Coastal Development ...................................................................................................................................................................... 320
Segment 4A: Western border of Cannon Rocks to Bushmans River mouth ....................................................................................... 324
Segment 4B: Bushmans River mouth to the eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth ...................................................................... 340
Segment 4C: Eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth to eastern edge of Kasouga settlement ....................................................... 354
Segment 4D: Eastern edge of the Kasouga settlement to the western edge of Port Alfred settlement .............................................. 363
Segment 4E: Western edge of Port Alfred settlement to the eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) ........................................... 370
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Segment 4F: Eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) to the western edge of the Kleinemonde West estuary ............................. 389
Segment 4G: Seafield (Kleinemonde West and East) ........................................................................................................................ 398
Segment 4H: East of Seafield to Great Fish River mouth ................................................................................................................... 411
Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe Local Municipality ................................................................................................ 420
Appendix 7: References ......................................................................................................................................................................... 464
List of Figures
Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al., 2009). ............................................................ 18
Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality. .................................................................... 19
Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities. ................................... 21
Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities. ............... 22
Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area. ................................................................................. 23
Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline. ........................................................................................... 24
Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline. ....................................................................... 25
Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al., 2014). ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa). ................................ 27
Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park. .................................................................................. 28
Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al., 2018). .................................................... 28
Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM. ....................................................................... 28
Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality. ................................ 30
Figure 14: Locality plan of the Koukamma Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the 2 segments (1A and 1B) and the extent of the study area in this CMPr. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 15: Google Earth image of Segment 1A (outlined in red). ............................................................................................................. 61
Figure 16: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ................................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 17: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 18: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ................................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 19: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ..................................................................................................... 62
Figure 20: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (western extent). ................................................................................................ 65
Figure 21: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (eastern extent). ................................................................................................ 66
Figure 22: Aquifer Classification – the western part of Segment 1A is a major aquifer (DWS, 2012). ...................................................... 67
Figure 23: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (west). .................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 24: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (east). ..................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 25: Coastal Ecosystem Types (NBA, 2019). ................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 26: Coastal ecosystem type threat status – Segment 1A and 1B (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................ 71
Figure 27: Restricted Zone, and Coastal Control Zones (TCCZ1 to 3) in the Tsitsikamma National Park MPA (Regulations for the Management of the Tsitsikamma National Park Marine Protected Area, DEFF 2016). ............................................................................ 72
Figure 28: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010). .......................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 29: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................................. 75
Figure 30: Land Cover map for Segment 1A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Figure 31: Google Earth image of Segment 1B (outlined in red). ............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 32: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1B. ........................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 33: Aquifer Classification – most of Segment 1B is a minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve (DWS, 2012). ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Figure 34: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1B. ............................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 35: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010). .......................................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 36: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................................. 87
Figure 37: Land Cover map for Segment 1B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Figure 38: Google Earth image showing coastal development and access issues at Eersterivier. .......................................................... 91
Figure 39: Estuaries in the Kouga LM coastal zone. .............................................................................................................................. 118
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Figure 40: Aquatic features in the Kouga LM coastal zone. ................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 41: The Kouga LM coastal zone is part of a ‘major aquifer’ (DWS Aquifer Classification, 2012). ................................................ 119
Figure 42: Notable coastal dunefields in the Kouga LM (Illenberger, 2009). .......................................................................................... 121
Figure 43: Threatened ecosystems in the catchment of the Kouga LM coastal zone (National List of Threatened Ecosystems, 2011). 122
Figure 44: Vegetation types in the Kouga LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018). ...................................................................................... 122
Figure 45: DEFF Forest areas, CREW threatened/protected plants, stromatolites and Important Bird Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 124
Figure 46: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan). ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Figure 47: Protected Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ............................................................................................... 126
Figure 48: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM west) (NBA, 2019). ................................................................................................... 127
Figure 49: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM St Francis Bay to Jeffreys Bay) (NBA, 2019). .......................................................... 128
Figure 50: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM Jeffreys Bay to Van Stadens Estuary) (NBA, 2019). ............................................... 129
Figure 51: Coastal Ecosystem Type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 130
Figure 52: Locality plan of the Kouga Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (2A to 2H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr. ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 133
Figure 53: Google Earth image of Segment 2A (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 134
Figure 54: Overview of the mobile headland bypass dunefields between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay. ........................................... 137
Figure 55: Overview of some of the existing informal footpaths (A to N) to the beach in the village of Oyster Bay. Sand management measures have already been put in place near ‘A’ and between ‘L’ and ‘M’. ......................................................................................... 139
Figure 56: Pollution risk areas in Segment 2A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ............................................................................................................................................... 141
Figure 57: Land Cover map for Segment 2A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 58: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing changes in dune and estuary dynamics in the area that was flood damaged by the Slang Estuary in 2011/2012, and after dune rehabilitation measures used. ................................................................ 145
Figure 59: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing dune advancement in a NE direction. ........................................... 146
Figure 60: Google Earth image of Segment 2B (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 147
Figure 61: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2B to 2E based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 151
Figure 62: Land Cover map for Segment 2B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 63: Some identified coastal development issues in Segment 2B. ............................................................................................... 155
Figure 64: Google Earth image of Segment 2C (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 156
Figure 65: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2c. ........................................................................................................................ 160
Figure 66: Land Cover map for Segment 2C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 164
Figure 67: Extract from the Kouga SDF (2015) showing the recommended development setback line on the Kromme River (pink dashed line). ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 68: Coastal development issues between Romazini Valley and Harbour Road. ......................................................................... 166
Figure 69: Coastal development issues between Nevil Road and the Golf Course. ............................................................................... 167
Figure 70: Coastal development issues between the Golf Course and the canals. ............................................................................... 168
Figure 71: Coastal development issues in the vicinity of the Kromme estuary mouth. ........................................................................... 169
Figure 72: Google Earth image of Segment 2D (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 172
Figure 73: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2D. ........................................................................................................................ 174
Figure 74: Development south of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 176
Figure 75: Development within and north-east of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow – Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 177
Figure 76: Land Cover map for Segment 2D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 181
Figure 77: Footpaths over dunes to the beach identified in a Google Earth image (2019) in Segment 2D. ........................................... 183
Figure 78: Google Earth image of Segment 2E (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 184
Figure 79: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2E. ........................................................................................................................ 186
Figure 80: Some examples of areas in Segment 2E where pollution from sewage and solid waste are problematic. ............................ 188
Figure 81: Land Cover map for Segment 2E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 82: Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2E. ................................................................................................................... 191
Figure 83: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between the southern extent of the Segment and Woltemade Street. The parking area near Pellsrus that needs to be upgraded, and the launch site with safety risks is shown. .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Figure 84: Coastal development issues at the beach near Pellsrus. ...................................................................................................... 194
Figure 85: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Drommedaris Street and Myrtle Road. .................................................................................................................................................................................... 196
Figure 86: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Petunia Avenue and Noorsekloof Road. .................................................................................................................................................................................. 197
Figure 87: Google Earth image of Segment 2F (outlined in red). .......................................................................................................... 198
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Figure 88: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2F. ........................................................................................................................ 200
Figure 89: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2F to 2H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 202
Figure 90: Land Cover map for Segment 2F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 205
Figure 91: Public recreational areas, Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2F. .......................................................................... 206
Figure 92: Coastal development issues near the Kabeljous Estuary Mouth. .......................................................................................... 207
Figure 93: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and markers showing areas where informal access over dunes and/or access from private residences occurs................................................................................................................................................... 208
Figure 94: Google Earth image of Segment 2G (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 209
Figure 95: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2G. ....................................................................................................................... 212
Figure 96: An aerial image (2018) of the Papiesfontein wetlands on the eastern side of the Kabeljous Estuary mouth. ....................... 213
Figure 97: Land Cover map for Segment 2G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 215
Figure 98: Google Earth image of Segment 2H (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 216
Figure 99: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2H. ........................................................................................................................ 219
Figure 100: Gamtoos Estuary Zonation Plan, showing the proposed sanctuary areas, the conservation area inclusive of the 100 m riparian buffer zone, wake zones (including a preliminary skiing zone) and priority rehabilitation sites (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)......................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 101: Land Cover map for Segment 2H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 223
Figure 102: Resorts, structures and infrastructure in the Gamtoos Estuary (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)............................................................................................................................................................................. 224
Figure 103: Locality plan of the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the extent of the study area in this CMPr. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 268
Figure 104: Google Earth image of Segment 3 (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 269
Figure 105: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 270
Figure 106: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 270
Figure 107: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 270
Figure 108: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 270
Figure 109: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 3. ......................................................................................................................... 273
Figure 110: Aquifer Classification (DWS, 2012). .................................................................................................................................... 274
Figure 111: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan) and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009), and forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory). ............................................................................................................................ 275
Figure 112: Protected Areas in Segment 3. ............................................................................................................................................ 276
Figure 113: Zones in the AENP MPA as per the Regulations for the management of the MPA (published in terms of the Protected Areas Act on 23 May 2019) (SICZ: Sundays inshore Controlled Zone, SERZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Restricted Zone, SECZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Controlled Zone, SIRZ: Sundays inshore Restricted Zone, StCORZ: St. Croix Island Offshore Restricted Zone, SOCZ: Sundays Offshore Controlled Zone, CPICZ: Cape Padrone inshore Controlled Zone, CRICZ: Cannon Rocks inshore Controlled Zone, CROCZ: Cannon Rocks Offshore Controlled Zone, BIORZ: Bird Island Offshore Restricted Zone). .................................................................... 277
Figure 114: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Sundays River Valley LM) (NBA, 2019). .................................................................................. 278
Figure 115: Coastal ecosystem type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 279
Figure 116: Pollution risk areas in Segment 3 based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ............................................................................................................................................... 283
Figure 117: Monitoring stations in the AENP MPA operated by SAEON and SAIAB. ............................................................................ 284
Figure 118: Land Cover map for Segment 3 (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 286
Figure 119: Various zones identified in the AENP Management Plan that have relevance to development planning in areas outside the Park (AENP Management Plan, 2015-2025). ......................................................................................................................................... 287
Figure 120: Estuaries in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (note the Old Womans River is indicated for reference purposes and is not within the Ndlambe LM). ......................................................................................................................................................................... 308
Figure 121: Aquatic features in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone. ............................................................................................................. 309
Figure 122: Aquifer Classification of the Ndlambe LM (DWS, 2012). ..................................................................................................... 310
Figure 123: Vegetation types in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018). ................................................................................ 312
Figure 124: DEFF Forest areas and Important Bird Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone. ................................................................ 313
Figure 125: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (Sundays River Valley LM Biodiversity Sector Plan). ....................................................................................................................................................................... 314
Figure 126: Protected Areas in the western section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ..................................................... 315
Figure 127: Protected Areas in the eastern section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ...................................................... 316
Figure 128: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Ndlambe LM) (NBA, 2019). ...................................................................................................... 317
Figure 129: Coastal ecosystem type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 318
Figure 130: Locality plan of the Ndlambe Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (4A to 4H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr. ............................................................................................................................................................................. 323
Figure 131: Google Earth image of Segment 4A (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 324
Figure 132: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 325
Figure 133: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 325
Figure 134: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 325
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Figure 135: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 325
Figure 136: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4A. ...................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 137: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009). ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 328
Figure 138: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4A and 4B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 330
Figure 139: Land Cover map for Segment 4A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Figure 140: Desired spatial form of Cannon Rocks (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ........................................................................................... 334
Figure 141: Desired spatial form of Bokens (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ....................................................................................................... 335
Figure 142: Coastal development issues in Segment 4A. ...................................................................................................................... 336
Figure 143: Sections of Cannon Rocks and Boknes villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 339
Figure 144: Google Earth image of Segment 4B (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 340
Figure 145: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 341
Figure 146: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 341
Figure 147: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 341
Figure 148: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 341
Figure 149: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4B. ...................................................................................................................... 343
Figure 150: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009). ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 344
Figure 151: Protected Areas in Segment 4B (NBA, 2018)...................................................................................................................... 345
Figure 152: Land Cover map for Segment 4B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 350
Figure 153: Desired spatial form of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). .................................................................. 351
Figure 154: Coastal development issues in Segment 4B. ...................................................................................................................... 352
Figure 155: Sections of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 353
Figure 156: Google Earth image of Segment 4C (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 354
Figure 157: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 355
Figure 158: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 355
Figure 159: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4C. ...................................................................................................................... 357
Figure 160: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4C. .............................................................................................................................. 358
Figure 161: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4C and D based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution ................................................................................................................................. 360
Figure 162: Land Cover map for Segment 4C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 362
Figure 163: Google Earth image of Segment 4D (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 363
Figure 164: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 364
Figure 165: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 364
Figure 166: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 364
Figure 167: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 364
Figure 168: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4D. ...................................................................................................................... 366
Figure 169: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4D. .............................................................................................................................. 367
Figure 170: Land Cover map for Segment 4D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 369
Figure 171: Google Earth image of Segment 4E (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 370
Figure 172: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 371
Figure 173: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 371
Figure 174: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 371
Figure 175: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 371
Figure 176: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4E. ....................................................................................................................... 372
Figure 177: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4E. .............................................................................................................................. 373
Figure 178: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4E and 4F based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 376
Figure 179: Land Cover map for Segment 4E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 379
Figure 180: Desired spatial form of Port Alfred (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ................................................................................................. 380
Figure 181: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Freshwater Road and Shelley Beach parking. .............. 382
Figure 182: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Kelly’s Beach and West Beach Pier. ............................. 383
Figure 183: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the Kowie estuary and area to the east. .................................................... 384
Figure 184: Boreholes, electrical and water infrastructure in the dunefields at East Beach. .................................................................. 385
Figure 185: Sections of Port Alfred (Kowie Estuary and CBD) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 386
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Figure 186: Sections of Port Alfred (west of the Kowie Estuary) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 387
Figure 187: Google Earth image of Segment 4F (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 389
Figure 188: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 390
Figure 189: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 390
Figure 190: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4F. ....................................................................................................................... 392
Figure 191: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4F. ............................................................................................................................... 393
Figure 192: Land Cover map for Segment 4F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 396
Figure 193: Coastal Development issues in Segment 4F. ...................................................................................................................... 397
Figure 194: Google Earth image of Segment 4G (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 398
Figure 195: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 399
Figure 196: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 399
Figure 197: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 399
Figure 198: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4G. ...................................................................................................................... 401
Figure 199: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4G. .............................................................................................................................. 402
Figure 200: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4G and 4H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 404
Figure 201: Land Cover map for Segment 4G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 406
Figure 202: Desired spatial form of Seafield (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ...................................................................................................... 407
Figure 203: Coastal development issues in Segment 4G. ...................................................................................................................... 408
Figure 204: Sections of Seafield that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............ 409
Figure 205: Google Earth image of Segment 4H (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 411
Figure 206: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 412
Figure 207: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 412
Figure 208: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 412
Figure 209: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4H. ...................................................................................................................... 414
Figure 210: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4H. .............................................................................................................................. 415
Figure 211: Land Cover map for Segment 4H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 418
Figure 212: Coastal development issues in Segment 4H. ...................................................................................................................... 419
List of Tables
Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone). Red = high, Orange = medium, Green = Low......................................................................... 37
Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 47
Table 4: Project Steering Committee members ........................................................................................................................................ 52
Table 5: Timeframes for implementing recommended actions ................................................................................................................. 58
Table 6: Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM coastal zone ....................................................................................... 92
Table 7: Management Recommendations for the Kouga LM Coastal Zone ........................................................................................... 225
Table 8: Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone ..................................................................... 288
Table 9: Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe LM Coastal Zone ....................................................................................... 420
9
List of Acronyms
AENP Addo Elephant National Park
AIP Alien Invasive Plant
BGIS Biodiversity Geographic Information System
CBA Critical Biodiversity Area
CDC Coega Development Corporation
CMPr Coastal Management Program
CREW Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers
CWDP Coastal Waters Discharge Permit
DEDEAT Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism
DEFF Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
DM District Municipality
DWS Department of Water and Sanitation
EAP Environmental Assessment Practitioner
ECBCP Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan
ECO Environmental Control Officer
ECPTA Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency
ECHRA Eastern Cape Heritage Resources Agency
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMF Environmental Management Framework
EPIP Environmental Protection and Infrastructure Programmes
FOSTER Friends of St Francis Nature Areas
GDP-R Gross Domestic Product by Region
GRNP Garden Route National Park
HDI Human Development Index
IBA Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas
ICMA Integrated Coastal Management Act
IDP Integrated Development Plan
IDZ Industrial Development Zone
Km kilometer
10
LED Local Economic Development
LM Local Municipality
MEC Member of Executive Council
MPA Marine Protected Area
MSL mean sea level
NBA National Biodiversity Assessment
NEMA National Environmental Management Act
NFEPA National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Area
NGO Non Government Organisation
NMU Nelson Mandela University
OSMP Open Space Management Plan
PA Protected Area
PES Present Ecological State
PSC Project Steering Committee
REC Recommended Ecological Condition
REI River-Estuary Interface
RO Reverse Osmosis
SAEON South African Environmental Observation Network
SAHRIS South African Heritage Resources Information System
SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute
SANCCOB Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds
SANParks South African National Parks
SAWIC South African Waste Information Centre
SBDM Sarah Baartman District Municipality
SDF Spatial Development Framework
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SRV Sundays River Valley
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
SWSA Strategic Water Source Areas
TNPA Transnet National Ports Authority
WESSA Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa
WUA Water Use Authorisation
11
A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah
Baartman District Municipality - Overview
In line with the requirements of Section 48 to 50 of the National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal
Management Act 24 of 2008 (ICMA), the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) has developed a Coastal
Management Programme (CMPr) to guide integrated management of the coastal zone within the District Municipality’s
jurisdiction. Our coast is a national asset where many people live, work and interact. Pressures from increasing
development in the coastal zone and associated habitat modification, unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, point
source and diffuse pollution to the coastal zone, amongst others, impact on the functioning of coastal ecosystems and
processes, and diminish the provision of natural goods and services. Poor management of the coastal environment makes
communities that live and work in proximity to the coast more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea-level
rise.
The ICMA was developed to facilitate holistic and integrated management of the coast that allows for conservation of the
coastal environment as well as equitable access to, and sustainable use of, coastal resources. CMPrs are effective tools to
give effect to the principles of the Act. Section 48 of the Act specifies the need for municipalities to prepare CMPrs to
facilitate management of the coastal zone, and to review these every 5 years.
The need for a CMPr is defined in NEM: ICMA:
‘To establish a system of integrated coastal and estuarine management in the Republic including norms, standards and
policies, in order to promote the conservation of the coastal environment, and maintain the natural attributes of coastal
landscapes and seascapes, and to ensure that development and the use of natural resources within the coastal zone is
socially and economically justifiable and ecologically sustainable’.
A CMPr is a policy directive and includes strategies and plans that enable organs of state to plan for coastal management
and development and address problems and user-conflicts arising from the variety of activities and uses of the coast. A
CMPr is also an important tool to integrate various spheres of government, private sector and community activities in the
coastal zone. The ICMA emphasises the importance of shared responsibility for coastal zone management. For effective
implementation of the ICMA, development and use of natural resources in the coastal zone must be done with consideration
of the public and economy, and ecological sustainability.
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Scope of the CMPr
The ICMA indicates that CMPrs must be developed at National, Provincial and Municipal levels. Across all levels, the
primary objective is to provide strategies that facilitate a co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management and
include strategic (broad themed and long-term) and operational (specific to an areas biophysical and socio-economic
features) programmes. Municipal CMPrs, by their nature at the lowest tier, are designed to focus on operational aspects and
provide more site-specific goals that have immediate to short-term effects on the environment and people’s livelihoods.
The National CMPr for South Africa and a Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape were gazetted in 2014. The CMPr for the
SBDM has been developed to be in line with these programmes, and other guideline documents (e.g. the National Guide to
Developing Coastal Management Programs (2012)). The CMPr has been structured to meet the following key requirements
of Section 49(1) of the ICMA:
The CMPr must be a coherent municipal policy directive for coastal zone management in the district municipality’s
area of jurisdiction
The CMPr must be consistent with relevant legislation and available programs and policies (e.g. Integrated
Development Plans, Spatial Development Frameworks, Biodiversity Sector Plans, Bioregional Plans etc.)
In accordance with Section 49(2) of the ICMA, the CMPr includes (as a must):
A Vision for the management of the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality, including the sustainable
use of coastal resources
Coastal management objectives for the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality
Priorities and strategies:
o to achieve the coastal management objectives of the municipality;
o to assist in the achievement of the national and provincial coastal management objectives as may be
applicable in the municipality;
o to address the high percentage of vacant plots and the low occupancy levels of residential dwellings;
o to equitably designate zones as contemplated in Section 56(l)(a)(i) for the purposes of mixed cost housing
and taking into account the needs of previously disadvantaged individuals
o to address coastal erosion and accretion; and
o to deal with access issues
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Performance indicators to measure progress with the achievement of those objectives
Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone
The ICMA provides a definition and legal status of the various spatial aspects that make up the coastal zone of South Africa
(see Figure 1). These are important to understanding the context of coastal of management issues identified in the SBDM
coastal zone, and management responsibilities by organs of state and other parties.
Coastal zone: The area comprising coastal public property, the coastal protection zone, coastal access land and
coastal protected areas, the seashore, coastal waters and the exclusive economic zone (200 nm offshore) and
includes any aspect of the environment on, in, under and above such area.
Coastal waters: Marine waters that form part of the internal waters or territorial waters (12 nm offshore) of the
Republic and any estuary.
Admiralty reserve: means any strip of state-owned land adjoining the inland side of the high water mark of the
sea, and includes land designated, on official plans, deed of grant or title deed, or other document that
demonstrates title or land use rights as “government reserve”, “beach reserve”, “coastal forest reserve” or other
similar reserve owned by the State.
Coastal public property includes several components such as coastal waters and land below coastal waters,
islands, the seashore, and other state land (e.g. the Admiralty Reserve). Ownership of coastal public property vests
in the citizens of South Africa, however the State is the trustee on behalf of all citizens. The intention of this zone is
to prevent exclusive use of the coast by facilitating access to, and sustainable use of productive coastal resources
for the benefit of all South Africans (Celliers et al., 2009).
High water mark: the highest line reached by coastal waters, but does not include a line reached as a result of
abnormal floods or storm events (1:10 year storm) or estuaries that are closed to the sea. This line approximately
coincides with the highest normal spring tide and is officially surveyed and proclaimed as such. The position of the
high water mark is not static over extended periods as a result of dynamic coastal processes (e.g. erosion and
accretion) (Palmer et al., 2011). The determination of the position of the high water mark is important as its
alignment has bearing on the extent of other coastal areas as defined in the ICMA. The high water mark is also
referenced in the listed activities under the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations (2014 as
amended) and certain activities in this area would require an environmental impact assessment prior to
commencement.
Low water mark: The lowest line to which coastal waters recede during spring tides.
Seashore: The area between the low- and high water mark of the sea.
14
Coastal protection zone technically includes land falling within 100 m of the high water mark of the sea in urban
areas and within 1 km in rural areas, unless otherwise determined by the Member of Executive Council (MEC). It
has been established to:
o Protect ecological integrity, natural character, and the economic, social and aesthetic value of coastal
public property.
o Avoid increasing the effect of severity of natural hazards.
o Protect people, property and economic activities from the risks and threats which may arise from dynamic
coastal processes (e.g. wave and wind erosion, coastal storm surges, flooding and sea-level rise).
o Maintain the natural functioning of the littoral active zone.
o Maintain productivity of the coastal zone.
o Allow authorities to perform rescue and clean-up operations (Celliers et al., 2009).
Littoral active zone: any land forming part of, or adjacent to, the seashore that is
o unstable and dynamic as a result of natural processes; and
o characterised by dunes, beaches, sand bars and other landforms composed of unconsolidated sand,
pebbles or other such material which is either unvegetated or only partially vegetated.
Estuary: A body of surface water that is:
o that is part of a water course that is permanently or periodically open to the sea,
o in which a rise and fall of the water level as a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the
water course is open to the sea, or
o in respect of which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea part of a
watercourse that is permanently or periodically open to the sea in which a rise and fall of the water level as
a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the water course is open to the sea or in respect of
which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea. The upper limit is measured
as a line 100 m above the upper extent of the River-Estuary Interface (REI)
Coastal access land: Strips of land designed to secure public access to the coastal public property, and which are
subject to public access servitudes in favour of the local municipality within whose area of jurisdiction it is situated
and in terms of which members of the public may use that land to gain access to coastal public property.
Coastal management lines: the ICMA defines coastal management lines as ‘a line determined by the MEC in
accordance with Section 25 in order to demarcate an area within which development will be prohibited or controlled
in order to achieve the objectives of this Act or coastal management objectives’. The establishment of these lines
will assist in controlling development along ecologically sensitive or vulnerable areas, or any area that poses a
hazard or risk to humans – i.e. they are there to protect the natural environment and coastal properties from
15
damage caused by sea-level rise and storm surges. The establishment of these lines is a provincial responsibility1,
however the MEC can only declare it after consultation with municipalities and interested and affected parties.
Coastal management lines have not yet been developed for the Eastern Cape, or for any of the local municipalities
in the SBDM. Note: Coastal management lines should not be confused with ‘setback lines’ as defined in the EIA
Regulations and listed activities. While these two lines may co-incide in the coastal zone once setback lines have
been developed and adopted by the MEC, legally they are two separate lines referred to in different Acts. Ideally a
coastal management line should only be determined and applied based on scientific understanding and local
knowledge, and must take into consideration natural processes, landscape values, public use and accessibility. It
must be noted that once the coastal management lines have been regulated, these will not replace any other line in
the coastal zone, but will be applied only as indicators of the risk area.
Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the
CMPr
The coastline of the SBDM is ~320 km long, and includes 4 coastal LMs – Koukamma, Kouga, Sundays River Valley and
Ndlambe LMs from west to east (see Figure 2). For the purposes of this CMPr, the 1 km buffer of the high water mark of the
sea (using the landmass boundary data compiled by the DWS in 2011 as a proxy for the high water mark) is used as the
landward boundary of immediate study area for the coastal zone. This extent is indicative only, and where features that
would have influence on the coastal zone occur beyond the boundary (e.g. inflow from the catchment of rivers, dune
process areas), they are included and described. Further, a catchment management approach has been adopted in this
CMPr, where a catchment area has been designated for each LM considering topography, land cover and physical
boundaries (e.g. roads). The intention is to incorporate activities within the catchment that have bearing on what happens at
the coast (for e.g. poor waste management in urban areas, obstructions in watercourses, groundwater abstraction etc.) and
to consider these in integrated coastal management planning. The designated catchment area is shown in maps in
Appendices that deal with each LM (i.e. Appendix 3 to 6). The seaward extent of the study area is 500 m seawards of the
high water mark of the sea, however where important attributes occur beyond this distance (e.g. coastal islands), they are
included in the program.
The SBDM coastal zone is an area of exceptional physical, biological and social/cultural diversity. This is important to reflect
in sufficient detail to highlight the value of the coastal zone, where a broad overview of the biophysical and socio-economic
1 Note: The establishment of coastal management lines in National Parks (in this instance the Garden Route National
Park in the Koukamma LM, and the Addo Elephant National Park in the Sundays River Valley LM within the SBDM
coastal zone) is the responsibility of the National Minister.
16
characteristics of the coastal zone would be an under-representation. It is also critical to understand the relevance of this
diversity and the varying physical processes in relation to coastal management decisions and priorities. Risks and priorities
on sandy beaches would be different to rocky or mixed shores for example. Land cover and development pressures in the 4
LMs are also vastly different along the coastline. The coastal zone of the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley LMs are
mostly included in a Protected Area (PA) and/or are agricultural in nature (apart from coastal resort developments/nodes in
the Koukamma LM); while Kouga and Ndlambe include more coastal development nodes and urban areas. Risks and
impacts of the different development types are different, and management recommendations will differ accordingly.
Therefore, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach cannot be applied across the 4 LMs. To facilitate the development of an
implementation-based program, the coastal zone in the 4 LMs has therefore been divided into segments/management units,
where the environment is described with supporting maps, and risks and opportunities are identified for each. These are
described and illustrated in Appendix 3 to 6.
Structure of the CMPr
This Overview Chapter serves as an introduction to the CMPr, and explains the purpose and contents of the document in
line with the requirements of the ICMA. Definitions of the coastal zone (as per the ICMA) are provided for the reader to
understand terminology used in the document, and to set the context for implementation responsibilities. The extent of the
SBDM coastal zone referred to in this document is described, and the concept of designating ‘management segments’ and
following a ‘catchment management approach’ explained. A summary description of the biophysical and socio-economic
environment of the SBDM coastal zone is provided, and key risks and impacts are highlighted. Note that these are
discussed in detail in the Appendices under the relevant segment of each LM. Principles and values elicited in stakeholder
workshops necessary for setting a Vision for the coastal zone and CMPr are described and compared to those in the
Provincial and National CMPr. A Vision and Mission Statement is provided, and management objectives listed. Priority
Areas for management are identified and placed in context with the Provincial CMPr.
Appendix 1 describes the public participation process followed in developing the CMPr.
Note: Management of Protected Areas (i.e. the Garden Route National Park and the Addo Elephant National Park in the
Koukamma and Sundays River Valley Local Municipalities respectively), is not within Sarah Baartman District
Municipality’s jurisdiction.
This CMPr promotes a catchment approach to the coastal zone, and a co-ordinated and integrated management system
by the various authorities. However, operations in Protected Areas are governed by the NEM: Protected Areas Act and
Park Management Plans, and the National Minister is the competent authority. Specific management measures related to
Protected Areas can therefore not be made a requirement of the District or Local Municipality, and are therefore not listed
as performance indicators in the CMPr.
17
Appendix 2 explains the methodology and approach that was used to develop the CMPr.
Appendix 3 to 6 are detailed sections that deal with the coastal zone and catchment area of each of the Local
Municipalities. A table of recommendations for the different priority areas is given for each LM.
Appendix 7 is a reference list.
18
Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al., 2009).
19
Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.
20
Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of
the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone
The SBDM has a diverse coastline, comprised of different regions each with its own physiographic attributes; forming
different coastal habitats. Physical features and natural processes on land and in the sea largely determine the nature
and functioning of coastal ecosystems and habitats, and their species composition. The interplay of geology, substrate
type, landform, climate, tides, currents etc. and the impact that humans have had on the natural environment need to be
considered for holistic and integrated coastal zone management.
The SBDM coastline is flanked by the Indian Ocean. The warm Agulhas Current moves in a southerly direction along
the East Coast, shifting further away from the coast west of Cape Padrone where the continental shelf widens and the
current meanders, limiting the direct influence of the current on the coast compared to the region north-east of the Cape
where the continental shelf is narrow (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).
Coastal habitat types include rocky headlands with promontories, rocky shores with wave cut platforms, sandy
beaches (coarse and fine- grained), and pebble / shingle beaches. In the area between Storms River and Cape St
Francis, substrate types of coastal habitats are predominantly rocky coast, with an increase in the amount of mixed
shores and sandy shores in an easterly direction between Oyster Bay and Cape St Francis. Rocky cliffs are more
common along the southern stretch of coastline. Beaches are limited in extent, and where they do occur, these are
mostly pebble or shingle beaches. The St Francis Bay coastline between the town of St Francis and the Van Stadens
Estuary near Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality is predominantly sandy beach, with some mixed shores around Jeffreys
Bay. The Sundays River Valley Municipality coastline comprises sandy beaches, while Ndlambe LM coastline is a
combination of sandy beaches and mixed shores with localised sections of rocky coast (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).
See Figure 3 and Figure 4.
21
Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities.
22
Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities.
23
A series of half-heart bays occur along the southern section of the SBDM coastline to Woody Cape, with rocky
headlands that protrude into the sea. Sand accumulates on the northern and eastern section of these bays, forming
extensive dunefields such as those found in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay areas (although these systems have
been significantly impacted by human influence that has disrupted and altered natural sand movement patterns). The
deposition of sand from the marine environment along the northern shores of Algoa Bay led to the formation of the
extensive Alexandria Dunefield in the Sundays River Valley LM. North-east of Cape Padrone, the coastline becomes
more straight with a narrower continental shelf. Wide dunefields are common. Prominent dune rock (aeolinite)
headlands occur at Woody Cape, Kwaaihoek, Kenton-on-Sea and Three Sisters in the north-eastern section of the
Sundays River Valley LM area, and Ndlambe LM (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).
Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area.
The diversity of habitats and physico-chemical conditions results in a high diversity of marine species, making the
area of significant conservation importance and simultaneously providing economic opportunities (e.g. fisheries and
tourism). The Tsitsikamma and Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) Marine Protected Areas (MPA) protect large areas
of the coastal / marine waters adjacent to the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley (SRV) LM (i.e. 67% of the
Koukamma LM coastline is within the Tsitsikamma MPA, and 100% of the SRV LM coastline is within the AENP MPA).
24
The Tsitsikamma MPA includes a variety of mammals (dolphins, whales and seals), birds (gulls, terns, gannets and
penguins), fishes (reef an migratory species) and invertebrate reef fauna (sponges, ascidians an crustaceans); providing
an important feeding ground and/or nursery area. Spawning grounds for commercially exploited chokka squid and all life
stages of 17 fish species which are commercially and/or recreationally exploited have been recorded in the Park (Sauer,
1995; Wood et al., 2000 in Garden Route National Park (GRNP) Management Plan, 2012)). The AENP MPA was
gazetted in October 2018 and protects a wide range of ecosystems, including sandy beaches, rocky shores, reefs, the
Sundays Estuary and islands. Protection of the Sundays Estuary and reefs in the MPA are important for the recovery of
valuable fisheries resources such as abalone and kob. The MPA increases the ‘Big Five’ in the AENP to the ‘Big Seven’
through the protection of great white sharks and whales (brydes, minke, humpback and right)
(https://www.marineprotectedareas.org.za/addo-elephant-national-park-mpa). Bird Island forms part of the AENP MPA
and is comprised of four islands that support the largest Cape gannet breeding colony in the world (~60 000 pairs). It is
also important to several marine bird species (e.g. African penguins and Roseate terns) and serves as a breeding
location (Vromans et al, 2012).
Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline.
25
Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline.
Stromatolites or ‘layered rocks’ are primordial reefs, formed by cyanobacteria as they layer calcium carbonate. These
typically occur in intertidal pools, at the interface between freshwater seepage points and the marine penetration and
date back in the fossil record at least 2.7-3.5 billion years. Modern stromatolites are rare on a global scale, because the
ocean’s chemistry has changed and is no longer rich in calcium carbonate, as well as competition between animals and
algae and the bacteria that form the stromatolites. Less than 12 modern living stromatolites occur in the world, 1 of
which is in South Africa in the area between Cape St Francis and Oyster Bay on the SBDM coastline. The stromatolites
found along the SBDM coastline are therefore unique systems, sustained by calcium-carbonate rich groundwater inflow
into the pools which recreates a similar environment to what have occurred 1.5 billion years ago. Studying these
systems provides insight into the evolution of life. Modern stromatolites are under threat by climate change and human
impacts, notably changing water quality and increased groundwater abstraction. The importance of these systems on a
global scale warrants their protection in South Africa (Perissinotto et. al., 2014; Rishworth, 2016).
26
Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al., 2014).
Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), as defined by BirdLife International, constitute a global network of over
13 500 sites, of which 112 sites are found in South Africa. IBAs are sites of global significance for bird conservation,
identified nationally through multi-stakeholder processes using globally standardised, quantitative and scientifically
agreed criteria. Essentially, these are the most important sites for conserving (https://www.birdlife.org.za/what-we-
do/important-bird-and-biodiversity-areas/).
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) as listed by BirdLife South Africa occurring in the SBDM include the Tsitsikamma-
Plettenberg Bay IBA in Koukamma LM, the Maitland-Gamtoos Coast IBA in the Kouga LM (extending into the Nelson
Mandela Bay Municipality), and the Woody Cape Section: AENP IBA in the Sundays River Valley LM and extending into
the Ndlambe LM.
27
Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa).
Twenty-nine estuaries occur along the SBDM coastline, 5 of which are classified as ‘unknown’ estuaries. Eleven of the
estuaries have a Present Ecological Status (PES) of A, B or A/B, 9 have a rating of B/C or C, 2 C/D or D, and 1 has a
rating of D/E2. All estuaries in the Koukamma LM have a PES rating of A or A/B, while only the Tsitsikamma Estuary in
the Kouga LM has a PES rating of B (the remainder range between B/C, C, C/D, D and D/E). This is largely attributed to
estuaries in the Koukamma LM being partly protected in the Tsitsikamma MPA and/or Garden Route National Park, and
the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Majority of estuaries in the Ndlambe LM have a PES rating of B or C (Van Niekerk et. al.,
2019).
2 Note that PES scores are not provided for unknown estuaries nor the Klein Palmiet estuary in the Ndlambe LM.
28
Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park.
Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al., 2018).
Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM.
29
The interaction between rivers, wetlands, groundwater and coastal/marine waters must be considered in coastal zone
management. Estuaries and some coastal/marine waters rely on freshwater pulses via river and/or groundwater inflow
for their functioning, diversity and health. Freshwater inflow may also carry risky pollutants from land-based sources into
the coastal / marine environment. Some species live out their lifecycle between the marine and freshwater environment,
and connectivity is key.
Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are the country’s most important water sources, comprising surface and
groundwater supply areas. SWSAs include areas that (a) supply a disproportionate (i.e. relatively large) quantity of
mean annual surface water runoff in relation to their size and so are considered nationally important; or (b) have high
groundwater recharge and where the groundwater forms a nationally important resource; or (c) areas that meet both
criteria (a) and (b). Surface water areas have high runoff that can support nationally important economic centres; and
groundwater areas have high recharge rates and support high levels of groundwater use, often being the sole supply to
towns, and supporting nationally important economic centres. Recently, 22 priority surface water and 37 groundwater
source areas have been delineated in the country that capture ~50% mean annual runoff from ~10% of the land.
SWSAs in the SBDM include the Tsitsikamma SWSA in the Koukamma and Kouga LMs and the Alexandria SWSA in
the SRVM LM.
The western part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone to the Sanddrif area is classified as a major aquifer. These are
high yielding systems of good water quality. Most of eastern part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone is classified as a
minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Minor aquifers are moderately-yielding aquifer
systems of variable water quality. The entire Kouga LM coastal zone is classified as a major aquifer. The aquifer in the
Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone is classified as poor to minor. In the Ndlambe LM, the coastal zone between
Cannon Rocks and Kenton-on-Sea is part of a ‘poor aquifer’, and the remainder is a ‘minor aquifer’ (DWS, 2012).
30
Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.
Various biodiversity plans and maps are available at a national, provincial, and/or regional scale across the SBDM
coastal area. These classify vegetation types, provide critical biodiversity area (CBA) maps that identify critical
biodiversity areas and ecological support areas, and indicate an ecosystem threat status rating. A CBA map is a spatial
plan for ecological sustainability indicating where biodiversity priority areas are located within the landscape, including
terrestrial and aquatic elements. Priority areas are configured to be spatially efficient, so that targets can be met in the
smallest possible area, and to avoid conflict with other land and resource uses where possible. South Africa’s first List of
Threatened Ecosystems was published in terms of the Biodiversity Act in 2011 (G34809, Government Notice 1002, 9
December 2011). The list of threatened ecosystems in terms of the Act will need to be updated based on the current
NBA ecosystem threat status revisions (i.e. 2019). Sites identified as threatened ecosystems on this list can be a trigger
for environmental authorisation in terms of the EIA Regulations under NEMA. Plans that cover the entire District include
those recently published with the National Biodiversity Assessment updates (2018/2019) (i.e. the National Marine and
Coastal Ecosystem Types Map with threat status, National Vegetation Map and threat status, National wetlands and
watercourse inventory), the list of threatened ecosystems (2011) published under the Biodiversity Act, the National
Forest Inventory, and the East Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (2007) (note this is currently being updated, but the
final version was not available at the time of writing this CMPr)). The Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the
Koukamma LM and extends to the Seekoei Estuary in the Kouga LM. The Sundays River Valley Municipality
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Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the SRV LM and the Ndlambe LM. Refer to Appendices 3 to 6 for detailed biodiversity
information for each LM on a Segment basis to determine the location of biodiversity priority areas in the landscape, and
whether threatened ecosystems occur.
Forest occurs across the DM coastal zone, with relatively large areas in the Koukamma LM and in the eastern side of
the SRVM LM. Forest is protected under the National Forest Act and may not be removed without consent from the
Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF).
The SBDM coastal zone is rich in archaeological, heritage and historical sites of importance. While these have not
been well documented (other than in specialist studies done as part of development applications and on the South
African Heritage Resources Information System (SAHRIS) website)), the value of the coastal zone from this perspective
to both the community and from a tourism perspective has been highlighted by stakeholders and specialists. A few of
the documented sites are listed below. This is a significant under-representation of the archaeological and heritage
value of the SBDM coastal zone, and compiling a comprehensive inventory of sites should be a priority in the District to
enable protection of these resources and enhance eco-tourism opportunities.
Koukamma LM:
The Tsitsikamma area has significant natural heritage value, and associated socio-cultural value especially related to
fishing and harvesting of coastal resources by local communities for generations (until the GRNP was declared a ‘no-
take’ zone in 2000). The GRNP includes various cultural heritage sites, ranging from Khoisan cultural heritage sites
such as caves, shell middens and rock art to the more recent historical sites such as the ruins of small fishing
settlements, remnants of the past forestry and mining industries, railway lines, shipwrecks and grave sites (GRNP
Management Plan, 2012). Klasies Caves is a National Heritage Site. These are a series of caves located to the east of
the Klasies River mouth . The three main caves and two shelters at the base of a high cliff have evidence of middle
stone age-associated human habitation from approximately 125 000 years ago.
Kouga LM:
The coastal zone between Klasies River in the west and Krom River in the east has been highlighted as one of the
richest and most significant archaeological cultural landscapes in South Africa. The headland bypass dunefields
between Oyster Bay and the Kromme River mouth are underlain by ferricretes, calcretes and fossilized dune sands
which are situated on top of Table Mountain Sandstones. Due to the continuous movement of the dunes, many
archaeological and paleontological sites are exposed while simultaneously others are covered (Binneman and Reichert,
2017). Relatively large piles of marine shells (referred to as ‘strandloper middens’) dating back 600 years are found in
the Kouga LM coastal zone, mostly within 300 m of the high water mark of the sea but can occur up to 5 km inland.
Middens are found mainly opposite rocky coasts, but also occur along sandy beaches if there was a large enough
source of white mussel. Archaeological research shows that places like the Kabeljous Estuary were popular areas for
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hunter-gatherer and pastoralists to live because of a diversity of food resources in close proximity. Studies done in the
area between New Papiesfontein farm and the Kabeljous River revealed 37 archaeological sites, including two KhoiSan
skeletons.
Sundays River Valley LM:
Hundreds of shell middens are found along the coast in the AENP. Chief Chungwa Grave Site occurs in the Woody
Cape Section of the Park (AENP Management Plan). Historic sites identified on SAHRIS website in the catchment area
(Provincial Heritage sites):
Farmerfield Methodist Church: established by Rev. William Shaw to provide for 3 separate displaced communities
speaking Xhosa (Fingo and Gqunukwebe), Dutch (emancipated slaves), and Tswana (refugees of Mfecane). Built
in 1844 and designed by the Rev. Thornley Smith in the neo Gothic style. When the Farmerfield Estate was
disbanded due to the demarcation of the Group Areas Act in 1961, the property was subdivided and portions sold.
A servitude on that portion of the Estate allows access to the church property which are still being used for worship
by the local farm labourers and their families
Dutch Reformed Church
Ndlambe LM:
The area is well known for its rich cultural and historical heritage, however few heritage sites are documented on
available databases (i.e. SAHRIS website). The Environmental Management Framework (EMF) done for the coastal
zone between Cannon Rocks and the Great Kei River includes an assessment and ranking of areas of heritage value.
The coastal zone in the Ndlambe LM is scored as being of ‘least heritage value’ in the EMF (SRK Consulting, 2008), but
this is due to the lack of documented sites. The Ndlambe Spatial Development Framework (SDF) (2012) highlights that
the area has significant heritage resources that are either unknown or have not been enhanced.
Landcover in the Koukamma LM is predominantly natural areas, with plantations and agriculture especially in the
eastern sector of the LM outside the GRNP. Formal coastal resort developments occur in the greater Eersterivier area,
comprising the Oubos Shareblock Ltd, Eersterivier Strand Shareblock Ltd, Konkiebaai, Eersterivier Holdings Pty Ltd,
Kammabaai (Hengeltrots Shareblock Pty Ltd), Skuitbaai, Fynbos Golf Estate, Fynbos Ridge, Silver Leaf Estate,
Heidestrand, and Heidehof; representing ~370 owners/shareholders. The catchment area is mostly plantation and
agriculture, interspersed with natural areas and small residential/urban nodes. In the Kouga LM, the coastal zone on the
western side of Cape St Francis is largely natural areas. Land cover from Cape St Francis to the Kromme Estuary is
mostly built up residential areas (i.e. the villages of Cape St Francis and St Francis Bay), interspersed with natural
areas. The catchment includes some cultivation (especially around the Kromme estuary) and a golf course at St
Francis. The coastal zone between the Kromme and Kabeljous estuaries is built up: residential, with some natural
areas. Large areas of cultivated land occur in the catchment. The coastal zone (and most of the catchment) from the
Kabeljous Estuary to the Van Stadens Estuary is natural area. Some cultivated areas occur in the catchment. A small
33
residential node occurs on the eastern side of the Gamtoos Estuary. The coastal zone of the Sundays River Valley LM
is natural area, with the full extent being part of the AENP. The catchment is a combination of cultivated area / grazing
lands and natural areas. The Ndlambe LM coastal zone is largely natural area outside of coastal nodes/villages/towns
which are a combination of built-up residential and commercial areas. These include Boknes, Cannon Rocks,
Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Kasouga, Port Alfred, and Seafield. The catchment area is mostly natural
areas and agriculture, except for the catchment of Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred where the
urban area extends beyond the coastal zone.
The Socio-Economic Environment:
The socio-economic profile below is extracted from the SBDM Integrated Development Plan (IDP) (2017 – 2022), the
Sarah Baartman District Municipality. Socio Economic Review and Outlook (2017), and the Provincial Profile: Eastern
Cape. Community Survey, 2016 (StatsSA, 2018):
The SBDM population size has increased by 6.5% between 2011 and 2016 (in comparison to the Eastern Cape
at 1.5%). Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM experienced the greatest increase in population (2.9% annual
average growth rate), followed by the SRV LM (2.7% annual average growth rate).
The projected annual average population growth rate in the SBDM between 2016 and 2021 is 1.4% which is
higher than that for the Province or Country.
Population numbers by local municipality in the Eastern Cape are amongst the lowest for the 4 LMs in the
SBDM, with the Koukamma LM having the lowest population numbers in the DM.
Most people in the SBDM are between the age of 15 and 34 years (34.8%), followed by the 0 – 14 years age
category (30.1%). Sarah Baartman DM and Nelson Mandela Bay had over 9% of persons aged 65 years and
older, the greatest percentage in the Province
Eighty-five percent of households in the SBDM have access to safe drinking water, the third highest percentage
in the Province.
Fifty-four percent of households in the SBDM have toilets in their houses, which is the second highest
percentage in the Province (after Nelson Mandela Bay). Forty-one percent have toilets in their yard, and 5%
outside their yard. Eight percent of these are either the bucket system or ‘other’ form of facility, while 3% have
no facility whatsoever.
Eighty-four percent of people in the SBDM have their refuse removed by the local authority / a private company
/ a community member; while 2.1% (2845) of people dump their rubbish.
In the Province, Buffalo City (8.1%), Nelson Mandela Bay (7.5%) and Sarah Baartman (7.1%) reported the
highest number of households that experienced crime in the 12 months preceding the 2016 Community Survey.
In the SBDM, Kouga LM had the highest number of crime reports, and Koukamma LM the lowest (Statistics
South Africa, 2018).
Gross Domestic Product by Region (GDP-R) represents the value of all goods and services produced within a
region, over a period of one year, plus taxes and minus subsidies. The GDP of the SBDM was R34.2 billion in
34
2016 (an increase of 64% from 2011), and contributed 10.14% to the Eastern Cape GGP in 2016 (ranking
fourth relative to other regional economies in the Province).
Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM had the highest average annual economic growth, averaging 4.39% between
2006 and 2016, followed by the Sundays River Valley LM at 4.25%.
In 2016, Sarah Baartman employed 170 000 people which is 11.66% of the total employment in Eastern Cape
Province (1.46 million), 1.08% of total employment in South Africa (15.7 million). Employment within Sarah
Baartman increased annually at an average rate of 1.74% from 2006 to 2016. Most people in the DM are
employed in the trade sector, followed by the community services sector. Between 2006 and 2016, the SBDM
experienced an average annual increase of 1.98% in the number of unemployed people, which is worse than
that of the Eastern Cape Province which had an average annual increase in unemployment of 1.65%. Within
the SBDM, the Sundays River Valley LM had the lowest unemployment rate of 9.7% in 2016.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite relative index used to compare human development
across population groups or regions. In 2016 the SBDM had an HDI of 0.627 compared to the Eastern Cape
with a HDI of 0.596 and 0.653 of National Total as a whole. Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM has the highest
HDI, with an index value of 0.654.
Population density measures the concentration of people in a region. The population density of the SBDM in
2016 was 8.48 persons per km2, which is less than that of the Eastern Cape (41.5 persons per km2). The DM
had the highest average annual growth in its population density of 1.65% per square kilometre per annum.
Within the DM, the Kouga LM had the highest population density at 42 persons per km2, followed by Ndlambe
LM at 36.31 (Eastern Cape Socio Economic Consultative Council, 2017).
Population concentrations are in Makana, Kouga, Ndlambe and the Beyers Naudé, with more than 50% of
residents in the District residing in these LMs. The remaining Municipalities all have less than 60 000
inhabitants per municipality. This can be explained by the variation in land types, agricultural practices and
associated income generating opportunities that are characteristic of the DMs inland and coastal areas
Coastal areas in the SBDM are characterized by higher population densities primarily due to the prevalence of
intensive agricultural practices which are encouraged by the higher coastal rainfall and associated fertile soils
and the increased tourism potential of seaside-towns. These areas portray an urban bias which serve to attract
residents from the lesser populated ‘rural’ areas in the search of economic opportunities and improved access
to services.
The acquisition and provision of water resources in the Sarah Baartman District is a challenge. The District
depends predominantly on ground water for human consumption and agricultural activity. Along the coastal
areas, in Ndlambe and Kouga LMs in particular, there is a seasonal demand that doubles the normal demand
over the holiday seasons. This has resulted in water shortages in the tourist towns of Port Alfred, Kenton-on-
Sea (Ndlambe LM) and in Jeffreys Bay and Cape St Francis (Kouga LM). The District has embarked on a
Rainwater Harvesting project where it is envisaged that all low income households within the District will be
35
equipped with rainwater tanks and gutters so as to harvest rainwater in order to substitute municipal supply.
This will hopefully alleviate increasing demand on municipal supply.
The SBDM is the third largest economy in the Eastern Cape, the largest economy outside the mostly “urban
economies” of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality and Buffalo City Municipality. The predominant sectors in
terms the District’s economy are agriculture and tourism, contributing approximately R690 million and R680
million respectively to the Gross Geographic Product (GGP) of the District. Agriculture dominates the economy,
contributing 28% of all value added and amounting to 41% of formal employment. The establishment of game
farms and the expansion of the AENP has replaced stock farming to an extent, where game reserves are now a
major industry within the district contributing to tourism with economic spin-offs in terms of retail,
accommodation, hospitality etc. Commercial forestry is established around Tsitsikamma and Grahamstown. A
small fishing industry operates from St Francis, centred on rock lobster. Tourism attractions in coastal
municipalities include the GRNP, the AENP and the coastal resorts of Jeffrey's Bay and Port Alfred. Wind
generation initiatives are also expanding in the District. Other economic activities include honeybush tea
harvesting, flower farms, beekeeping, and aquaculture (SBDM IDP, 2017 – 2022).
Other important economic activities in the SBDM not referenced in the above reports include the chokka industry in the
St Francis Bay area, and large-scale sporting events and festivals in the coastal zone.
Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone
Key risks and pressures on coastal and marine waters are deteriorating water quality from land-based pollution (e.g.
sewage effluent discharge, stormwater runoff), reduced water security with an increase in the number of desalination
plants (and brine discharge) and groundwater abstraction (impacting on aquifer yields and chemistry) to provide water to
communities, poor solid waste management, an increase in the incidence and extent of harmful algal blooms, sea-
based aquaculture, seismic surveys and increased shipping activities (pollution, noise and vibrations), unsustainable
over-abstraction of natural resources, and reduced freshwater inflow into coastal waters (which may impact on the food
web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters
etc.). Climate change exacerbates these risks, with impacts such as ocean acidification, increasing temperatures,
change in microalgal species composition, increase in storm surges, coastal erosion etc. being experienced.
Risks to the landward section of the coastal zone are:
Modification of natural systems to accommodate coastal development and infrastructure, especially in coastal towns
that are popular tourist destinations (e.g. in St Francis Bay, Cape St Francis, and Jeffreys Bay in Kouga LM, and in
Boknes, Cannon Rocks, Kenton-on-Sea, Bushmans River Mouth, Port Alfred and Seafield in Ndlambe LM); and/or
where population size is increasing with a growing need for housing and services.
36
Modification of natural systems for agricultural expansion and or plantations (i.e. most of the Koukamma LM that is
outside the GRNP is owned by private farmers where grazing land extends to the edge of the coastal plateau)
and/or plantations.
Ongoing coastal erosion and loss of coastal properties and damage to infrastructure placed in dynamic coastal
areas and in close proximity to the high water mark of the sea – this is a particular risk in the St Francis Bay and
Paradise Beach area and parts of Jeffreys Bay in the Kouga LM, and Boknes/Cannon Rocks and parts of Port
Alfred in the Ndlambe LM. Significant effort and monies have been spent on trying to protect landward structures
and to nourish the beach in St Francis Bay. The bridge across the Sand River that is a main thoroughfare to St
Francis is also subject to flooding. High seas and storm surges have damaged tourist accommodation and
infrastructure at the Storms River rest camp in the GRNP.
Sand inundation of public amenities, residences, roads and infrastructure – this risk extends across most urban
areas where development is within sand process corridors / dunes, and within proximity to the high water mark of
the sea. It is a significant management issue for local municipalities where ongoing maintenance and sand removal
is needed – e.g. Port Alfred, Bushmans River mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Boknes, Seafield in Ndlambe LM; Jeffreys
Bay, Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga LM
Coastal flooding: flooding of the Seekoei Estuary creates access problems in Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga
LM, large areas of Port Alfred are within low-lying areas that are part of the greater Kowie River floodplain and
estuarine functional zone and are frequently subject to flooding.
.
Key risks to estuaries include modification of the estuarine functional zone by urban and agricultural activities; changes
to estuarine hydrodynamics especially reduced freshwater inflow and obstructions in the catchment, unsustainable use
of natural resources (e.g. overfishing, exceeding bag limits, targeting threatened species, and bait collection), and land-
based sources of pollution. Climate change, and associated change in rainfall patterns, temperatures and wind
conditions, and an increase in storm events, exacerbates these risks; impacting on the condition and functioning of
natural ecosystems and placing humans and infrastructure/development under increasing threat. Understanding
hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics under current (and future) climate conditions in individual estuarine systems is
an important factor for making robust decisions on estuarine management. Estuary Management Plans have been
developed for the Seekoei and Gamtoos Estuaries (Draft) only.
Pressures and risks to the coastal environment are identified on a Segment basis for each LM in Appendices 3 to 6. The
table below summarises the key pressures and risks in the SBDM coastal zone as identified by stakeholders in public
workshops, a review of available literature, and observations. The relative severity of the risk is indicated (by means of
red: high risk, orange: medium risk, green: low risk).
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Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone). Red = high, Orange = medium, Green = Low
Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma LM
Kouga LM
Sundays River Valley LM
Ndlambe LM
Inappropriate development in ecological process areas/dynamic areas, with sand management issues and coastal erosion
Beach erosion Degraded coastal ecosystem, with loss of functionality Sand inundation of public facilities and property Expenditure on maintenance Reduced resilience to climate change
Inappropriate development in proximity to the high water mark, the estuarine functional zone, and wetlands
Flooding of properties Damage to properties and infrastructure by storm surges Expenditure on maintenance Loss of important aquatic habitat and species Reduced provision of ecosystem services to the surrounding community Impact on recreational use, aesthetics, and tourism potential Reduced resilience to climate change
Inappropriate development in terrestrial biodiversity priority areas, important coastal habitats, and areas of archaeological/cultural importance (e.g. critical biodiversity areas, forests, threatened ecosystems, natural areas which host threatened species, important archaeological sites etc.)
Loss of important natural habitat Loss of diversity Loss of important archaeological and cultural areas Less resilient ecosystem Impact on aesthetic quality of the area, and tourism potential
Poor management of water in the catchment area of estuaries (e.g. over-abstraction, physical manipulation of riparian areas, obstruction by roads and infrastructure, pollution, alien invasive vegetation)
Hydrodynamics and sediment processes of estuary altered, which changes the functioning and condition of the estuary. Change in estuarine species composition. Impact on recreational use, and tourism potential. Impact on connectivity between the freshwater environment (surface and groundwater), and coastal waters – impact on species, processes and habitats that require freshwater input (e.g. stromatolites, diatom accumulations, certain fish species etc.). Reduced freshwater flow into coastal waters may impact on the
38
Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma LM
Kouga LM
Sundays River Valley LM
Ndlambe LM
food web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters etc.
Land-based sources of pollution and from ships at sea – runoff via overland flow, stormwater outlets, leachate into groundwater, solid waste. For example from sewer systems (bacteria and other pathogens, high nutrient levels), agriculture (pesticides, inorganic fertilisers), brine discharge from increasing desalination plants, and solid waste from dumping, poorly managed/lack of waste sites, littering etc.
Reduced water quality in estuaries and the marine environment Impact on natural biota Increase in harmful algal blooms Impact on recreational use, tourism potential, and economic activities related to harvesting of marine species (e.g. fisheries) Impact on human health
Unsustainable use of natural resources (e.g. over-fishing, exceeding bag limits, harvesting threatened species, bait collection, seaweed harvesting). Recreational, small-scale, and commercial harvesting; and poaching.
Impact on coastal ecosystems and species Reduced potential for sustainable harvesting, with impacts on livelihoods and economy
Uncontrolled and unregulated activities in the coastal zone, especially process areas / dynamic areas. For example, vehicle use, pedestrian foot traffic over dunes, events, illegal developments, unplanned/ad hoc attempts to stabilise eroded areas, irresponsible recreational activities (e.g. boats speeding in no wake zones, illegal launch sites and jetties) etc.
Coastal erosion Bank destabilization Loss of coastal habitat, and deteriorated coastal ecosystems Impact on water quality
Lack of services / poor maintenance of services Pollution of coastal environments Impacts on coastal development and tourism potential Impact on community health and well-being The current drought in the Eastern Cape places more strain on the provision of water, especially in peak season in coastal resort towns where population numbers often double.
Increasing need for economic activities in marine waters
If unregulated, placed in incorrect area, or poorly maintained/managed, this potential positive aspect can lead to ecosystem degradation or reduced eco-tourism potential of an areas. For example, sea-based aquaculture
39
Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma LM
Kouga LM
Sundays River Valley LM
Ndlambe LM
has possible impacts of pollution, diseases, inter-breeding etc. Shark-cage diving may conflict with existing tourism branding of an area if there are safety risks (e.g. surf culture in Jeffreys Bay). Seismic surveys for gas exploration impact on marine mammals, and other species Increased boating/shipping activity increases the changes of oil spills
High levels of poverty and unemployment Less resilient community Socio-economic impacts, with knock-on effect on coastal ecosystems Reduced safety, and impact on community well-being as well as tourism potential
Poor awareness on the value of coastal ecosystems, and integrated coastal management
Ineffective coastal management and administration Reduced potential for a collective and integrated approach to coastal management Cumulatively adds to degradation of coastal ecosystems, with lack of accountability
Lack of coastal access, and access for disabled persons
Not all members of the community have equal access to the coastal zone, with reduced potential to enjoy and sustainably utilise coastal resources. Impacts on livelihoods, cultural and spiritual values and enjoyment. Tourism impact.
Lack of resources/manpower/funds in state departments responsible for coastal management, and unclear/overlapping roles and responsibilities
Poor enforcement of available laws Ineffective monitoring Impacts on administration and participation in the land use planning process, relevant to modification of coastal environments Inability to implement a CMPr and other policy/guideline documents
Lack of coordination among the local government departments; and the three spheres of government. Results in a fragmented approach to coastal
Ineffective coastal management and administration
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Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma LM
Kouga LM
Sundays River Valley LM
Ndlambe LM
management
Legislation is not always applicable / effective for management, compliance etc. at a local level. Need for appropriate municipal by-laws
Ineffective policing/compliance monitoring, and follow-through
Climate change Increase in frequency and severity of extreme weather events, storms, floods etc. Prolonged droughts and water security issues. This has resulted in an increase in groundwater abstraction and the number of desalination plants in the coastal zone, impacting on aquifers (sustainable yields and quality) and water quality in receiving coastal waters (i.e. from brine discharge) Ocean acidification and change in microalgal species composition Less resilient community Damage / loss of properties, infrastructure, and sometimes lives Expensive interventions required for protection of coastal properties
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Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District
Municipality Coastal Zone
Setting a vision for coastal zone management is necessary to articulate the desired state of the coast; to help guide the
development of priority areas and management objectives for its implementation; and provide a common frame of
reference to unite a diverse range of stakeholders. It is important that all recommendations are aimed at achieving the
stated vision, principles and objectives. Stakeholder workshops were used to elicit a set of ‘principles’ and ‘values’ to
inform a vision for the coastal zone. Nine principles were identified for the SBDM coastal zone:
Approach coastal zone management holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach that considers the inter-relationships of
people and ecosystems
Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural and heritage resources
Prevent pollution and maintain a clean, healthy environment
Promote sustainable and responsible economic development and natural resource utilisation
Create an informed and resilient community and place, where people have consideration for one another and their
environment
Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where the unique character and its intrinsic value is appreciated
Promote collective responsibility for coastal zone management by the public and government,
Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone and freedom of movement for the whole community
Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all people
Table 2 compares the principles and values with those of the Provincial and National CMPrs.
The Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape (2014) has a comprehensive vision that was presented at each workshop. It
is important that the District’s vision does not conflict with that of the Province. The general consensus at workshops
was that the Provincial vision was all encompassing and captured the community’s desired state of the coast for the
next 5 to 10 years. The vision for the SBDM is largely based on the Provincial vision, but has been structured in 3 parts:
Vision, Values and Mission Statement.
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Vision
We, the people of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, would like to live and work in, and enjoy a healthy and safe
coastal environment in a cohesive and resilient community, where natural and archaeological resources are sustainably
managed for the benefit of all people.
Values
We recognise the intrinsic value, and appreciate the scenic beauty, and the natural, archaeological and cultural diversity
and richness of our unique coastline.
We respect all people in our community, and consider one another’s well-being in our actions and decisions.
We recognise that we are all accountable for managing our coastal zone, and need to work together for a safe, healthy
and clean environment.
Mission Statement:
We aim to take collective ownership of the coast, fostering a spirit of custodianship and shared responsibility as our coast
is a unique shared asset; which has social, cultural, ecological and economic value.
We aspire to manage the coast in an integrated manner that takes both the spiritual and biological value into account.
We strive to utilise the natural resources of our diverse coastline in a sustainable and equitable manner, which maximises
the benefits for all people of the District and ensures the long term maintenance of biodiversity and ecological integrity of
coastal habitats.
We strive to promote sustainable development and alleviate poverty in an equitable manner that considers the
requirements of all stakeholders, and takes cognisance of the conservation and biological importance of our coastline as
well as national and provincial interests.
We seek to guide the management of the SBDM coast in a way that eliminates the threats of unsustainable utilisation of
the coastal resources and development, while optimising the opportunities that can be derived from the coastal zone
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Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr
National CMPr Principles Eastern Cape CMPr Principles Sarah Baartman District Municipality
CMPr Principles and Values
National Asset: The coast must be
retained as a national asset, with
public rights to access and benefit
from the many opportunities provided
by coastal resources
Retaining the coast as a national
asset
Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural
and heritage resources
Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone
and freedom of movement for the whole
community
Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all
people
Economic Development: Coastal
economic development opportunities
must be optimised to meet society’s
needs and to promote the wellbeing of
coastal communities
Optimising coastal economic
development
Promote sustainable and responsible
economic development and natural resource
utilisation
Social Equity: Coastal management
efforts must ensure that all people,
including future generations, enjoy the
rights of human dignity, equality and
freedom
Ensuring social equity and access
to resources
Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone
and freedom of movement for the whole
community
Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all
people
Ecological integrity: The diversity,
health and productivity of coastal
ecosystems must be maintained and,
where appropriate, rehabilitated
Maintaining the ecological integrity
of the coast
Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural
and heritage resources
Prevent pollution and maintain a clean,
healthy environment
Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where
the unique character and its intrinsic value is
appreciated
Holism: The coast must be treated as
a distinctive and indivisible system,
recognising the interrelationships
between coastal users and
ecosystems and between the land,
sea and air
Managing the coast as a holistic
and indivisible system
Approach coastal zone management
holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach
that considers the inter-relationships of
people and ecosystems
Assimilative Capacity: Acknowledging
that coastal ecosystems have finite
assimilative capacity to accommodate
development and exploitation in a
sustainable
manner, both in terms of living and
non-living resources
Adopting a risk-aversive and
precautionary approach in terms of
coastal management
Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural
and heritage resources
Prevent pollution and maintain a clean,
healthy environment
Promote sustainable and responsible
economic development and natural resource
utilisation
Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where
the unique character and its intrinsic value is
appreciated
Risk aversion and precaution: Coastal
management efforts must adopt a risk
averse and precautionary approach
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under conditions of uncertainty
Accountability and Responsibility:
Coastal management is a shared
responsibility. All people must be held
responsible for the consequences of
their actions, including financial
responsibility for negative impacts
Advocating accountability and
responsibility of all people for
coastal management
Promote collective responsibility for coastal
zone management by the public and
government
Duty of Care: All people and
organisations must act with due care
to avoid negative impacts on the
coastal environment and coastal
resources
Advocating duty of care in respect
to the coastal environment by all
people and organisations
Create an informed and resilient community
and place, where people have consideration
for one another and their environment
Promote collective responsibility for coastal
zone management by the public and
government
Integration and participation: A
dedicated, co-ordinated and
integrated coastal management
approach must be developed and
conducted in a participatory, inclusive
and transparent manner
Promoting an integrated coastal
management approach supported
by public participation
Create an informed and resilient community
and place, where people have consideration
for one another and their environment
Promote collective responsibility for coastal
zone management by the public and
government
Co-operative Governance:
Partnerships between the
government, the private sector and
civil society must be built in order to
ensure co-responsibility for coastal
management and to empower
stakeholders to participate effectively
Insisting on co-operative
governance between all spheres of
society for successful integrated
coastal management
Promote collective responsibility for coastal
zone management by the public and
government
Differentiated Approach: Recognising
that the implementation of integrated
coastal management is contextual.
While a generic (standardised)
management
framework is important, mechanisms
of implementation cannot be rigid (fit-
for-all”)
Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, but
principle applied in the design and contents
of the CMPr where varying approaches and
management recommendations are
suggested for different areas of the coastal
zone. The coastal zone is diverse, ranging
from sandy beaches to rocky shores, with
some areas being urban in nature and
others agricultural, and others protected
areas. Therefore the types and severity of
risks vary widely across the Sarah Baartman
DM coastal zone, and a standardised
approach to coastal zone management is
not possible.
Adaptive management approach:
Incrementally adjusting practices
based on learning through common
sense, experience, experimenting,
and monitoring (“learning-by-doing”)
Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, however
the principle is carried forward in the content
of the CMPr and management
recommendations in particular.
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Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone
Management
Identifying ‘priority areas for management’
To determine what the priority areas for management should be from the community’s perspective, a ‘SWOT’ analysis
of the coastal zone was done by participants at public workshops. Group exercises were used to highlight threats and
opportunities to the coastal zone, and recommendations for management were provided. The information was combined
into a list of ‘priority areas for implementation’ to be included in the CMPr:
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management: sustainable harvesting of natural resources, preservation
of natural, cultural and built environments, rehabilitation and restoration, management of protected and other natural areas,
managing ecological processes, adopting a catchment management approach
Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light,
noise
Safety and security
Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone, by improved and equitable access,
amenities and management of open space areas
Promote sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities
Risk averse development planning: risk averse approach to coastal zone development, facilities management and
maintenance, municipal services, open space management, stakeholder participation in development plans, management
of impacts, maintain sense of place, be informed and prepared for future, appropriate development
Resilience to the impacts of climate change
Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement of legislation
Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone, by all spheres of government, the private and public
sectors
Education and awareness and skills development
Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management
For ease of description and assessment, the above priorities have been grouped under 3 broad priority area themes;
referred to under each Segment for each Local Municipality in Appendices 3 to 6. These are as follows:
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Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management: refers to the protection of the coastal
zone as our ‘national asset’ and sustainable harvesting of coastal resources. The ‘national asset’ includes the
natural environment, landscapes, ecological processes, and important cultural/archaeological/historical features
Coastal pollution: includes pollution from a variety of land uses in the catchment of the coastal zone, and risks
these create to the natural and socio-economic environment. Pollution covers effluent, solid waste, noise and light
pollution.
Coastal development: refers to existing and planned development in the coastal zone. Recreational and tourism
activities and coastal access are addressed here. The sustainable provision of water to communities is a key issue
that needs innovative and climate-smart interventions in all municipalities.
Note that the concepts of integrated and risk averse development, co-ordinated and integrated coastal zone
management, education and awareness, compliance and enforcement, and building resilience to climate
change impacts fits under each of the 3 broad priority areas. These are discussed where applicable under
each Segment in the various local municipalities.
To determine if these priority areas ‘fit’ into those identified in the approved Provincial CMPr, a comparison was done of
priority areas identified in this review process with those of the provincial document (refer to Table 3).
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Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr
Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr
Co-operative Governance Features:
• Participation of all stakeholders, coastal governance & co‐responsibility;
• Integrated, co‐ordinated decision making, planning and management;
• Continued learning and practical implementation of programmes and processes; and
• Compliance with International conventions, protocols and agreements
Risk averse development planning Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Education, awareness and skills development Funding and capacity building.
Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management, coastal pollution and coastal development.
Coastal Planning and Development Features:
• Emphasis on local economic development opportunities and approval procedures;
• Identification and exploitation of sustainable livelihood opportunities; and
• Holistic planning and development processes with emphasis on sustainable and equitable spatial development trends in the coastal zone
Sustainable harvesting of natural resources Preservation of natural, cultural and built environments Responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone Sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities Coastal access
Coastal development and natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management
Climate Change and Dynamic Coastal Processes Features
• Responding to dynamic coastal process through increased resilience of natural and social systems; and
• Phased retreat of infrastructure in high risk areas
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Risk averse development planning Resilience to the impacts of climate change
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Development
Land and Marine-Based Sources of Pollution Features:
• Reducing and responding to land and marine based sources of pollution in the coastal zone; and
• Adherence to the waste management hierarchy of reduce, reuse, recycle
Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise Education and Awareness Funding and Capacity Building
Coastal Pollution
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Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr
Estuaries Features:
• Establishing and implementing a strategy to improve the management and protection of estuarine resources; and
• Securing sufficient financial resources to fund and implement identified actions, research projects, initiatives, and advisory forums
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise Risk averse development planning Resilience to the impacts of climate change Education and Awareness Funding and Capacity Building
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Development
The Facilitation of Coastal Access Features:
• Promoting and managing access to coastal public property;
• Promoting and facilitating equitable access to coastal resources and coastal public property;
• Recognising the importance of access preservation; and
• Promoting custodianship and stewardship of the coastal zone.
Preservation of natural, cultural and built environments Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone Risk averse development planning Coastal access
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Development
Awareness, Education, Training, Capacity Building and Information Features:
• Facilitation of knowledge production and exchange;
• Promotion of knowledge sharing of coastal issues; and
• Instilling a sense of ownership of the coastal zone amongst all stakeholders
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Education and awareness and skills development
Funding and capacity building
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Development
Compliance, Monitoring and Enforcement Features:
• Facilitation of compliance with applicable coastal legislation; and
• Promotion of the environmental management inspectorate and facilitation of environmental management inspectors
Safety and Security Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement of legislation Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Development
Natural Resource Management Features:
• The maintenance of ecosystem integrity and health;
• To assess and effectively manage coastal protected areas , including marine protected areas; and
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment Promote sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities
Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Development
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Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr
• To identify and rehabilitate damaged and degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats
Risk averse development planning
Resilience to the impacts of climate change Education and awareness and skills development
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Objectives per priority area
Broad coastal management objectives necessary to meet the vision have been set for each priority area. Management
recommendations and implementation strategies are designed with these in mind:
Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management
Adopt a catchment management approach in coastal zone management
Apply a risk-averse approach in development planning, where high risk areas are avoided, and where important
biodiversity areas, unique habitats, ecological processes and other natural areas are protected
Manage the coastal environment and its catchment area to be resilient to the impacts of climate change
Allow ecological processes to function, and avoid disturbance to dynamic coastal areas
Protect archaeological, cultural and heritage resources
Facilitate equitable and sustainable utilisation of natural resources
Promote collective responsibility and co-operative governance in managing the coastal zone, through education
and awareness programmes, capacity building, and skills development
Facilitate information sharing and transparency to allow for participatory management of the coastal zone and
informed decision-making
Coastal Pollution
Maintain good coastal water quality that is safe for recreational exposure and resource use, and that is needed by
natural organisms to persist
Coastal Development
Plan for sustainable coastal development that protects natural habitats and archaeological/cultural/heritage
features and the ecological processes that support these, and enhances the livelihoods and well-being of the local
community
Prioritise low impact development that is suitable to the area, and retains ‘sense of place’
The coast must be developed in a manner that allows for safe access and enjoyment by all people
Coastal development must be designed to build resilience to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise
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Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies
Management recommendations are provided for each Local Municipality at the end of Appendices 3 to 6, under the 3
broach priority area categories. These include timeframes for implementation, as well as the responsible entity and
supporting parties. Performance indicators are listed to monitor implementation of the recommendations.