a brief history of particle accelerators · 2016. 8. 28. · robert van de graaff invents the van...
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A brief history of
Particle Acceleratorsand Future
By Nawin Juntong
4 March 2014
A brief history of Particle Accelerators
A.W. Chao, W. Chou, Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology Volume 1, World Scientific
Three separate roots1895 Philipp von Lenard, Electron scattering on
gases (Nobel prize 1905 for his work on
cathode rays). < 100 keV electrons
1906 Rutherford bombards mica sheet with natural
alphas and develops the theory of atomic
scattering. Natural alpha particles of several
MeV
1911 Rutherford publishes theory of atomic
structure
1913 Franck and Hertz excited electron shells by
electron bombardment (proved Niels Bohr's
theory, Nobel prize 1925 for their discovery of
the laws governing the impact of an electron
upon an atom). Wimshurst-type machines
1919 Rutherford induces a nuclear reaction with
natural alphas
…..Rutherford believes he needs a source of many MeV
to continue research on the nucleus. This is far beyond
the electrostatic machines then existing, but….
1928 Gamov predicts tunneling and perhaps 500
keV would suffice….
1928 Cockcroft and Walton start designing an 800
kV generator encouraged by Rutherford
1932 Generator reaches 700 kV and Cockcroft and
Walton split lithium atom with only 400 keV
protons. They received the Nobel prize in
1951 for their pioneer work on the
transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially
accelerated atomic particles
1924 Ising proposes time-varying fields across
drift tubes. This is “resonant acceleration”,
which can achieve energies above the given
highest voltage in the system.
1928 Wideroe demonstrates Ising’s principle with
1 MHz, 25 kV oscillator to make 50 keV
potassium ions.
1929 Lawrence, inspired by Wideroe and Ising,
conceives the cyclotron.
1931 Livingston demonstrates the cyclotron by
accelerating hydrogen ions to 80 keV.
1932 Lawrence’s cyclotron produces 1.25 MeV
protons and he also splits the atom just a
few weeks after Cockcroft and Walton
(Lawrence received the Nobel prize in 1939
for the invention and development of the
cyclotron and for results obtained with it,
especially with regard to artificial
radioactive elements)
1923 Wideroe, a young Norwegian student, draws
in his laboratory notebook the design of the
betatron with the well-known 2-to-1 rule. Two
year later he adds the condition for radial
stability but does not publish.
1927 Later in Aachen, Wideroe make a model
betatron, but it does not work. Discouraged
he changes course and builds the linear
acceleration mentioned in Table 2.
1940 Kerst re-invents the betatron and builds the
first working machine for 2.2 MeV electrons.
1950 Kerst builds the world’s largest betatron of
300 MeV.
Resonant acceleration
Betatron mechanism
DC acceleration
P.J. Bryant, A brief history and review of accelerator, CERN
1919 - The birth of an era
Ernest Rutherford discovers the nuclear disintegration by
bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles from natural
radioactive substances. Later he calls for “ a copious
supply” of particles more energetic than those from
natural sources. The particle accelerator era is born.
Rutherford's transmutation apparatus
Hunterian Museum & Art Gallery collections, catalogue number GLAHM 113583
In this equipment, nitrogen atoms
were converted into oxygen
atoms, when in collision with
alpha particles from a source in
inside the horizontal enclosed
tube. Protons ejected by nitrogen
when forming oxygen were
detected at the rectangular
window at the end of the tube
Rutherford’s statement in address to the
Royal Society (1927)
A few years later in 1927 Rutherford, in his presidential address to the Royal Society, made a strong request for higher energy nuclear probes.
“ It has long been my ambition to have available for study a copious supply of atoms and electrons which have an individual energy far transcending that of the α and β particles from radioactive bodies. I am hopeful that I may yet have my wish fulfilled.”
Rutherford’s statement became a challenge to invent higher energy particle accelerators
A race for higher energy particle accelerators involved an early competition between electrostatic machines, but electric breakdown was a fundamental limitation to high voltages.
Meanwhile, it had already been realized by a few that another solution that avoided very high voltages was to use time-dependent accelerating fields.
1924 - Gustav Ising published an linear
accelerator concept
Gustav Ising (1924) published an
accelerator concept with voltage waves
propagating from a spark discharge to an
array of drift tubes
Voltage pulses arriving sequentially at the
drift tubes produce accelerating fields in
the sequence of gaps.
But Ising was unable to demonstrate the
concept.
1928 - World’s first accelerator1927 - Rolf Wideroe, Norwegian graduate student at Aachen
University discovered Ising’s 1924 publication in the university
library
1928 - Four year after Ising’s concept, Rolf Wideroe builds the
world’s first linac in an 88-cm long glass tube in Aachen, Germany.
Wideroe simplified Ising’s concept by replacing the spark gap with
an ac oscillator
For his PhD thesis Wideroe built and demonstrated a simple
linac, which had one drift tube between two accelerating gaps
1928 - World’s first acceleratorWideroe applied a 25-KV, 1 MHz AC voltage to the drift tube
between two grounded electrodes. The beam experienced an
accelerating voltage in both gaps.
He accelerated Na and K beams to 50 keV kinetic energy
equal to twice the applied voltage.
This is not possible using electrostatic voltages
“My little machine was a primitive precursor of this type of
accelerator which today is called a ‘linac’ for short. However,
I must now emphasize one important detail. The drift tube
was the first accelerating system which had earthed
potential on both sides, i.e. at both the particles’ entry and
exit, and was still able to accelerate the particles exactly as
if a strong electric field was present.“– Rolf Wideroe(From “The Infancy of Particle Accelerators, Life and Work of Rolf Wideroe” ed. Pedro Waloschek )
Robert Van de Graaff invents the Van de Graaff generator at
Princeton University. He also constructs the first tandem
accelerator (two generators in series) in 1959 at Chalk River.
1931, the large Van de Graaff generator was constructed
1929 –1932 - Van de Graaff generator
1930 - Cyclotron
Inspired by Rolf Wideroe's linac in a vacuum tube, Ernest
Lawrence invents the cyclotron at the University of
California, Berkeley. He and his student Stanley
Livingston build a cyclotron only 4 inches in diameter.
1932 - Lawrence’s cyclotron produces 1.25 MeV protons
and he also splits the atom just a few weeks after
Cockcroft and Walton
1932- Cockcroft-Walton acceleratorJohn Cockcroft and Ernest Walton invent the Cockcroft-Walton
electrostatic accelerator at the Cavendish Laboratory. This
accelerator produces the first man-made nuclear reaction.
Cockcroft, Rutherford, and Walton in 1932, shortly after they
accelerated protons against a lithium target, splitting the
lithium nucleus into two alpha particles, i.e., helium nuclei.
This demonstrated not only the “transmutation” of elements,
but also Einstein's formula E=mc2, since a slight loss of mass
produced energetic alpha particles
1937 - KlystronRussell and Sigurd Varian and William Hasen invent the kystron, a high-
frequency amplifier for generating microwaves, at Stanford University.
A similar device is proposed by Agnesa Arsenjewa-Heil and Oskar Heil
in 1935.
In 1948 they founded Varian Associates (along with Hansen and
Ginzton) to market the klystron and other inventions
Varian, Inc
Varian Semiconductor Equipment Associates Varian Medical Systems
acquired by Agilent TechnologiesSold the Electron Device
Business and formed
Communications & Power
Industries, Inc (CPI)
1940 - BetatronDonald Kerst at the University of Illinois constructs the first betatron,
proposed by Joseph Slepian and others in the 1920s.
1950 - Kerst builds the world’s largest betatron of 300 MeV.
1st – 2.3 MeV
2nd – 25 MeV300 MeV
1943 – Synchrotron
1944 – Phase stability
1943- Marcus Oliphant develops the concept for a new type of
accelerator, later named the synchrotron by Edwin McMillan.
1944- Vladimir Veksler at the Lebedev Institute of Physics and later
Edwin McMillan at the University of California, Berkeley, independently
discover the principle of phase stability, a cornerstone of modern
accelerators. The principle is first demonstrated on a modified
cyclotron in 1946 at Berkeley.
Technical difficulty
Ising and Wideroe established principle of resonance acceleration
Particles can gain arbitrarily high kinetic energy from successive traversals through the same accelerating fields with moderate voltages.
Particles acquire a small energy increment with each traversal
No basic limit to maximum kinetic energy.
Method can be applied to linear accelerators (linac) or to circular accelerators (cyclotron or synchrotron).
But with low (1-MHz) frequencies available at that time, linacs for faster protons and electrons had impractically large gap-to-gap spacings.
The gap-to-gap spacing is v/2f so high-velocity particles require high oscillator frequency to obtain satisfactory energy gain per gap.
At least a few hundred MHz were wanted, but RF frequencies available then were no more than 10 MHz.
Higher frequency microwave sources were unavailable until after WWII, a benefit of radar developments for the war.
The first proton and electron linacs were built after WWII
1939 – 1945 - World War II
1946 – Electron linacWilliam Walkinshaw and his team at Malvern in the U.K. build the first traveling
wave electron linac powered by a magnetron.
William Webster Hansen and his team independently build a similar electron
linac at Stanford University a few months later based on klystron and GeV
energy.
1946 – Synchrotron radiationFrank Goward constructs the first electron synchrotron in the
U.K. This is followed by one built by General Electric in the
U.S. where synchrotron radiation is first observed, open a new
era of accelerator-based light sources.
Langmuir is credited as recognizing it as synchrotron radiation or, as
he called it, "Schwinger radiation." Subsequent measurements by the
GE group began the experimental establishment of its spectral and
polarization properties. Characterization measurements were also
carried out in the 1950s at a 250-MeV synchrotron at the Lebedev
Institute in Moscow
The radiation is seen as a small
spot of brilliant white light by
an observer looking into the
vacuum tube
350 MeV @ University of Glasgow
1947 – Drift tube linacLuis Alvarez builds the first drift tube linac for accelerating
protons at the University of California, Berkeley.
L. Alvarez and coworkers at the Lawrence Berkeley Radiation
Laboratory developed a proton linear accelerator based on
injection of 200 MHz RF wave into a resonant metallic
cylindrical cavity containing the wideroe-type drift tube
arrangement.
- the linac is injected with a 4 MeV electrostatic accelerator
- protons are accelerated up to 32 MeV in the Alvarez structure
DTLs are nowadays currently used as primary
injection stages in hadron linac chains, or as
injectors into synchrotrons
1952 – Strong focusingErnest Courant, Stanley Livingston and Hartland Snyder at Brookhaven National
Laboratory and, independently Nicholas Christofilos earlier in 1950 in Greece discover
the principle of strong focusing.
Strong focusing and phase stability form the foundation of all modern high-energy
accelerator.
Weak focusing
1956 - FFAGThe first Fixed-Field Alternating Gradient (FFAG) accelerator is commissioned at
the Midwestern University Research Association. The concept is invented
independently by Tihiro Ohkawa, Andrei Kolomensky and Keith Symon. An earlier
variation is conceived by Llewellyn Thomas in 1938.
Kyoto University Research Reactor
Institute (KURRI),
Osaka, Japan
1959 – Modern SynchrotronThe first two proton synchrotrons using strong focusing – PS at CERN and
AGS at BNL – are built. An electron synchrotron using strong focusing is
built earlier in 1954 at Cornell University.
1955 - Milton Livingston builds a Synchrotron
capable of accelerating protons to 6.2 GeV
called the Bevatron.
1956 - Donald Kerst investigates the collision of
particle beams at relativistic energies.
1957 - Scientists at Dubna USSR build a
Synchrotron capable of accelerating protons to
10GeV called the Synchrophasotron.
1959 - Scientists at CERN, Geneva, using
Alternating - Gradient focusing build a
Synchrotron capable of accelerating protons to
28 GeV called the Proton Synchrotron (PS).
1960 - Scientists at Brookhaven build a
Synchrotron capable of accelerating protons to
33GeV called the Alternating - Gradient
Synchrotron (AGS).
Bevatron
Synchrophasotron
CERN - PS
John Adams with vodka bottle
1961 - Collider
1961 - The Austrian
physicist, Bruno Touschek
builds the first storage ring,
an electron - positron
storage ring, in Italy called
Aneii di Accumulazione
(AdA), but is too small to
be of experimental use.
AdA, the first electron-positron collider, is built at
Frascati, Italy. It is followed by two electron-
electron colliders: Priceton –Stanford Collider in
the U.S. and VEP-1 in Russia, leading to a
continuing evolution of electron-positron colliders
and factories around the world.
1964 – Induction linacAstron, the first induction linac proposed ny
Nicholas Christofilos for nuclear fusion, is built at
a branch of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory,
later renamed the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory.
the main advantage of induction linacs is their ability to accelerate
long-pulse (tens of ns to µs) high-intensity (multi-kA) beams. Another specific feature is the
total electrical insulation of the apparatus, the high voltage appearing only inside the induction
cells.
1966 – 1968 – Beam cooling1966 – Gersh Budker invents electron beam cooling at
the Institute for Nuclear Physics in Russia.
1968 - Simon van der Meer invents stochastic beam
cooling, a technique enabling cooling of antiproton
beams. The proton-antiproton collisions in the SppS in
1981 at CERN lead to the discovery of the Z and W
bosons.
1968 - The Dutch physicist Simon van der Meer proposes
stochastic cooling. Researchers at SLAC carry out deep
inelastic scattering experiments of protons and neutrons
and discover the up, down and strange quarks.
electron cooling is used to shrink the size of electron beams
without removing any particles from the beam, increasing
luminosity in hadron colliders.
1969 - ISRIntersecting Storage Ring, the first large proton-proton collider begins at
CERN.
Scientists at CERN build the Intersecting Storage Ring (ISR) on the CPS
where 26 GeV proton beams are collided.
ISR at CERN. (a) Layout of proton synchrotron and two intersecting storage rings: (PS) proton synchrotron, (SR)
storage ring, (1)–(8) points of intersection of storage rings, (C1) and (C2) channels through which protons (p) are fed
into the storage rings. Preliminary acceleration of the protons is carried out in the booster; In the storage rings the
protons are additionally accelerated to 31.4 GeV. The arrows indicate the direction of motion of the protons. The
proton beams collide in the intersection zones of the storage rings. (b) Detail of intersection of proton beams
between sections A and A′: (1) structural elements of magnet focusing the proton beams.
1970 -RFQVladimir Teplyakov and Ilya Kapchinskii invent the radio frequency
quadrupole linacs. The first RFQ is built in 1972 at the Institute of
High Energy Physics in Russia.
1971 - FELJohn Madey invents and builds the first free electron laser at
Stanford University
1983 – Superconducting magnet
technology
The Tevatron, the first large accelerator
using superconducting magnet technology,
is commissioned at Fermilab.
1989 – Linear colliderSLC, the first linear collider proposed by Burton Ritcher, is built at
SLAC. The linear collider concept is developed by Maury Tigner in
1965.
1993 –Rise and fall of SSCConstruction of the Superconducting Super Collider, planned to be the largest
accelerator in the world, begin in 1989. The project is canceled by the U.S.
Congress in 1993.
The United States had planned the SSC on its own but asked other countries to get
involved when the cost began to expand beyond initial expectations.
Understandably, other countries were reluctant to fund a project in which they felt
no sense of ownership, not having served as designer or host. Congress pulled
funding for the SSC in 1993.
The Department of Energy pulled together a panel to discuss the future. In the
end, they decided to throw their weight behind the LHC.
If Congress had not cancelled the US-built
Superconducting Super Collider project in 1993, this
tunnel in Waxahatchie, Texas, would have held the
collider and its superconducting magnets, such as the
one shown below at Fermilab. A failure to secure
international partners to design and build the project
is among the reasons for the SSC's demise.
The global physics community has kept the lessons of the SSC and the LHC in mind
while planning for the next international accelerator project. This time, countries
are working together from the beginning. Physicists have already demonstrated this
attitude in developing three proposed accelerators: the International Linear
Collider, the Compact Linear Collider and a muon collider. At a relatively modest
scale, Fermilab has embarked on this path with its proposed new accelerator,
Project X.
Desertron 40 TeV, 87 km
1994 – Superconducting RF technologyCEBAF, the first large accelerator using superconducting radio frequency
technology, is built at the facility later named Jefferson Laboratory.
2005 – X-ray FELFLASH, the first VUV and soft x-ray free electron
laser user facility is built at DESY in Germany.
2008 - LHCThe Large Hadron Collider at CERN,
with 27 km circumference, begins
operation.
Future – Advanced conceptsPlasma and laser acceleration tantalizes one’s imagination. An acceleration gradient
1000 times higher than that of conventional means has been demonstrated. These
advanced concepts challenge future accelerator builders.
Leemans/Esarey(2009):Laser-driven plasma-wave electron accelerators.physicstoday
http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-
releases/2011/03/17/simulating-at-lightspeed/
There are many more to come
Thank you
References A.W. Chao, W. Chou, Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology Volume 1, World Scientific
P.J. Bryant, A brief history and review of accelerator, CERN
E. J. N. Wilson, FIFTY YEARS OF SYNCHROTRONS, CERN
Matt Luffoni, The history and revolution of Synchrotron radiation sources 1947-2007.
Thomas Wangler, Linear Accelerators Principles, History, and Applications.
John P. Wefel, Cosmic Rays and High Energy Physics.
Ron Ruth, Man-Made Accelerators (Earth-Based), SLAC.
Sergei Nagaitsev, Electron Cooling, Physics 598ACC lectures, 2007 Summer Term, Fermi.
Eugene S. Evans, Brief Overview of Wakefield Acceleration, University of California, Berkeley.
F. M´eot, An introduction to particle accelerators.
Shinji Machida, Fixed Field Alternating Gradient (FFAG) Accelerator
J. de Mascureau, INDUCTION LINACS
Leemans/Esarey(2009):Laser-driven plasma-wave electron accelerators.physicstoday
Alessandra Lombardi, Radio Frequency Quadrupole
Peter Schm¨user, Free Electron Lasers
http://www.accelerators-for-society.org/about-accelerators/timeliner/timeline.php#