a case study for mapping of spatial distribution of free surface

8/6/2019 A Case Study for Mapping of Spatial Distribution of Free Surface

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Computers & Geosciences 34 (2008) 9931004

A case study for mapping of spatial distribution of free surface

heave in alluvial soils (Yalova, Turkey) by using GIS software

Is-k Yilmaz

Department of Geology, Faculty of Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey

Received 12 December 2006; received in revised form 30 May 2007; accepted 11 June 2007

Abstract

A procedure for producing a surface heave map using GIS package in clayey alluvial soils is proposed. An active zone

was first defined, and the layers in the active zone were subdivided according to their swelling characteristics. The free

surface heave values for each cell of the digitized map of the study area were calculated by using the available equation in

the literature, and a spatial distribution map was then constructed interpolating the data belonging to each borehole

location. Soils having a high swelling capacity are widely distributed in the study area, and will cause serious heave

problems on light structures. Clayey soils in the study area have generally moderatevery high swelling potentials, and

swell pressures in many locations are much higher (up to 98 kPa) for low-rise structures. Moreover, differential movements

sourced from surface heave are also expected in many locations. It was calculated that the minimum expected heave was

0.00 cm while the maximum was 12.24 cm, indicating very severe differential movement. The results obtained in this

paper can be used as basic data to assist surface heave hazard management and land use planning. The information derivedfrom this study also has a special importance for assessing the probable deformations on intended light construction

applications in Yalova city. The methods used in this study will be valid for generalized planning and assessment purposes;

although they may be less useful on the site-specific scale, where local geology and geographic heterogeneities may prevail.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Clay; GIS; Spatial distribution; Swell percent; Swell pressure; Surface heave; Turkey

1. Introduction

Many buildings are constructed with foundationsthat are inadequate for existing soil conditions.

Because of the lack of suitable land, homes are often

built on the marginal land that has insufficient

bearing capacity to support the substantial weight

of a structure. Land becomes scarce with city

growth and it often becomes necessary to construct

buildings and other structures on the sites in

unfavorable conditions. The most important char-

acteristic of clayey soils is their susceptibility to thevolume change from swelling and shrinkage. Such

volume changes can give rise to ground movements

that may result in damage to buildings (Bell and

Jermy, 1994; Bell and Maud, 1995). The clays most

prone to swelling and shrinkage are over-consoli-

dated clays (Dhowian et al., 1985) and tertiary and

quaternary alluvial/colluvial soils (Donaldson,

1969). Swelling potential of expansive clayey soils

is due to reductions of overburden stress, unloading

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conditions, or exposure to water and increase in

moisture content. Bell and Maud (1995) suggest

that low-rise buildings are particularly vulnerable to

ground movements as they generally do not have

sufficient weight or strength to resist such move-

ment. Geotechnical engineers have long recognizedthat swelling of expansive soils caused by moisture

variation may result in considerable distress and

consequently in severe damage to the overlying

structures (Basma, 1991). If the substrata are not

heavily loaded, structures on the surface will be

affected by heave. As reported by Bell et al. (1993)

depending on the catalog of Burland (1984), the

annual cost of the problem in the USA and Sudan

in the mid 1980s was $68 billions and $6 millions,

respectively.

A great deal of structural movement has been

unduly blamed on expansive soils. Many floor slabs,constructed in an expansive soil area, crack and

sometimes heave due to improperly designed con-

crete. It is a well-known fact that the improper

curing of concrete, in addition to the lack of

expansion joints, will cause cracking (Chen, 1975).

In order to avoid the problems related to the

subsurface and thus save property and money,

detailed geoscientific data should be collected and

used in urban development plans. The main topic

providing the integrated information for urban

development is engineering geology. Engineeringgeological maps contain information mainly on the

physicalmechanical properties of soils, shallow

groundwater levels, potential hazardous processes,

etc. The systematized information provided by the

engineering geological map are used for (a) evalua-

tion and planning of urban areas according to the

engineering conditions; (b) elaboration of project

planning documents for construction; (c) selection

of the optimum range of engineering geological

investigations in particular areas of construction;

(d) selection of a suitable foundation type and

construction design; (e) prognosis of changes of

engineering geological conditions and prediction of

hazardous geological phenomena.

Geographic information systems (GIS) are cap-

able of capturing, storing, analyzing and managing

data and associated attributes that are spatially

referenced to the earth GIS technology can be used

for scientific investigations, resource management,

asset management, environmental impact assess-

ment, urban planning, cartography and route

planning. Many papers have reported on the use

of GIS-based protocols in the earth sciences. Hoyos

et al. (2006) developed a spatial analysis procedure

for assessing and mapping potential hazards to

infrastructure from heave based on soil plasticity

index values, swell-shrink potentials, and soluble

sulfate contents in a pilot DFW metroplex area, In

order to produce maps showing mineral potentialdistribution, Bonham-Carter et al. (1989), Asadi

and Hale (2001) and Zhou et al. (2007) also used

GIS technology. GIS-based models have also been

used for aspects of environmental science, hydro-

geology, and land use, by many researches such as

Muttiah et al. (1996), Robertson and Saad (2003),

Forte et al. (2006), Wang and Qin (2006) and Sener

et al. (2006). Many papers related to hazard and risk

assessment have also been published (e.g. Brabb

et al., 1972; DeGraff and Romesburg, 1980; Carrara

et al., 1991; Jade and Sarkar, 1993; Irigaray, 1995;

Chung and Fabbri, 1999; Barredo et al., 2000; VanWesten et al., 2000; Van Westen and Lulie, 2003;

Ferna ndez et al., 2003; Ercanoglu and Gokceoglu,

2004; Yilmaz and Yavuzer, 2005; Gomez and

Kavzoglu, 2005; Kolat et al., 2006; Ma et al.,

2006; Yilmaz and Bagci, 2006; Yilmaz and Yldrm,

2006; Yilmaz, 2007).

In recent years, GIS technologies have the

potential to address a wide range of problems in

disaster management and hazard mitigation, and

are increasingly playing an important role in spatial

planning and sustainable development. However,GIS tools in this area are still largely in the test

phase and no international standards have been

issued particularly for engineering geological map-

ping. Another problem with the maps produced is

their usefulness to geotechnicians, urban planners

or civil engineers, as the maps are often clear to

these users. Such maps should be clarified by having

uncomplicated, standard and realistic hazard-prone

zones.

In this study, swelling potentials for the Yalova

City (Fig. 1) were evaluated, and their spatial

distributions were presented using GIS software.

The investigation involved three stages: field work,

laboratory testing and computational analyses.

Initially, geological mapping was carried out, and

155 disturbed and undisturbed samples were col-

lected from 88 drill holes (Fig. 2). Grain size

distribution, Atterberg limits, swelling percent and

pressures were evaluated by means of laboratory

testing. Swelling characteristics of the study areas

soils were reviewed, and parameters obtained from

laboratory tests were assessed from an engineering

perspective. In the final stage of the study, maps

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Fig. 1. Location map of study area.

Fig. 2. Documentation map of study area (Yilmaz and Yavuzer, 2005).

I. Yilmaz / Computers & Geosciences 34 (2008) 9931004 995


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showing the spatial distribution of free surface

heave and swell pressure were produced using GIS

software (ArcGIS 9.0).

GIS also enable programmable data manipula-

tion and selective information extraction for plan-

ning and project assessment. The maps produced inthis study will be important layers for future work

involving the preparation of land-use maps and an

engineering geological map for the study area. The

information derived from this study has a special

importance for assessing the probable deformations

of the intended light construction applications in

Yalova City. Low-rise buildings are widespread in

Yalova City because of the active seismic character-

istic of the region. National laws and codes also

limit the number of floors and heights of the

buildings. Low-rise buildings are especially vulner-

able to the ground movements since they generallydo not have sufficient mass or strength to resist such

forces. The surface heave map and swell pressure

map produced in this study will inform differential

movements and the comparison of swell pressure

with building surcharge pressure. The paper will

help civil and geotechnical engineers, as well as

engineering seismologists, architects and urban

planners to make rational decisions in the design

of new construction projects in Yalova City.

2. Hydrological conditions

The main drainage system is dominated by the

Safran creek. From the available records of the

boreholes drilled in different locations throughout

the study area, it is evident that the groundwater

table is generally very shallow. The groundwater

level is closely associated with the amount of

precipitation and may be quite high when the

monthly precipitation is high (Yilmaz and Yavuzer,

2005). Groundwater levels are especially shallow in

the locations near the Marmara Sea. The ground-

water level generally fluctuates between 0.5 and

3.0 m below the surface as seen in the static

groundwater depth map (Fig. 3). These high

groundwater levels may contribute to the creation

of conditions favorable to the occurrence of swelling

of clays.

3. Swelling characteristics of clayey soils

In order to determine the swelling parameters of

the soils, experimental tests were first carried out on

disturbed and undisturbed soil samples. These tests

consisted of grain size distribution, Atterberg limits,

swell pressure and percent.

The grain size distribution of the soils was

determined by both sieve and hydrometer analysis.

The grain size distribution analyses showed that the

fine-grained soils are composed, on average, of 12%gravel, 19% sand, 22% silt and 47% clay-size

particles (Fig. 4). Results of sampling indicated a

general distribution above the A-line of the plasti-

city chart (Fig. 5). According to this distribution,

76% of the samples are identified as CH group

(inorganic clay, high plasticity), 33% are CL group

(inorganic clay, low plasticity), 21% of samples are

MH group (inorganic silt, high plasticity) and 7% of

samples are ML group (inorganic silt, low plasticity)

soil for the whole area, according to the Unified

System of Soil Classification (USBR, 1974). In

order to predict the potential swelling of clayeysoils, activity is the most widely used property. The

method developed by Van Der Merwe (1964) is

based on plotting the plasticity against percentage

clay fraction. Distribution of the samples on the

swelling potential chart of Van Der Merwe (1964)

(Fig. 6) indicated that 11% of the samples have low

swelling potential, 30% have moderate swelling

potential, 43% have high swelling potential and

16% have very high swelling potential.

In order to determine the swelling pressure and

percentage of the soils, undisturbed soil sampleswere taken from the boreholes and swelling tests

were carried out in accordance with the appropriate

international standard (ASTM D-4546, 1994). A

7 kPa pre-loading pressure and samples with a

radius of 5.0 cm were used in our tests. Whereas

the swelling pressure value varied from 0 to 98 kPa

with an average value of 12.9 kPa, the swelling

percentage was found to have an average value of

1.1%, varying from 0% to 6.1% (Table 1).

As noted, many plastic clayey soils swell con-

siderably when water is added to them and then

shrink with loss of water. Constructions on these

types of clays are subjected to large uplifting forces

caused by swelling. These uplift forces will cause

heaving, cracking and break up of them. Differences

in the distribution and amount of precipitation and

evapo-transpiration are the principal factors influ-

encing the swellshrink response of clayey soils

beneath a building. Therefore seasonal moisture

content changes are very important, and should be

taken into consideration. The depth in a soil to

which periodic changes of moisture occur is usually

referred to as the active zone. The active zone depth

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limit and natural water content (Yilmaz, 2006).

Brackley (1975) and Weston (1980) also proposed

an empirical relationship for swelling, which in-

volved the initial void ratio of the soil, initial

moisture content, plasticity index or liquid limit and

external loads. Thereafter, ONeil and Poormoayed

(1980) developed a relationship (Eq. (2)) for calcu-

lating the free surface heave.

Brackley (1980), Snethen and Huang (1992),

McKeen (1992) incorporated soil suction into the

assessment of swell potential; however, soil suction

is not easy to measure accurately, and some authors

suggested relationships for the calculation of max-

imum movement due to swelling beneath a building.

Vu and Fredlund (2004) proposed a methodology

that can be used for the prediction of one-, two- or

three-dimensional heave. They suggested that the

negative pore-water pressure (i.e., soil suction) can

be estimated through a saturatedunsaturated

seepage analysis. Other authors used the results of

the seepage analysis as an input for the prediction of

displacements sourced from heave. Allen and

Gilbert (2006) developed a laboratory test method

in order to determine the relationship between

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Fig. 4. Grain-size distribution of soil samples.

Fig. 5. Distribution of samples on plasticity chart.

Fig. 6. Distribution of soil samples on swelling potential chart.



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vertical movement and water content of an ex-

pansive soil. The test method involved cyclically

wetting and drying of the soil under a normal

compressive load to develop the relationship be-

tween vertical movement and water content. Testing

was accomplished using a conventional oedometer

with a modified loading cap that allows for forced

air circulation to accelerate the shrinking phase.

In this study, the surface heave or uplift, DSu, was

calculated for each level in each location and then

summed up over layers as follows (ONeil and

Poormoayed, 1980):

DSu Xn

i1

SPp%Hi1=100%, (2)

where DSu is surface heave, SPp is swell percent of

each layer, Hi is the thickness of layer i, n is the totalnumber of subdivided layers in the active zone

beneath the location.

Differential movements sourced from the settle-

ment or heave causes damage to the structures on

the ground surface. In each location of the study

area, surface heave values were calculated by using

the above formula. Results of the calculations

showed that the lowest free surface swell was

0.00 cm while the highest was 12.24 cm. Differences

between the maximum and minimum surface heave

values mean very severe according to the classi-

fication of differential ground movements proposed

by Anonymous (1981) (Table 2).

4. Method of map production

The existing topographic map of the study area

was first digitized, and borehole locations were then

extracted into GIS as a point shape file using the

ArcGIS 9.0 package. The overall study area was

subdivided into 5 008 982 cells (2497 rows and 2006

columns) each having 1 m resolution. Each type of

data collected from laboratory tests, and the bore-

hole logs were then entered into GIS as a descrip-

tion of the borehole feature. The flowchart for the

computer model of analysis can be seen in Fig. 8.

Swell parameters describing the subsurface soils

and their effects at surface were evaluated in terms

of quality of data, spatial distribution, representa-

tiveness of a certain unit, common practices in

engineering geological mapping and usability by

end-users. For the analyses, the swell percent and

swell pressure map was first prepared using ArcGIS

(9.0), and involved interpolating the swell percent

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Table 1

Statistical results of clayey soils in study area

Minimum Maximum X Sx

Sx1

Liquid limit (%) 28 87 61 2.8 2.5

Plastic limit (%) 20 42 26 3.2 2.9

Plasticity index (%) 9 59 33 5.6 5.3

Swell percent (%S) 0 6.1 1.1 11.8 11.7

Swell pressure (Psf), kPa 0 98 12.9 17.4 17.3

X Arithmetic mean value, Sx Standard deviation, S

x1

Standard error.

Fig. 7. Variation of seasonal water content showing active zone

depth in study area.

Table 2

Classification of differential ground movement (Anonymous,

1981)

Differential movement (mm) Classification

05 Very good

510 Good

1025 Moderate

2550 Severe

450 Very severe



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and pressure values of the subdivided layers for 88

borehole locations.

Thickness of the layers shows variations in each

locations of the study area as seen in Fig. 9. In order

to obtain a realistic and representative underground

condition and soil distribution, 88 borehole logs

were used. Soils in the active zone depth (first 4 m)

beneath each borehole were first subdivided accord-

ing to their type such as clayeysilty sand, clayey silt

and clay, and then then types of soils were obtained.

They were digitized as three layers, and each layer

was interpolated (Fig. 9). Grid files of the swell

percent distribution in each layer were produced by

interpolation (Fig. 10). Grid files of the swell

percent and subdivided layer thickness maps were

then converted into data files (ASCII format). As a

last stage of analyses, the final output file (out-

put.dat) was created by calculation ofDSu (surface

heave, Eq. (1)) of each cell using the computer

program written in Q-Basic, and the surface heave

map was then produced converting them into the

grid file in ArcGIS (Fig. 11).

5. Results and discussions

This paper presents a GIS approach for mapping

the surface heave distribution in a given region. The

results were found to be valuable for planning

future urban development schemes.

Soils having a high swelling capacity are widely

distributed in the study area, and will be a serious

cause of heave problems on light structures. Clayey

soils in the study area have generally moderatevery

high swelling potential, and swell pressures in many

locations are very high (up to 98 kPa) for low-rise

structures. Relatively more stable regions in the

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Fig. 8. Model used for mapping procedure.

Fig. 9. Maps of subdivided layers in active zone.



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study area are distributed along the Marmara Sea

coast. A derivative swell pressure distribution map

prepared from swelling pressure tests showed that

locations with swell pressures higher than 40 kPa are

frequently observed (Fig. 12). Moreover, differential

movements due to surface heave are also expected in

many locations. The resultant damage estimates

demand the use of more flexible materials to reduce

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Fig. 11. Map of free surface heave. Fig. 12. Swell pressure distribution map of study area.

Fig. 10. Swell percent maps of subdivided layers in active zone.



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potential damage from the differential movement of

structures. It is proposed that the low-rise structures

and their environs should be very well drained and

protected from leakage. As concluded by Gromko

(1974), adequate design of structures on expansive

soils can be obtained by observing a few simplerules. First, from a comprehensive subsoil and site

investigation, a determination of the magnitude of

the heave can be made if expansive soils are present.

Second, the relative costs of alternative designs

should be determined for the preceding investiga-

tion and evaluated in terms of the risks involved.

Two successful designs are reinforced: waffle, rigid

concrete slabs, and reinforced concrete pier and

grade-beam construction.

In order to reduce or eliminate ground move-

ments sourced from underlying swelling soils, one of

the following remediation measures should be takeninto consideration when the light structures are

built.

1. As a simple method, replacement or partial

replacement of expansive soils with non-expan-

sive soils. The materials replaced should have a

minimum thickness of 1 m.

2. The amount of heave of expansive soils can also

be reduced significantly, if they are compacted at

low densities and high moisture content.3. Many chemical stabilization methods can be

applied in order to reduce the expansiveness of

clayey soils. A well-known chemical stabilization

method is lime stabilization. Lime stabilization

of expansive soils can minimize the amount of

shrinkage and swelling.

The results obtained in this paper can be used as

basic data to assist surface heave hazard manage-

ment and land use planning. The methods used in

this study are also valid for generalized planningand assessment purposes, although they may be less

useful at the site-specific scale, where local geology

and geographic heterogeneities may prevail.

Acknowledgement

Author is deeply grateful to the anonymous

reviewers for their careful review, contributions

and critics that led to the improvement of the

manuscript.

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