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Figures xiBoxes xiiForeword by Andrew Gamble xvPreface to the Fifth Edition xviAcknowledgements xviii

1 Introduction: Ideology and Ideologies 1

The role of ideas 2Views of ideology 4

Marxist views 6Non-Marxist views 8

Ideology: key issues 11Contours of ideology 11

Fusing understanding and commitment 12

Fusing thought and action 13

Ideology, Truth and Power 14New ideologies for old? 15Using this book 21

2 Liberalism 24

Origins and development 25Core themes: the primacy

of the individual 26Individualism 27Freedom 29Reason 31Justice 33Toleration 34

Liberalism, government and democracy 35

The liberal state 35Constitutionalism 37Liberal democracy 39

Classical liberalism 43Natural rights 44Utilitarianism 45Economic liberalism 46Social Darwinism 48Neoliberalism 49

Modern liberalism 51Individuality 52Positive freedom 52Social liberalism 56Economic management 57

Liberalism in a global age 59

3 Conservatism 65

Origins and development 66Core themes: the desire

to conserve 68Tradition 69Human imperfection 70Organic society 73Hierarchy and authority 75Property 77

Authoritarian conservatism 78Paternalistic conservatism 80

One Nation conservatism 81Christian democracy 83

Libertarian conservatism 84New right 86

Liberal new right 87Conservative new right 91

Conservatism in a global age 94

Contents

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4 Socialism 97

Origins and development 98Core themes: no man is

an island 100Community 100Cooperation 102Equality 103Class politics 106Common ownership 107

Roads to socialism 109Revolutionary socialism 110Evolutionary socialism 112The inevitability of

gradualism? 113Communism 116

Classical Marxism 117Philosophy 117Economics 119Politics 120

Orthodox communism 121Neo-Marxism 123The death of Marxism? 124

Social democracy 125Ethical socialism 128Revisionist socialism 129The crisis of social

democracy 132Neo-revisionism and the

‘third way’ 133Socialism in a global age 136

5 Anarchism 140

Origins and development 141Core themes: against

the state 142Anti-statism 143Utopianism 146Anti-clericalism 147Economic freedom 148

Collectivist anarchism 149

Mutualism 151Anarcho-syndicalism 152Anarcho-communism 153

Individualist anarchism 154Egoism 155Libertarianism 156Anarcho-capitalism 157

Roads to anarchy 160Revolutionary violence 161Direct action 162Non-violent protest 163

Anarchism in a global age 164

6 Nationalism 168

Origins and development 169Core themes: for the love

of country 172The nation 173Organic community 176Self-determination 177Culturalism 179

Nationalism and politics 181Liberal nationalism 182Conservative nationalism 185Expansionist nationalism 187Anti-colonial and

postcolonial nationalism 192Nationalism in a global age 194

7 Fascism 199

Origins and development 200Core themes: strength

through unity 201Anti-rationalism 202Struggle 204Leadership and elitism 205Socialism 208Ultranationalism 209

Fascism and the state 210

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The totalitarian ideal 211Corporatism 212Modernization 214

Fascism and racialism 214The politics of race 215Nazi race theories 216Peasant ideology 221

Fascism in a global age 222

8 Feminism 226

Origins and development 227Core themes: the politics of

the personal 229Redefining ‘the political’ 230Patriarchy 231Sex and gender 233Equality and difference 234

Sex and politics 236Liberal feminism 237Socialist feminism 240Radical feminism 242Third-wave feminism and

beyond 247Feminism in a global age 248

9 Ecologism 251

Origins and development 252Core themes: return to

nature 253Ecology 254Holism 257Sustainability 260Environmental ethics 263From having to being 265

Nature and politics 267Modernist ecology 267Social ecology 269

Ecosocialism 269Eco-anarchism 270

Ecofeminism 271Deep ecology 275

Ecologism in a global age 278

10 Religious Fundamentalism 281

Origins and development 282Core themes: back to

basics 284Religion as politics 284The fundamentalist

impulse 287Anti-modernism 289Militancy 291

The family of fundamentalisms 293

Islamic fundamentalism 294Varieties of Islamism 296

Christian fundamentalism 300The new Christian right 301

Other fundamentalisms 304Religious fundamentalism in

a global age 307

11 Multiculturalism 311

Origins and development 312Core themes: diversity

within unity 313Politics of recognition 314Culture and identity 317Minority rights 320Diversity 323

Multiculturalism and politics 324Liberal multiculturalism 325Pluralist multiculturalism 326Cosmopolitan

multiculturalism 330Critiques of multiculturalism 331Multiculturalism in a global

age 334

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12 Conclusion: A Post-Ideological Age? 337

Endism 338End of ideology? 338End of history? 338Beyond left and right? 340

Triumph of reason? 342Ideology without end 342

Bibliography 346Index 357

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Ideology and Ideologies

PreviewAll people are political thinkers. Whether they know it ornot, people use political ideas and concepts whenever theyexpress their opinions or speak their mind. Everydaylanguage is littered with terms such as ‘freedom’, ‘fairness’,‘equality’, ‘justice’ and ‘rights’. In the same way, words suchas ‘conservative’, ‘liberal’, ‘socialist’, ‘communist’ and‘fascist’ are regularly employed by people either to describetheir own views, or those of others. However, even thoughsuch terms are familiar, even commonplace, they areseldom used with any precision or a clear grasp of theirmeaning. What, for instance, is ‘equality’? What does itmean to say that all people are equal? Are people bornequal, should they be treated by society as if they areequal? Should people have equal rights, equalopportunities, equal political influence, equal wages?Similarly, words such as ‘socialist’ or ‘fascist’ are commonlymisused. What does it mean to call someone a ‘fascist’?What values or beliefs do fascists hold, and why do theyhold them? How do socialist views differ from those of, say,liberals, conservatives or anarchists? This book examinesthe substantive ideas and beliefs of the major politicalideologies. This introductory chapter considers the role ofideas in politics, the life and (sometimes convoluted) timesof the concept of ideology, the nature and structure ofideological thought, and the changing landscape of politicalideologies.

In the process, it reflects on issues such as why and whena body of political thought should be classified as anideology, as well as what this implies, and on whether thereis evidence that so-called ‘new’ ideologies are in theprocess of displacing the ‘classical’ ideologies of old.

1

Preview 1

The role of ideas 2

Views of ideology 4

Ideology: key issues 11

New ideologies for old? 15

Using this book 21

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The role of ideas

Not all political thinkers have accepted that ideas and ideologies are of muchimportance. Politics has sometimes been thought to be little more than a nakedstruggle for power. If this is true, political ideas are mere propaganda, a form ofwords or collection of slogans designed to win votes or attract popular support.Ideas and ideologies are therefore simply ‘window dressing’, used to conceal thedeeper realities of political life. This is certainly a position supported by behav-iourism, the school of psychology that holds that human beings are little morethan biological machines, conditioned to act (or, more correctly, react) to exter-nal stimuli. The thinking subject, together with their ideas, values, feelings andintentions, is simply an irrelevance. A very similar view also informed ‘dialecti-cal materialism’, the crude form of Marxism that dominated intellectual enquiryin the Soviet Union and other orthodox communist states. This held that politi-cal ideas could only be understood in the light of the economic or class interestsof those who express them. Ideas have a ‘material basis’; they have no meaningor significance on their own.

The opposite argument has also been put. The UK economist John MaynardKeynes (1883–1946), for example, argued that the world is ruled by little otherthan the ideas of economic theorists and political philosophers. As he put it inthe closing pages of his General Theory:

Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intel-lectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist.Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzyfrom some academic scribbler of a few years back. (Keynes [1936] 1963)

Far from dismissing ideas as being conditioned responses to practical circum-stances, this position highlights the degree to which beliefs and theories providethe wellspring of human action. The world is ultimately ruled by ‘academicscribblers’. Such a view suggests, for instance, that modern capitalism, in impor-tant respects, developed out of the classical economics of Adam Smith (see p. 54)and David Ricardo (1772–1823), that Soviet communism was significantlyshaped by the writing of Karl Marx (see p. 126) and V. I. Lenin (see p. 126), andthat the history of Nazi Germany can only be understood by reference to thedoctrines advanced in Hitler’s Mein Kampf.

In reality, both these accounts of political life are one-sided and inadequate.Political ideas are not merely a passive reflection of vested interests or personalambition, but have the capacity to inspire and guide political action itself and socan shape material life. At the same time, political ideas do not emerge in avacuum: they do not drop from the sky like rain. All political ideas are mouldedby the social and historical circumstances in which they develop and by the

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political ambitions they serve. Quite simply, political theory and political prac-tice are inseparably linked. Any balanced and persuasive account of political lifemust therefore acknowledge the constant interplay between ideas and ideologieson the one hand, and historical and social forces on the other.

Ideas and ideologies influence political life in a number of ways. They:

● structure political understanding and so set goal and inspire activism● shape the nature of political systems● act as a form of social cement.

In the first place, ideologies provide a perspective, or ‘lens’, through which theworld is understood and explained. People do not see the world as it is, but onlyas they expect it to be: in other words, they see it through a veil of ingrainedbeliefs, opinions and assumptions. Whether consciously or subconsciously,everyone subscribes to a set of political beliefs and values that guide their behav-iour and influence their conduct. Political ideas and ideologies thus set goals that

inspire political activism. In this respect, politicians aresubject to two very different influences. Without doubt, allpoliticians want power. This forces them to be pragmatic,to adopt those policies and ideas that are electorallypopular or win favour with powerful groups such as busi-ness or the army. However, politicians seldom seek powersimply for its own sake. They also possess beliefs, values

and convictions about what to do with power when it is achieved. Second, political ideologies help to shape the nature of political systems.

Systems of government vary considerably throughout the world and are alwaysassociated with particular values or principles. Absolute monarchies were basedon deeply established religious ideas, notably the divine right of kings. The polit-ical systems in most contemporary western countries are founded on a set ofliberal-democratic principles. Western states typically respect the ideas oflimited and constitutional government, and also believe that government shouldbe representative, based on regular and competitive elections. In the same way,traditional communist political systems conformed to the principles ofMarxism–Leninism. Even the fact that the world is divided into a collection ofnation-states and that government power is usually located at the national levelreflects the impact of political ideas, in this case of nationalism and, more specif-ically, the principle of national self-determination.

Finally, political ideas and ideologies can act as a form of social cement,providing social groups, and indeed whole societies, with a set of unifyingbeliefs and values. Political ideologies have commonly been associated withparticular social classes – for example, liberalism with the middle classes,conservatism with the landed aristocracy, socialism with the working class and

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Pragmatism

Behaviour shaped inaccordance with practical circumstancesand goals rather thanideological objectives(see p. 72).

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so forth. These ideas reflect the life experiences, interests and aspirations of asocial class, and therefore help to foster a sense of belonging and solidarity.However, ideas and ideologies can also succeed in binding together divergentgroups and classes within a society. For instance, there is unifying bedrock ofliberal-democratic values in most western states, while in Muslim countriesIslam has established a common set of moral principles and beliefs. In provid-ing society with a unified political culture, political ideas help to promoteorder and social stability. Nevertheless, a unifying set of political ideas andvalues can develop naturally within a society, or it can be enforced from abovein an attempt to manufacture obedience and exercise control. The clearestexamples of such ‘official’ ideologies have been found in fascist, communistand religious fundamentalist regimes.

Views of ideology

This book is primarily a study of political ideologies, rather than an analysis ofthe nature of ideology. Much confusion stems from the fact that, though obvi-ously related, ‘ideology’ and ‘ideologies’ are quite different things to study. Toexamine ‘ideology’ is to consider a particular type of political thought, distinctfrom, say, political science or political philosophy. The study of political ideol-ogy thus involves reflection on questions about the nature, role and significanceof this category of thought, and about which sets of political ideas and argu-ments should be classified as ideologies. For instance, is ideology true or false,liberating or oppressive, or inevitable or merely transitory? Similarly, arenationalism and multiculturalism ideologies in the same sense as liberalism andsocialism?

On the other hand, to study ‘ideologies’ is to be concerned with analysingthe content of political thought, to be interested in the ideas, doctrines andtheories that have been advanced by and within the various ideological tradi-tions. For example, what can liberalism tell us about freedom? Why havesocialists traditionally supported equality? How do anarchists defend the ideaof a stateless society? Why have fascists regarded struggle and war as healthy?In order to examine such ‘content’ issues, however, it is necessary to considerthe ‘type’ of political thought we are dealing with. Before discussing the char-acteristic ideas and doctrines of the so-called ideologies, we need to reflect onwhy these sets of ideas have been categorized as ideologies. More importantly,what does the categorization tell us? What can we learn about, for example,liberalism, socialism, feminism and fascism from the fact that they are classi-fied as ideologies?

The first problem confronting any discussion of the nature of ideology is thefact that there is no settled or agreed definition of the term, only a collection of


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rival definitions. As David McLellan (1995) put it, ‘Ideology is the most elusiveconcept in the whole of the social sciences.’ Few political terms have been thesubject of such deep and impassioned controversy. This has occurred for tworeasons. In the first place, as all concepts of ideology acknowledge a link betweentheory and practice, the term uncovers highly contentious debates (consideredin the previous section) about the role of ideas in politics and the relationshipbetween beliefs and theories on the one hand, and material life or politicalconduct on the other. Second, the concept of ideology has not been able to standapart from the ongoing struggle between and amongst political ideologies. Formuch of its history, the term ‘ideology’ has been used as a political weapon, adevice with which to condemn or criticize rival sets of ideas or belief systems.Not until the second half of the twentieth century was a neutral and apparentlyobjective concept of ideology widely employed, and even then disagreementspersisted over the social role and political significance of ideology. Among themeanings that have been attached to ideology are the following:

● a political belief system● an action-orientated set of political ideas● the ideas of the ruling class● the world view of a particular social class or social group● political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests● ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or

oppressed● ideas that situate the individual within a social context and generate a

sense of collective belonging● an officially sanctioned set of ideas used to legitimize a political

system or regime● an all-embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth● an abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas.

The origins of the term are nevertheless clear. The word ideology was coinedduring the French Revolution by Antoine Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836), andwas first used in public in 1796. For de Tracy, idéologie referred to a new ‘scienceof ideas’, literally an idea-ology. With a rationalist zeal typical of theEnlightenment, he believed that it was possible objectively to uncover the originsof ideas, and proclaimed that this new science would come to enjoy the samestatus as established sciences such as biology and zoology. More boldly, since allforms of enquiry are based on ideas, de Tracy suggested that ideology wouldeventually come to be recognized as the queen of the sciences. However, despitethese high expectations, this original meaning of the term has had little impacton later usage, which has been influenced by both Marxist and non-Marxistthinking.


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Marxist views

The career of ideology as a key political term stems from the use made of it inthe writings of Karl Marx. Marx’s use of the term, and the interest shown in itby later generations of Marxist thinkers, largely explains the prominence ideol-ogy enjoys in modern social and political thought. Yet the meaning Marxascribed to the concept is very different from the one usually accorded it inmainstream political analysis. Marx used the term in the title of his early workThe German Ideology ([1846] 1970), written with his lifelong collaboratorFriedrich Engels (1820–95). This also contains Marx’s clearest description of hisview of ideology:

The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. theclass which is the ruling material force of society, is at the same time theruling intellectual force. The class which has the means of materialproduction at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means ofmental production, so that thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of thosewho lack the means of mental production are subject to it. (Marx andEngels, 1970, p. 64)

Marx’s concept of ideology has a number of crucial features. First, ideology isabout delusion and mystification: it perpetrates a false or mistaken view of theworld, what Engels later referred to as ‘false consciousness’. Marx used ideol-

ogy as a critical concept, whose purpose is to unmask aprocess of systematic mystification. His own ideas he clas-sified as scientific, because they were designed accuratelyto uncover the workings of history and society. Thecontrast between ideology and science, between falsehoodand truth, was thus vital to Marx’s use of the term. Second,ideology is linked to the class system. Marx believed thatthe distortion implicit in ideology stems from the fact thatit reflects the interests and perspective on society of the

ruling class. The ruling class is unwilling to recognize itself as an oppressor and,equally, is anxious to reconcile the oppressed to their oppression. The classsystem is thus presented upside down, a notion Marx conveyed through theimage of the camera obscura, the inverted picture that is produced by a cameralens or the human eye. Liberalism, which portrays rights that can only be exer-cised by the propertied and privileged as universal entitlements, is therefore theclassic example of ideology.

Third, ideology is a manifestation of power. In concealing the contradictionsupon which capitalism, in common with all class societies, is based, ideologyserves to disguise from the exploited proletariat the fact of its own exploitation,


False consciousness

A Marxist term denoting the delusionand mystification that preventssubordinate classesfrom recog nizing thefact of their ownexploitation.

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thereby upholding a system of unequal class power. Ideology literally constitutesthe ‘ruling’ ideas of the age. Finally, Marx treated ideology as a temporaryphenomenon. Ideology will only continue so long as the class system that gener-ates it survives. The proletariat – in Marx’s view, the ‘grave digger’ of capitalism– is destined not to establish another form of class society, but rather to abolishclass inequality altogether by bringing about the collective ownership of wealth.The interests of the proletariat thus coincide with those of society as a whole.The proletariat, in short, does not need ideology because it is the only class thatneeds no illusions.

Later generations of Marxists, if anything, showed greater interest in ideologythan Marx did himself. This largely reflects the fact that Marx’s confidentprediction of capitalism’s doom proved to be highly optimistic, encouraginglater Marxists to focus on ideology as one of the factors explaining the unex-pected resilience of the capitalist mode of production. However, importantshifts in the meaning of the term also took place. In particular, all classes cameto be seen to possess ideologies. In What is to be Done? ([1902] 1988), Leninthus described the ideas of the proletariat as ‘socialist ideology’ or ‘Marxistideology’, phrases that would have been absurd for Marx. For Lenin and mostlater Marxists, ideology referred to the distinctive ideas of a particular socialclass, ideas that advance its interests regardless of its class position. However, asall classes, the proletariat as well as the bourgeoisie, have an ideology, the termwas robbed of its negative or pejorative connotations. Ideology no longerimplied necessary falsehood and mystification, and no longer stood in contrastto science; indeed, ‘scientific socialism’ (Marxism) was recognized as form ofproletarian ideology.

The Marxist theory of ideology was perhaps developed furthest by AntonioGramsci (see p. 127). Gramsci ([1935] 1971) argued that the capitalist class

system is upheld not simply by unequal economic andpolitical power, but by what he termed the ‘hegemony’ ofbourgeois ideas and theories. Hegemony means leadershipor domination and, in the sense of ideological hegemony, itrefers to the capacity of bourgeois ideas to displace rivalviews and become, in effect, the common sense of the age.Gramsci highlighted the degree to which ideology isembedded at every level in society; in its art and literature,

in its education system and mass media, in everyday language and popularculture. This bourgeois hegemony, Gramsci insisted, could only be challenged atthe political and intellectual level, which means through the establishment of arival ‘proletarian hegemony’, based on socialist principles, values and theories.The capacity of capitalism to achieve stability by manufacturing legitimacy wasalso a particular concern of the Frankfurt School, a group of mainly German neo-Marxists who fled the Nazis and later settled in the USA. Its most widely known


Hegemony

The ascendency or domination of oneelement of a systemover others; forMarxists, hegemonyimplies ideologicaldomination.

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member, Herbert Marcuse (see p. 127), argued in One-Dimensional Man (1964)that advanced industrial society has developed a ‘totalitarian’ character in thecapacity of its ideology to manipulate thought and deny expression to opposi-tional views.

By manufacturing false needs and turning humans into voracious consumers,modern societies are able to paralyse criticism through the spread of widespreadand stultifying affluence. According to Marcuse, even the apparent tolerance ofliberal capitalism serves a repressive purpose in that it creates the impression offree debate and argument, thereby concealing the extent to which indoctrinationand ideological control take place.

Non-Marxist views

One of the earliest attempts to construct a non-Marxist concept of ideology wasundertaken by the German sociologist Karl Mannheim (1893–1947). Like Marx,he acknowledged that people’s ideas are shaped by their social circumstances,but, in contrast to Marx, he strove to rid ideology of its negative implications. InIdeology and Utopia ([1929] 1960), Mannheim portrayed ideologies as thoughtsystems that serve to defend a particular social order, and that broadly expressthe interests of its dominant or ruling group. Utopias, on the other hand, areidealized representations of the future that imply the need for radical socialchange, invariably serving the interests of oppressed or subordinate groups. Hefurther distinguished between ‘particular’ and ‘total’ conceptions of ideology.‘Particular’ ideologies are the ideas and beliefs of specific individuals, groups orparties, while ‘total’ ideologies encompass the entire Weltanschauung, or ‘world-view’, of a social class, society or even historical period. In this sense, Marxism,liberal capitalism and Islamic fundamentalism can each be regarded as ‘total’ideologies. Mannheim nevertheless held that all ideological systems, includingutopias, are distorted, because each offers a partial, and necessarily self-inter-ested, view of social reality. However, he argued that the attempt to uncoverobjective truth need not be abandoned altogether. According to Mannheim,objectivity is strictly the preserve of the ‘socially unattached intelligentsia’, a classof intellectuals who alone can engage in disciplined and dispassionate enquirybecause they have no economic interests of their own.

The subsequent career of the concept was deeply marked by the emergence oftotalitarian dictatorships in the inter-war period, and by the heightened ideolog-ical tensions of the Cold War of the 1950s and 1960s. Liberal theorists in partic-ular portrayed the regimes that developed in Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany andStalinist Russia as historically new and uniquely oppressive systems of rule, andhighlighted the role played by ‘official’ ideologies in suppressing debate and crit-icism and promoting regimented obedience. Writers as different as Karl Popper


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(1945), Hannah Arendt (1951), J. L. Talmon (1952) and Bernard Crick (1962)and the ‘end of ideology’ theorists examined in Chapter 12, came to use the term‘ideology’ in a highly restrictive manner, seeing fascism and communism as itsprime examples. According to this usage, ideologies are ‘closed’ systems ofthought, which, by claiming a monopoly of truth, refuse to tolerate opposingideas and rival beliefs. Ideologies are thus ‘secular religions’; they possess a ‘total-


PERSPECTIVES ON

IDEOLOGYLIBERALS, particularly during the Cold War period, have viewed ideology as an officiallysanctioned belief system that claims a monopoly of truth, often through a spurious claimto be scientific. Ideology is therefore inherently repressive, even totalitarian; its primeexamples are communism and fascism.

CONSERVATIVES have traditionally regarded ideology as a manifestation of thearrogance of rationalism. Ideologies are elaborate systems of thought that are dangerousor unreliable because, being abstracted from reality, they establish principles and goalsthat lead to repression or are simply unachievable. In this light, socialism and liberalismare clearly ideological.

SOCIALISTS, following Marx, have seen ideology as a body of ideas that conceal thecontradictions of class society, thereby promoting false consciousness and politicalpassivity amongst subordinate classes. Liberalism is the classic ruling-class ideology. LaterMarxists adopted a neutral concept of ideology, regarding it as the distinctive ideas of anysocial class, including the working class.

FASCISTS are often dismissive of ideology as an over-systematic, dry and intellectualizedform of political understanding that is based on mere reason rather than passion and thewill. The Nazis preferred to portray their own ideas as a Weltanschauung or ‘world-view’,not as a systematic philosophy.

ECOLOGISTS have tended to regard all conventional political doctrines as part of asuper-ideology of industrialism. Ideology is thus tainted by its association with arroganthumanism and growth-orientated economics – liberalism and socialism being its mostobvious examples.

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISTS have treated key religious texts as ideology, on thegrounds that, by expressing the revealed word of God, they provide a programme forcomprehensive social reconstruction. Secular ideologies are therefore rejected becausethey are not founded on religious principles and so lack moral substance.

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izing’ character and serve as instruments of social control, ensuring complianceand subordination. However, not all political creeds are ideologies by this stan-dard. For instance, liberalism, based as it is on a fundamental commitment tofreedom, tolerance and diversity, is the clearest example of an ‘open’ system ofthought (Popper, 1945).

A distinctively conservative concept of ideology can also be identified. This isbased upon a long-standing conservative distrust of abstract principles andphilosophies, born out of a sceptical attitude towards rationalism and progress.The world is viewed as infinitely complex and largely beyond the capacity of thehuman mind to fathom. The foremost modern exponent of this view was MichaelOakeshott (see p. 89). ‘In political activity’, Oakeshott argued in Rationalism inPolitics (1962), ‘men sail a boundless and bottomless sea.’ From this perspective,ideologies are seen as abstract systems of thought, sets of ideas that are destinedto simplify and distort social reality because they claim to explain what is, frankly,incomprehensible. Ideology is thus equated with dogmatism: fixed or doctrinairebeliefs that are divorced from the complexities of the real world. Conservativeshave therefore rejected the ‘ideological’ style of politics, based on attempts toreshape the world in accordance with a set of abstract principles or pre-estab-lished theories. Until infected by the highly ideological politics of the new right,conservatives had preferred to adopt what Oakeshott called a ‘traditionaliststance’, which spurns ideology in favour of pragmatism, and looks to experienceand history as the surest guides to human conduct.

Since the 1960s, however, the term ‘ideology’ has gained a wider currencythrough being refashioned according to the needs of conventional social andpolitical analysis. This has established ideology as a neutral and objective concept,the political baggage once attached to it having been removed. Martin Seliger(1976), for example, defined an ideology as ‘a set of ideas by which men posit,explain and justify the ends and means of organized social action, irrespective ofwhether such action aims to preserve, amend, uproot or rebuild a given socialorder’. An ideology is therefore an action-orientated system of thought. Sodefined, ideologies are neither good nor bad, true nor false, open nor closed,liberating nor oppressive – they can be all these things.

The clear merit of this social-scientific concept is that it is inclusive, in the sensethat it can be applied to all ‘isms’, to liberalism as well as Marxism, to conser-vatism as well as fascism, and so on. The drawback of any negative concept ofideology is that it is highly restrictive. Marx saw liberal and conservative ideas asideological but regarded his own as scientific; liberals classify communism andfascism as ideologies but refuse to accept that liberalism is one as well; traditionalconservatives condemn liberalism, Marxism and fascism as ideological butportray conservatism as merely a ‘disposition’. However, any neutral concept ofideology also has its dangers. In particular, in offloading its political baggage theterm may be rendered so bland and generalized that it loses its critical edge alto-


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gether. If ideology is interchangeable with terms such as ‘belief system’, ‘worldview’, ‘doctrine’ or ‘political philosophy’, what is the point of continuing to pretendthat it has a separate and distinctive meaning?

Ideology: key issues

Contours of ideology

Any short or single-sentence definition of ideology is likely to stimulate morequestions than it answers. Nevertheless, it provides a useful and necessary start-ing point. In this book, ideology is understood as the following:

An ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the basisfor organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modifyor overthrow the existing system of power. All ideologies therefore have thefollowing features. They:(a) offer an account of the existing order, usually in the form of a ‘world

view’(b) advance a model of a desired future, a vision of the ‘good society’(c) explain how political change can and should be brought about – how

to get from (a) to (b). (See Figure 1.1.)

This definition is neither original nor novel, and it is entirely in line with thesocial-scientific usage of the term. It nevertheless draws attention to some of theimportant and distinctive features of the phenomenon of ideology. In particular,


Vision of future society (b)

Figure 1.1Features ofideology

Critique of existing order (a)

Theory of political change (c)

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it emphasizes that the complexity of ideology derives from the fact that it strad-dles the conventional boundaries between descriptive and normative thought,and between political theory and political practice. Ideology, in short, bringsabout two kinds of synthesis: between understanding and commitment, andbetween thought and action.

Fusing understanding and commitment

In relation to the first synthesis, ideology blurs the distinction between what‘is’ and what ‘should be’. Ideologies are descriptive in that, in effect, theyprovide individuals and groups with an intellectual map of how their societyworks and, more broadly, with a general view of the world. This, for instance,helps to explain the important integrative capacity of ideology, its ability to‘situate’ people within a particular social environment. However, such descrip-tive understanding is deeply embedded within a set of normative or prescrip-tive beliefs, both about the adequacy of present social arrangements and aboutthe nature of any alternative or future society. Ideology therefore has a power-ful emotional or affective character: it is a means of expressing hopes andfears, sympathies and hatreds, as well as of articulating beliefs and under-standing.

As (a) and (b) above are linked, ‘facts’ in ideologies inevitably tend to mergeinto and become confused with ‘values’. One of the implications of this is that

no clear distinction can be made between ideology andscience. In this light, it is helpful to treat ideologies asparadigms, in the sense employed by Thomas Kuhn inThe Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). An ideol-ogy, then, can be seen as a set of principles, doctrines andtheories that help to structure the process of intellectualenquiry. In effect, it constitutes a framework within

which the search for political knowledge takes place, a language of politicaldiscourse. For instance, much of academic political science and, still moreclearly, mainstream economics, draws upon individualist and rationalistassumptions that have an unmistakable liberal heritage. The notion of ideol-ogy as an intellectual framework, or political language, is also importantbecause it highlights the depth at which ideology structures human under-standing. The tendency to deny that one’s own beliefs are ideological (oftenwhile condemning other people for committing precisely this sin) can beexplained by the fact that, in providing the very concepts through which theworld becomes intelligible, our ideology is effectively invisible. We fail orrefuse to recognize that we look at the world through a veil of theories, presup-positions and assumptions that shape what we see and thereby imposemeaning on the world. As Gramsci pointed out, ideology comes to assume thestatus of ‘common sense’.


Paradigm

A related set ofprinciples, doctrinesand theories that helpto structure theprocess of intellectualenquiry.

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Fusing thought and action

The second synthesis, the fusion of thought and action, reflected in the linkagebetween (b) and (c) above, is no less significant. Seliger (1976) drew attention tothis when referring to what he called the ‘fundamental’ and ‘operative’ levels ofideology. At a fundamental level, ideologies resemble political philosophies inthat they deal with abstract ideas and theories, and their proponents may at timesseem to be engaged in dispassionate enquiry. Although the term ‘ideologue’ isoften reserved for crude or self-conscious supporters of particular ideologies,respected political philosophers such as John Locke (see p. 54), John Stuart Mill(see p. 55) and Friedrich Hayek (see p. 88) each worked within and contributedto ideological traditions. At an operative level, however, ideologies take the formof broad political movements, engaged in popular mobilization and the strugglefor power. Ideology in this guise may be expressed in sloganizing, political rhet-oric, party manifestos and government policies. While ideologies must, strictlyspeaking, be both idea-orientated and action-orientated, certain ideologies areundoubtedly stronger on one level than the other. For instance, fascism hasalways emphasized operative goals and, if you like, the politics of the deed.Anarchism, on the other hand, especially since the mid-twentieth century, haslargely survived at a fundamental or philosophical level.

Nevertheless, ideologies invariably lack the clear shape and internal consis-tency of political philosophies: they are only more or less coherent. This apparentshapelessness stems in part from the fact that ideologies are not hermeticallysealed systems of thought; rather, they are, typically, fluid sets of ideas that overlapwith other ideologies and shade into one another. This not only fosters ideologi-cal development but also leads to the emergence of hybrid ideological forms, suchas liberal conservatism, socialist feminism and conservative nationalism.Moreover, each ideology contains a range of divergent, even rival, traditions andviewpoints. Not uncommonly, disputes between supporters of the same ideologyare more passionate and bitter than arguments between supporters of rivalideologies, because what is at stake is the true nature of the ideology in question– what is ‘true’ socialism, ‘true’ liberalism or ‘true’ anarchism? Such conflicts, bothbetween and within ideological traditions, are made more confusing by the factthat they are often played out with the use of the same political vocabulary, eachside investing terms such as ‘freedom’, ‘democracy’, ‘justice’ and ‘equality’ withtheir own meanings. This highlights the problem of what W. B. Gallie (1955–6)termed ‘essentially contested concepts’. These are concepts about which there issuch deep controversy that no settled or agreed definition can ever be developed.In this sense, the concept of ideology is certainly ‘essentially contested’, as indeedare the other terms examined in the ‘Perspectives on . . .’ boxes.

Clearly, however, there must be a limit to the incoherence or shapeless-ness ofideologies. There must be a point at which, by abandoning a particularly cher-ished principle or embracing a previously derided theory, an ideology loses its


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identity or, perhaps, is absorbed into a rival ideology. Could liberalism remainliberalism if it abandoned its commitment to liberty? Would socialism any longerbe socialism if it developed an appetite for violence and war? One way of dealingwith this problem, following Michael Freeden (1996), is to highlight themorphology, the form and structure, of an ideology in terms of its key concepts,in the same way that the arrangement of furniture in a room helps us to distin-guish between a kitchen, a bedroom, a lounge, and so on. Each ideology is there-fore characterized by a cluster of core, adjacent and peripheral concepts, not allof which need be present for a theory or a doctrine to be recognized as belong-ing to that ideology. A kitchen, for instance, does not cease to be a kitchen simplybecause the sink or the cooker is removed. Similarly a kitchen remains a kitchenover time despite the arrival of new inventions such as dishwashers andmicrowave ovens. However, ideologies may be ‘thick’ or ‘thin’, in terms of theextent of their conceptual furniture. Whereas liberalism, conservatism andsocialism are based on a broad and distinctive set of values, doctrines and beliefs,others such as anarchism and feminism, are more thin-centred, often having a‘cross-cutting’ character, in that they incorporate elements from ‘thicker’ ideo-logical traditions (see Figure 1.2). This also explains why there is (perhaps unre-solvable) debate and confusion about whether nationalism and multiculturalismin particular are ideologies in their own right or merely embellishments to other,‘host’, ideologies. But what does this tell us about the relationship between ideol-ogy and truth, and ideological power?

Ideology, truth and power

For Marx, as we have seen, ideology was the implacable enemy of truth.Falsehood is implicit in ideology because, being the creation of the ruling class,


’Cross-cutting’ ideologies

Figure 1.2Contrastingideologicalstructures

Conventional ideologies

Core concepts

Adjacent concepts

Peripheral concepts

Thin-centred ideology

‘Thick’ ideologies

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its purpose is to disguise exploitation and oppression. Nevertheless, asMannheim recognized, to follow Marx in believing that the proletariat needs noillusion or ideology is to accept a highly romanticized view of the workingmasses as the emancipators of humankind. However, Mannheim’s own solutionto this problem, a faith in free-floating intellectuals, does not get us muchfurther. All people’s views are shaped, consciously or subconsciously, by broadersocial and cultural factors, and while education may enable them to defend theseviews more fluently and persuasively, there is little evidence that it makes thoseviews any less subjective or any more dispassionate. This implies that there existsno objective standard of truth against which ideologies can be judged. Indeed, tosuggest that ideologies can be deemed to be either true or false is to miss the vitalpoint that they embody values, dreams and aspirations that are, by their verynature, not susceptible to scientific analysis. No one can ‘prove’ that one theoryof justice is preferable to any other, any more than rival conceptions of humannature can be tested by surgical intervention to demonstrate once and for all thathuman beings possess rights, are entitled to freedom, or are naturally selfish ornaturally sociable. Ideologies are embraced less because they stand up to scrutinyand logical analysis, and more because they help individuals, groups and soci-eties to make sense of the world in which they live. As Andrew Vincent (1995)put it, ‘We examine ideology as fellow travellers, not as neutral observers.’

Nevertheless, ideologies undoubtedly embody a claim to uncover truth; in thissense, they can be seen as ‘regimes of truth’. By providing us with a language ofpolitical discourse, a set of assumptions and presuppositions about how societydoes and should work, ideology structures both what we think and how we act. Asa ‘regime of truth’, ideology is always linked to power. In a world of competingtruths, values and theories, ideologies seek to prioritize certain values over others,and to invest legitimacy in particular theories or sets of meanings. Furthermore, asideologies provide intellectual maps of the social world, they help to establish therelationship between individuals and groups on the one hand, and the larger struc-ture of power on the other. Ideologies therefore play a crucial role in either uphold-ing the prevailing power structure (by portraying it as fair, natural, rightful orwhatever) or in weakening or challenging it, by highlighting its iniquities or injus-tices and by drawing attention to the attractions of alternative power structures.

New ideologies for old?

Ideology may have been an inseparable feature of politics since the late eigh-teenth century (it is often traced back to the 1789 French Revolution), but itscontent has changed significantly over time, with the rate of ideological trans-formation having accelerated since the 1960s. New ideologies have emerged,some once-potent ideologies have faded in significance, and all ideologies have


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gone through a process of sometimes radical redefinition and renewal. Politicalideology arose out of a transition from feudalism to industrial capitalism. Insimple terms, the earliest, or ‘classical’, ideological traditions – liberalism, conser-vatism and socialism – developed as contrasting attempts to shape emergentindustrial society. While liberalism championed the cause of individualism, themarket and, initially at least, minimal government, conservatism stood indefence of an increasingly embattled ancien régime, and socialism advanced thequite different vision of a society based on community, equality and cooperation.

As the nineteenth century progressed, each of these ideologies acquired aclearer doctrinal character, and came to be associated with a particular socialclass or stratum of society. Simply put, liberalism was the ideology of the risingmiddle class, conservatism was the ideology of the aristocracy or nobility, andsocialism was the ideology of the growing working class. In turn, political partiesdeveloped to articulate the interests of these classes and to give ‘operative’expression to the various ideologies. These parties therefore typically had aprogrammatic character. The central theme that emerged from ideological argu-ment and debate during this period was the battle between two rival economicphilosophies: capitalism and socialism. Political ideology thus had a strongeconomic focus. This was captured by the left/right divide (see p. 17) andexpressed through the linear political spectrum, as depicted in Figure 1.3.

The battle lines between capitalism and socialism were significantly sharp-ened by the 1917 Russian Revolution, which created the world’s first socialiststate. Indeed, throughout what is sometimes called the ‘short’ twentieth century(from the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 to the collapse of commu-nism in 1989–91), and particularly during the Cold War period (1945–90),international politics was structured along ideological lines, as the capitalistWest confronted the communist East. More generally, left-wing political ideasreflected a distaste for capitalism, ranging from a ‘hard left’ (communism andanarchism) desire to abolish and replace capitalism to a ‘soft left’ (socialism andmodern liberalism) wish to reform or ‘humanize’ capitalism. Right-wing ideas(classical liberalism and conservatism), by contrast, were defined by the desireto defend or extend capitalism.

These ideological battle lines were nevertheless made more complicated bythe rise of fascism in the 1920s and 1930s. On the face of it, fascism was clearlya ‘far right’ ideology: it was fiercely anti-communist and shared with conser-vatism, albeit in a more extreme form, a sympathy for hierarchy and elitism.


Communism Socialism Liberalism Conservation Fascism

Figure 1.3Linear spectrum

Left Right

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However, radical elements within fascist movements sometimes expressed‘leftist’ views in criticizing capitalism and big business, and fascism also gaveexpression to ideologically new ideas such as anti-westernism and politico-spir-itual renewal, which were later to resurface in certain forms of religious funda-mentalism. A further complication was that communist and fascist regimesexhibited certain similarities, both developing repressive, authoritarian forms ofpolitical rule, which some described as ‘totalitarian’. This brought the value ofthe left/right divide, and the linear political spectrum, into question. During the1950s and 1960s, it became increasingly common to use an alternative, horse-shoe-shaped political spectrum, which indicated that the extreme points on theleft and the right tended to converge, distinguishing both from the ‘democratic’beliefs of liberalism, socialism and conservatism. This is depicted in Figure 1.4.

However, since around the 1960s, the ideological landscape has been trans-formed. Not only have major changes occurred to established or ‘classical’ideologies (for instance, in the rise of the new left, the new right and, mostdramatically, with the collapse of orthodox communism), but a series of ‘new’


Liberalism

Socialism Conservatism

FascismCommunismFigure 1.4Horseshoespectrum

The terms 'left' and 'right' (which derivefrom the French Revolution and theseating arrangements adopted by differ-ent groups at the first meeting of theEstates-General in 1789) stand forbroadly contrasting ideological positions.Although the terms are seldom used withanalytical rigour, they draw attention toone of three key (if not always compati-ble) distinctions: (1) over values: left-wingers generally favour liberty, equalityand fraternity, while right-wingers

support order, authority and hierarchy; (2) over human nature: left-wingers tend to hold optimistic views and thusbelieve in the possibility of socialprogress, while right-wingers are morepessimistic and so are doubtful about the benefits of change; (3) over stateintervention: left-wingers usually advocate regulation and economicmanagement, while right-wingers champion deregulated capitalism and the free market.

KEY CONCEPT

LEFT/RIGHT DIVIDE

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ideological traditions have also emerged. The most significant of these are setout in Figure 1.5.The designation of these ideologies as ‘new’ can be misleading, as each of themhas roots that stretch back to the nineteenth century, if not beyond. Moreover,they also tended to draw heavily from existing, mainstream ideologies, givingthem, typically, a hybrid or cross-cutting character. Nevertheless, these ideolo-gies are ‘new’ in the sense that they have given particular areas of ideologicaldebate a prominence they never previously enjoyed and, in the process, theyhave fostered the emergence of fresh and challenging ideological perspectives.Why has this process of ideological transformation occurred? The three mainfactors are the following:

● the emergence of postindustrial societies and ‘new’ social movements● the collapse of communism and the changing world order● the rise of globalization and of cosmopolitan sensibilities.

The structure and nature of modern societies have undergone a profoundprocess of change since about the 1950s. Social thinkers have heralded thischange in a variety of ways. For example, Beck (1992) proclaimed the transitionfrom the ‘first’ to the ‘second’ modernity, Giddens (1994) analysed the shift from‘simple’ to ‘reflexive’ modernity, whilst Baumann (2000) discussed the changefrom ‘solid’ to ‘liquid’ modernity. At the heart of these changes, however, is thetransition from industrial societies to postindustrial ones. Industrial societiestended to be solidaristic, in that they were based on relatively clear class divisions(crudely, those between capital and labour), which, in turn, helped to structurethe political process, including the party system, interest-group competition andideological debate. Postindustrial societies are different in a number of ways.They tend, in the first place, to be more affluent societies, in which the strugglefor material subsistence has become less pressing for a growing proportion ofpeople. In conditions of wider prosperity, individuals express more interest in‘quality of life’ or ‘postmaterial’ issues. These are typically concerned with moral-ity, political justice and personal fulfilment, and include issues such as gender


‘Classical’ ideologies ‘New’ ideologies

Liberalism FeminismConservatism EcologismSocialism Religious fundamentalismNationalism MulticulturalismAnarchismFascism (?)

Figure 1.5‘Classical’ and‘new’ ideologies

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equality, world peace, cultural recognition, environmentalprotection and animal rights. Second, the structure ofsociety and the nature of social connectedness havealtered. Whereas industrial societies tended to generate‘thick’ social bonds, based on social class and nationalityin particular, postindustrial societies tend to be character-ized by growing individualization and ‘thinner’ and more

fluid social bonds. This has been reflected in the growth of a so-called ‘new’social movements, such as the women’s movement, the environmental or greenmovement and the peace movement, which have played a key role in reshapingpolitical identities and articulating new ideological agendas.

The ideological ramifications of the collapse of communism have beenprofound and wide-ranging, and, in many ways, continue to unfold. The ideol-ogy most clearly affected has been socialism. Revolutionary socialism, especiallyin its Soviet-style, Marxist–Leninist guise, was revealed as a spent force, bothbecause of the economic failings of central planning and because of the system’sassociation with state authoritarianism. However, democratic socialism has alsobeen affected; some argue that it has been fatally compromised. In particular,democratic socialists have lost faith in ‘top-down’ state control, and have cometo accept the market as the only reliable means of generating wealth. Thecollapse of communism, and the general retreat from socialism, has providedopportunities for new ideological forces. Chief amongst these have been nation-alism, particularly ethnic nationalism, which has displaced Marxist–Leninism asthe leading ideology in many postcommunist states, and religious fundamental-ism, which, in its various forms, has had profound sugnificance in the develop-ing world. The advent of global terrorism, through the attacks on New York andWashington on 11 September 2001, and the initiation of the so-called ‘war onterror’ have had further consequences for political ideologies. The ‘war on terror’highlighted the emergence of new ideological battle lines that, some believe, maydefine global politics in the twenty-first century. In the widely discussed if highlycontroversial thesis of Samuel Huntingdon (see p. 343), the ideological battlebetween capitalism and communism has been displaced by a ‘clash of civiliza-tions’, in which the most significant division is between Islam and the West.

Globalization (see p. 21) is not a single process but a complex of processes,sometimes overlapping and interlocking but also, at times, contradictory andoppositional ones. In its economic, cultural and political forms, globalizationforges connections between previously unconnected people communities, insti-tutions and societies. This interconnectedness, however, has had sharply contrast-ing implications. On the one hand, it has stimulated homogenizing trends thathave seen a ‘flattening out’ of economic, cultural and other differences betweenthe countries and regions of the world. In ideological terms, this homogenizingtrend has been closely associated with the advance of liberalism, whether in the


Social movement

A collective bodydistinguished by a highlevel of commitmentand political activism,but often lacking clearorganization.

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form of a liberal economic order (based on free trade andfree markets), the spread of liberal democracy (see p. 40),or the growth of cosmopolitan sensibilities, often linked tothe idea of human rights (see p. 61). However, on the otherhand, globalization has been a distinctively asymmetricalprocess that has spawned new forms of inequality andgenerated a range of oppositional forces. These include astrengthening of religious fundamentalism in the develop-ing world, leading, as Benjamin Barber (1995) put it, to a

confrontation between ‘Jihad’ and ‘MacWorld’, and the emergence of an anti-globalization or anti-capitalist movement in the developed world that has recast,and sometimes bolstered, the ideas of anarchism, feminism and ecologism.

The ‘new’ ideologies are not only new, but also differ from ‘classical’ ideologiesin a range of other ways. This has altered the focus and sometimes the terms ofideological debate. Three broad differences can be identified. In the first place,there has been a shift away from economics and towards culture. Liberalism,conservatism and socialism were primarily concerned with issues of economicorganization, or at least their moral vision was grounded in a particulareconomic model. By contrast, and in their various ways, the ‘new’ ideologies aremore interested in culture than in economics: their primary concerns tend to beorientated around people’s values, beliefs and ways of life, rather than economicwell-being or even social justice.

Second, there has been a shift from social politics to identity politics (see p.320). Identity links the personal to the social, in seeing the individual as ‘embed-ded’ in a particular cultural, social, institutional and ideological context, but it

also highlights the scope for personal choice and self-defi-nition, reflecting a general social trend towards individu-alization. In this sense, the ‘new’ ideologies offerindividuals not worked-out sets of political solutions that‘fit’ their social position, but, rather, provide them with arange of ideological options. This means that politicalactivism has become, in effect, a lifestyle choice. Finally,there has been a shift from universalism to particularism.Whereas, most clearly, liberalism and socialism shared anEnlightenment faith in reason and progress, reflecting thebelief that there is a common core to human identityshared by people everywhere, ‘new’ ideologies, such asfeminism, ethnic nationalism, multiculturalism and reli-gious fundamentalism, stress the importance of factorssuch as gender, locality, culture and ethnicity. In thatsense, they practise the ‘politics of difference’ rather thanthe politics of universal emancipation.


Universalism

The belief that it ispossible to uncovercertain values andprinciples that areapplicable to all peopleand all societies,regardless of historical,cultural and otherdifferences.

Particularism

The belief thathistorical, cultural andother differencesbetween people andsocieties are moresignificant than whatthey have in common.

Cosmopolitanism

The belief that theworld constitutes asingle moral, andpossibly political,community, in thatpeople have obligationstowards all otherpeople in the world(see p. 196).

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Using this book

This book examines each ideology or ideological tradition in turn. They areorganized, roughly, in chronological terms, so that the larger process of ideolog-ical development, whereby one ideology influences others and so forth, can bemapped out. Each chapter has the same general structure:

● Following a Preview, which highlights the broad nature of the ideology,the origins and historical development of the ideology in question areexamined.

● The next main section explains and analyses the core themes of theideology, the values, doctrines and theories that, taken together, definethe shape or morphology of the ideology. This section highlights whatis distinctive about each ideological tradition, but also notes overlapswith other ideologies, where relevant.

● The following sections deal with the sub-traditions which characterizeeach and every political ideology. The focus here is not only on thedistinctive features of each sub-tradition, many of which are, anyway,hybrid ideological constructs (conservative nationalism, socialist femi-nism, liberal multiculturalism and so on), but also on the internalcoherence, or lack of coherence, of the ideology as a whole. This there-fore focuses on areas of disagreement between supporters of the sameideology.

● The final main section examines contemporary developments withinthe ideological tradition in question and reflects, in particular, on


Globalization is the emergence of a webof interconnectedness that means thatour lives are increasingly shaped byevents that occur, and decisions that aremade, at a great distance from us, thusgiving rise to ‘supraterritorial’ connectionsbetween people. However, globalization isa complex process that has a range ofmanifestations. Economic globalization isthe process through which nationaleconomies have, to a greater or lesser

extent, been absorbed into a single globaleconomy. Cultural globalization is theprocess whereby information, commodi-ties and images produced in one part ofthe world have entered into a global flowthat tends to ‘flatten out’ cultural differ-ences worldwide. Political globalization isthe process through which policy-makingresponsibilities have been passed fromnational governments to internationalorganizations.

KEY CONCEPT

GLOBALIZATION

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how, and to what extent, it has been reshaped by globalizing tendencies.

● Definitions of key terms, highlighted in the text, appear on the pagewhere they are used, instead of in a separate glossary.

● Boxed material can be found in each chapter, providing more informa-tion about major thinkers in each tradition, key concepts, rivalperspectives on important political themes (such as authority, equality,freedom, the state), points of tension within each ideology, and howthe ideology is internally configured.

● Each chapter concludes with a list of questions for discussion, andsuggestions for further reading. A full bibliography appears at the endof the book.

● As a navigational aid, the index entries for material in boxes are inbold, and the on-page definitions are in italics.

● The companion website features, amongst other things, a searchableglossary of key terms, advice about websites to support further study,and articles and other material relevant to political ideologies.

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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

● Are ‘practical men’ really the slaves of ‘academic scribblers’ (Keynes)?

● How does the Marxist concept of ideology differ from the mainstreamconcept?

● Is ideology necessarily false? If so, why?

● Can ‘socially unattached’ intellectuals rise above ideology?

● Are all sets of political ideas ideologies, or only some?

● To what extent do ideologies differ in terms of their conceptual structure?

● What is new about the ‘new’ ideologies’?

● To what extent has ideological commitment become a life-style choice?

● Does the rise of ‘new’ ideologies mean that the old ones are now defunct?

● How does an ideology differ from a philosophy?

FURTHER READING

Festenstein, M. and M. Kenny, Political Ideologies: A Reader and Guide (2005). A very usefulcollection of extracts from key texts on ideology and ideologies, supported by lucidcommentaries.

Freeden, M., Ideology: A Very Short Introduction (2004). An accessible and lively introductionto the concept: an excellent starting place.

McLellan, D., Ideology (1995). A clear and short yet comprehensive introduction to theelusive concept of ideology.

Schwartzmantel, J., The Age of Ideology: Political Ideologies from the American Revolution toPost-Modern Times (1998). A broad-ranging analysis of how the major ideological tradi-tions are coping with the challenge of postmodern society.


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absolute monarchy 3absolutism 25Acquisitive Society (Tawney) 129action, fusion of thought and 13–14active fundamentalism 287Acton, Lord 37, 145Adorno, Theodor 124affirmative action 322Afghanistan 93, 295, 298Africa 67, 99, 111, 171, 192–3

see also under individual countriesAfrican socialism 194Against our Will (Brownmiller) 246aggregate demand 57Ahmedinejad, Mahmoud 299al-Banna, Hassan 297al-Qaeda 293, 298, 308Alexander II, Tsar 161, 162Alexander III, Tsar 186, 217Algeria 111, 192, 194alienation 119Alleanza Nationale (AN) 223Allende, Salvador 99Alliance for Social Democracy 161altruism 53American Coalition for Traditional Values

303American Declaration of Independence 44American Revolution 25, 42American Women’s Suffrage Association 227Amish 287anarchism 13, 140–67

anti-clericalism 147–8anti-statism 143–5and authority 143–5, 207collectivist 149–54, 160core themes 142–9and democracy 41, 155direct action 152, 162–3and ecologism 271economic freedom 148–9and the economy 108egoism 155–6

and equality 104and freedom 30globalization and 164–6and human nature 71individualist 149, 154–60libertarianism 156–7mutualism 151–2and nation 175and nature 256non-violent protest 163–4origins and development 141–2and religion 147–8, 286revolutionary violence 161–2roads to 160–4and society 74tensions 160utopianism 146–7

anarcho-capitalism 90, 157–60anarcho-communism 153–4, 271anarcho-syndicalism 141, 152–3Anderson, Benedict 177androgyny 233–4, 233Anglo-African war 171Angola 194Angry Brigade 162animal rights 264anomie 73Anthony, Susan B. 227anthropocentrism 255, 274, 275anti-capitalism 138, 164–6, 249, 278anti-clericalism 147–8anti-colonialism 171, 192–4anti-communism 209anti-globalization 164–6, 249, 278anti-immigration groups/parties 95, 197,

223, 332anti-modernism 289–91anti-rationalism 202–4anti-Semitism 214, 216–20, 217anti-statis 87–91, 143–5apartheid 216apocalypticism 293apostasy 296

357

Index

Entries in bold type refer to boxed information. Entries in italics refer to on-page definitions.

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Arab nationalism 296Aral Sea 270Arendt, Hannah 9Argentina 80, 200Aristotle 40Aryanism 209, 217–20Ashcroft, John 304Asia 67, 99, 171, 192–3

see also under individual countriesassimilation 333Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal 299Atkinson, Ti-Grace 246atomism 28Attlee, C.R. 109, 131Australia 312, 320Austria 205autarky 210authoritarian conservatism 78–80authoritarianism 79, 91–2authority 75–7, 76, 91–2, 207

anarchism and 143–5, 207fascism and 206–8

autonomy 31, 34, 35, 321

Baader–Meinhof Group 162Babri Masjid (mosque) 305Bahro, Randolph 270, 273Bakunin, Mikhail 141, 146, 148, 149, 150,

159, 161Barber, Benjamin 20, 308Barry, Brian 334Basques 179, 312‘Battle of Seattle’ 165Baumann, Z. 18Beck, U. 18behaviourism 2Belgium 312, 314Bell, Daniel 338, 343Bentham, Jeremy 31, 42, 45, 46, 52, 54Bergson, Henri 203Berlin, Isaiah 30–1, 326, 328Berman, Paul 296Bernstein, Eduard 113, 126, 130Beveridge Report 56Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 305Bhindranwale, Jarnail Singh 303, 306bill of rights 38bin Laden, Osama 298, 302biocentric quality 275bioregionalism 277Bismarck, O. von 79, 186black feminism 246, 247Black Muslims 180, 312black nationalism 312, 316Black Panther Party 180, 312

Black Power 312Blanqui, Auguste 110Blueprint for Survival (Goldsmith et al.)

252Bohr, Niels 258Bolivar, Simon 169, 182Bolsheviks 99, 109, 110, 121, 122Bonapartism 79–80Book of City of Ladies (Pisan) 227Bookchin, Murray 271, 273, 277Bosnia-Herzegovina 314Boulding, Kenneth 260bourgeois ideology 115bourgeois state 111bourgeoisie 106–7, 106Bourne, Randolph 145Bright, John 60, 157British National Party (BNP) 202Brownmiller, Susan 246Brundtland Report 253Buddhism 146, 252, 259, 267, 306–7, 308Buddhist economics 262Bukharin, N. 123Burke, Edmund 66, 69, 76, 80, 84, 85, 88Buruma, I. 296Bush, George 304Bush, George W. 66, 304

Calvin, Jean 282Cambodia 99, 111, 194Canada 66, 312, 320capitalism 2, 16, 62, 98, 100, 119

anarcho-capitalism 90, 157–60ecosocialism and 270enterprise capitalism 84fascism and 208–9green 268–9, 268industrial 16, 98, 340managed 149, 338planned 83revisionist socialism 129–30

Capra, Fritjof 257–8, 259Carnot, M.F.S. 161Carson, Rachel 252Cartesian–Newtonian paradigm 258, 268Castro, Fidel 99, 111, 193Catalonia 312Catholicism 300

social theory 83Chamber of Fasces and Corporations 213Chamberlain, H.S. 217–20, 218charisma 206, 289Chauvin, Nicolas 188chauvinism 170–1, 170, 188–92Chechnya 197

358 | I N D E X


Cheney, Dick 304Chernobyl nuclear explosion 270Chesterton, G.K. 69Chile 99China 99, 121, 124, 180, 192, 194, 196

Revolution of 1949 111Chomsky, Noam 165Christian democracy 83–4, 83Christian Democratic Party (DC) (Italy) 83Christian Democratic Union (CDU) (West

Germany) 83Christian fundamentalism 282, 300–4Christian new right 290, 301–4Christian Patriots 304Christian socialism 129Christian Voice 303Christianity 148, 259, 293, 307

evangelical Christians 303–4Churchill, Randolph 82citizenship 315civic conservatism 95civic nationalism 176, 181‘Civil Disobedience’ (Thoreau) 156civil liberty 39civil society 39, 44clash of civilizations 19, 282–3, 283, 295,

313, 333, 341class consciousness 115class system 6–7

see also social classclassical liberalism 26, 51classical Marxism 117–21climate change 278, 279Clinton, Bill 135Club of Rome 252CNT 141, 152Cobden, Richard 48, 60, 157Cold War 16, 211collective farms 103collectivism 102, 150, 208, 321collectivist anarchism 149–54, 160collectivization 105colonialism 171

neocolonialism 283commercial liberalism 60common ownership 107–9communes 154communism 99, 116–25, 117, 132, 141, 151,

338anarcho-communism 153–4, 271classical Marxism 117–21collapse of 19, 99, 124–5, 133, 136–7Eurocommunism 113neo-Marxism 123–4, 241orthodox 121–3, 136

Soviet/Soviet-style 2, 121, 122–3see also socialism

Communist International (Comintern) 121Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels)

120, 137, 193communitarian liberalism 134communitarianism 135, 317–19, 317community 100–2, 134

organic 176–7compassionate conservatism 83competition state 135–6, 135Conference on the Human Environment

(Stockholm, 1972) 253conflict 32

see also warConfucianism 63consciousness raising 242consensus 42–3, 42, 134–5consent 42conservatism 9, 10, 16, 65–96, 236–7, 338

authoritarian 78–80and authority 75–7, 207Christian democracy 83–4compassionate 83core themes 68–78and culture 318and democracy 41and ecologism 268–9and the economy 108and equality 104and freedom 30and fundamentalism 290and gender 235globalization and 94–5hierarchy 75–7and history 339human imperfection 70–3libertarian 84–6and multiculturalism 333and nation 175, 176and nature 256neoconservatism 87, 91–3new right see new rightone-nation 81–3organic society 73–5origins and development 66–7paternalistic 80–4, 86and property 77–8and religion 286and the state 144tensions 86, 92and tradition 69–70

conservative nationalism 95, 185–7, 215–16consociationalism 314constitution, written 38

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constitutionalism 37–9, 38, 155, 300constructivism 177consumer sovereignty 269consumerism 165, 265Contribution to the Critique of Political

Economy, A (Marx) 118cooperation 102–3, 102cooperative enterprises 103corporate state 213corporatism 212–14, 213Corsica 312cosmopolitan multiculturalism 330–1cosmopolitanism 20, 61, 194–5, 196, 335creationism 288creative destruction 204Crick, Bernard 9critical theory 124Crosland, Anthony 131–2Cuba 99, 111, 121, 125cultural feminism 236, 243cultural globalization 21cultural nationalism 172, 174, 179–81culturalism 180culture 20, 317–19, 317, 318culture of dependency 91Culture of Contentment, The (Galbraith) 115Czechoslovakia 185, 205

Daly, Mary 273Damdami Taksal 306Danish People’s Party 95, 197Darré, Walter 221Darwin, Charles 48–9, 153, 204de Beauvoir, Simone 233, 242, 244de Gaulle, Charles 186decentralization 271Declaration of the Rights of Man 38decolonization 192deep diversity 325deep ecology 255–7, 255, 257, 263, 265, 274,

275–7de-ideologized party politics 344demand management 57–8democracy 37, 41

anarchism and 41, 155Christian 83–4, 83developmental 42direct 154evolutionary socialism 113–16liberal 39–43, 40, 60–1, 308–9, 326, 339protective 42social see social democracytotalitarian 207–8, 207

democratic centralism 122democratic fascism 223–4

Democrats (USA) 66dependency, culture of 91Descartes, René 257developing countries 278–9, 308developmental democracy 42dialectic 118dialectical materialism 2, 116dictatorship of the proletariat 121, 151difference 234–6difference feminism 234, 236, 238difference principle 57direct action 152, 162–3direct democracy 154discipline 76–7discourse 247–8, 247Disraeli, Benjamin 81–2, 186diversity 34–5, 62, 323–4, 335divine right 25Donne, John 101Dreyfus affair 217Du Pape (de Maistre) 78Durkheim, Emile 73Dworkin, Andrea 245

East Asia 63Eatwell, Roger 202eco-anarchism 270–1, 274ecocentrism 254, 255, 274

see also deep ecologyecofeminism 243, 271–4ecological stewardship 264ecologism 9, 251–80

being 266–7core themes 253–67critique of materialism 265–6deep ecology 255–7, 255, 257, 263, 265,

274, 275–7and democracy 41and the economy 108environmental ethics 263–5, 277and equality 104and freedom 30globalization and 278–9holism 257–60and human nature 71modernist 262, 267–9, 274nature and politics 267–77origins and developmen 252–3shallow ecology 255–7, 255, 257social ecology 146, 263, 269–74sustainability 253, 260–3, 268tensions 257

ecology 254–7, 254economic freedom 148–9economic globalization 21

360 | I N D E X


economic liberalism 46–8, 84economic management 57–8economics

Buddhist 262happiness 265Marxist 119–20supply-side 90

economy, the 108ecosocialism 269–70, 274ecosystems 254–5eco-warrior groups 252education 32egalitarianism 103–5, 103, 135

luck egalitarianism 34Ego and His Own, The (Stirner) 155egoism 28–9, 155–6Ehrenfeld, David 253Ehrlich, P. 252Einstein, Albert 258elitism 205–8, 206Elizabeth, Empress 161Elshtain, Jean Bethke 245Encylopédie anarchiste (Faure) 143End of History and the Last Man, The

(Fukuyama) 338–9endism 337–44, 343

end of history 338–40end of ideology 338

energy crisis 261Engels, Friedrich 6, 98, 108, 110, 116, 117,

137, 240English Revolution 25, 45, 66Enlightenment 26, 31, 203Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (Godwin)

141enterprise capitalism 84entropy 261environmental degradation 252, 275–6environmental ethics 263–5, 277environmental movement 252–3environmentalism 253equality 33–4, 33, 104

feminism and 104, 234–6, 239–40formal 315social liberalism 56–7socialism and 103–6

equality feminism 235–6, 235, 238equality of opportunity 56, 314essentialism 234, 272–4essentially contested concepts 13ethical nationalism 195ethical socialism 128–9ethnic cleansing 196ethnic nationalism 172, 174, 180–1, 196–7,

300–1, 305

ethnicity 176–7, 176ethnocultural nationalism 312eugenics 205Eurocentrism 317Eurocommunism 113European integration 93European Union (EU) 196Euroscepticism 93, 186evangelicalism 307–8, 307

evangelical Christians 303–4evolution 48–9, 153evolutionary socialism 112–16Evolutionary Socialism (Bernstein) 113, 130expansionist nationalism 185, 187–92

Fabian Society 112false consciousness 6Falwell, Jerry 303family 91, 92, 240–1Fanon, Frantz 191, 193fascism 9, 13, 16–17, 199–225

anti-rationalism 202–4authority 206–8core themes 201–10and culture 318and democracy 41democratic 223–4and the economy 108and equality 104and freedom 30and gender 235globalization and 222–4and history 339and human nature 71leadership and elitism 205–8and nation 175, 176and nature 256origins and development 200–1and racialism 210, 211, 214–22and religion 286socialism and 208–9and society 74and the state 144, 210–14struggle 204–5tensions 221ultranationalism 209–10

Faure, Sébastien 143federalism 39Female Eunuch, The (Greer) 228, 242Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan) 228, 238feminism 226–50

black 246, 247core themes 229–36cultural 236, 243and culture 318

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feminism – continueddifference feminism 234, 236, 238ecofeminism 243, 271–4and equality 104, 234–6, 239–40equality feminism 235–6, 235, 238first-wave 227–8, 227, 237–8gender 233–4, 235globalization and 248–9and human nature 71Islamic 237liberal 229, 232, 234, 237–40, 246and multiculturalism 34and nature 256new 248origins and development 227–9patriarchy 231–2, 242–3, 272–4postfeminism 228–9, 248postmodern 234, 246, 247–8radical 229, 230–1, 232, 242–6redefining the political 230–1second-wave 228, 238, 242sex and gender 233–4sex and politics 236–48socialist 229, 234–5, 240–2, 246and society 74and the state 144tensions 238, 243third-wave 247–8

feminization of work 249feudalism 25, 27, 82, 119Fichte, F.G. 180, 189Figes, Eva 242final solution 221Finland 320Fire with Fire (Wolf) 248first-wave feminism 227–8, 227, 237–8Flanders 312formal equality 315Fortuyn, Pim 332fossil fuels 261foundationalism 340Fourier, Charles 98, 102, 117, 128, 240Fox, Warwick 266–7France 79–80, 95, 326

nationalism 169, 178, 186Franco, General 141Frankfurt School 8, 124fraternity 101free market 47–8, 48, 84–6, 88–9, 94, 157free trade 60, 184Freeden, Michael 14freedom 29, 30, 70, 73

economic 148–9fear of 201liberalism and 29–31, 52–3

negative 31, 43, 53positive 31, 52–3

Freedom Party (Austria) 95, 197, 233, 332French Revolution 25, 38, 66, 78, 80, 169,

178French Socialist Party 113, 133 Friedan, Betty 228, 238, 239, 244Friedman, David 157Friedman, Milton 49, 50, 88–90Friends of the Earth 252Fromm, Erich 201, 265Front National (France) 95, 197, 202, 223,

332Führerprinzip (leader principle) 206–7Fukuyama, Francis 60, 125, 338–9, 340, 343functionalism 75fundamentalism 63, 289

market 49–50, 49and nation 175religious see religious fundamentalismand the state 144

fundamentalist impulse 287–9fundamentalist socialism 108–9, 108Future of Socialism, The (Crosland) 131futurism 214futurity 264

Gaia theory 259–60, 259Gaitskell, Hugh 130Galbraith, J.K. 115, 133Gallie, W.B. 13Gandhi, Indira 293, 306Gandhi, Mahatma 163, 191, 193Garvey, John 288Garvey, Marcus 180, 191, 312Gellner, Ernest 177gender 228, 235

sex and 233–4General Theory of Employment, Interest and

Money (Keynes) 57general will 178genocide 221Gentile, Giovanni 211, 218German Ideology, The (Marx and Engels) 6,

119Germany 38, 79

Green Party 269, 270industrialization 252nationalism 169, 170, 171, 173, 180, 189Nazism see NazismSDP 113unification 178

ghettoization 335Giddens, Anthony 18, 133, 341, 343Gilmour, Ian 80

362 | I N D E X


globalization 19–20, 21anarchism and 164–6conservatism and 94–5ecologism and 278–9fascism and 222–4feminism and 248–9liberalism and 59–63multiculturalism and 334–5nationalism and 194–7religious fundamentalism and 283–4,

307–9socialism and 136–8

Gobineau, Joseph Arthur 217, 218Godwin, William 141, 146, 154, 156, 158Golden Temple, Amritsar 306Goldman, Emma 145Goldsmith, Edward 252Goldwater, Barry 66Goodin, R.E. 265Goodman, Paul 143government 36, 37

constitutional 37–9limited 45see also state

gradualism 113inevitability of 113–16

Gramsci, Antonio 7, 12, 115, 124, 127Gray, John 327Great Depression 57Green, T.H. 52–3, 55green capitalism 268–9, 268green movement 252–3

see also ecologismgreen theory of value 265Greenpeace 257Greer, Germaine 228, 242, 245, 248Gregor, A.J. 202Griffin, Roger 202, 209–10Grimm Brothers 180Guevara, Che 111Gushmun Emunim (Bloc of the Faithful)

306Gyn/Ecology (Daly) 273

Habermas, Jürgen 124Hamas 293happiness economics 265‘hard’ Wilsonianism 93Hardin, Garrett 261Hardy, Thomas 252Haredim (ultra-orthodox Jews) 287Harriman, R. 252Hayek, Friedrich von 13, 49–50, 88–90, 88Hegel, G.W.F. 117, 118, 155, 211–12hegemony 7

Heisenberg, Verner 258Henry, Emile 161–2Herder, Johann Gottfried 180, 190, 317Hezbollah 293hierarchy 75–7, 75Hinduism 252, 259, 305, 308historical materialism 117–18, 117history 174, 339

end of 338–40Hitler, Adolf 2, 79, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205,

206, 208, 212, 215, 219, 220, 222Ho Chi Minh 193Hobbes, Thomas 36, 45, 70, 72, 88, 146Hobhouse, L.T. 52Hobsbawm, Eric 177Hobson, J.A. 52holism 257–60, 258homeostasis 254Horkheimer, Max 124horseshoe-shaped political spectrum 17How to be a Survivor (Ehrlich and Harriman)

252human development 62human imperfection 70–3human nature 29, 53, 71, 145, 146–7human rights 44–5, 61–2, 61

see also natural rightshumanism 128–9, 128, 253humanist ecology 277humanitarian intervention 61–2, 61Huntington, Samuel P. 19, 282–3, 313, 341,

343hybridity 331hyphenated nationality 325

ideas 2–4identity 20, 70, 317–20identity politics 20, 292, 319, 320ideologies

commercial structure 14cross-cutting 14new 15–21, 341particular 8rule of ideas 2–4total 8

ideology 1–23, 9contours of 11–14definition 4–5, 11–12end of 338enduring nature of 342–4truth, power and 14–15views of 4–11

Ideology and Utopia (Mannheim) 8immigration 186, 312–13

restrictions 333

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imperialism 188, 192, 210, 215, 216, 307inclusion, social 135independence 178, 192–3India 99, 180, 193, 196

religious fundamentalism 305–6indigenous peoples 312, 320, 322individualism 28, 75, 154, 238

feminism and 238–9liberal 27–9, 43, 52, 290

individualist anarchism 149, 154–60individuality 52industrial capitalism 16, 98, 340industrial societies 18–19industrialism 260industrialization 25–6, 177, 200, 221–2, 252inequality 62, 81–2

sexual 231–2, 234–6see also equality

inflation 90institutions 147integral nationalism 209international migration 195, 312–13International Monetary Fund (IMF) 94, 196international organizations 196, 278International Working Men’s Association

(First International) 141, 150internationalism 184

liberal 183–4Iran 237, 282, 291, 295, 298–9Iran–Iraq war 299Iraq 93, 194Islam 129, 259, 293, 307Islamic feminism 237Islamic fundamentalism 223, 282, 294–9,

340Islamic Revolutionary Council 298Islamism 297

varieties of 296–9Israel 304, 306Italian Socialist Party 113Italy 114

fascism 200, 206, 208, 210, 211, 213–14, 221

nationalism 169, 170, 171

Jahn, F.L. 180, 189Japan 67, 171, 200, 210Jefferson, Thomas 44, 45, 54, 156Jews 216–21

anti-Semitism 214, 216–20, 217jihad (holy war) 295, 297jingoism 188John Paul II, Pope 129Johnson, Lyndon 56, 301Jordan 297

Judaism 259, 307–8fundamentalism 306

justice 33–4, 33social 33, 129

Justice and Development Party (AKP)(Turkey) 299

Kant, Immanuel 28, 31, 54Katch (Thus) 306Katzenstein, P.J. 341–2Kautsky, Karl 116Kennedy, John F. 56Keynes, John Maynard 2, 57–8, 90Keynesianism 50, 58, 83, 90, 131, 132–3, 137Khalistan 305Khmer Rouge 111Khomeini, Ayatollah 67, 284–5, 295, 299,

300, 302kibbutz system 102King, Martin Luther 34, 312knowledge economy 134Koran 294Kristallnacht 221Kristol, Irving 89Kropotkin, Peter 103, 146, 150, 153, 154,

159, 252, 271Ku Klux Klan 216Kuhn, Thomas 12Kuomintang 111Kurds 174Kymlicka, Will 320, 321, 329

Labour Party (Australia) 113Labour Party (UK) 112, 113, 114, 130, 133,

134labourism 100Laclau, Ernesto 125laissez-faire 48, 57land ethic 275language 173Lassalle, Ferdinand 113Latin America 67, 99, 111, 129, 141, 169law 36

rule of 38Shari’a 290, 294, 298

Le Pen, Jean-Marie 95, 216leadership 76–7, 205–8

charismatic 206, 289League of Nations 184Lebensraum (living space) 205, 222left–right divide 16, 17

endism and 340–2Lenin, Vladimir Ilich 2, 7, 109, 110, 121,

122, 126, 138, 193Leninism 122

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Leopold, Aldo 275lesbianism, political 246Lewis, Bernard 295liberal democracy 39–43, 40, 60–1, 308–9,

326, 339Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) (Japan) 67liberal feminism 229, 232, 234, 237–40, 246liberal individualism 27–9, 43, 52, 290liberal internationalism 183–4liberal (moderate) Islam 299liberal multiculturalism 319, 325–6, 327,

331liberal nationalism 182–5liberal new right see neoliberalismliberal state 35–7liberal universalism 20–1, 319, 332liberalism 9, 10, 16, 19–20, 24–64, 142, 143,

338and authority 207classical 26, 51commercial 60communitarian 134constitutionalism 37–9core themes 26–35and culture 318and democracy 41and ecologism 268economic 46–8, 84economic management 57–8and the economy 108and equality 104and freedom 29–31, 52–3and gender 235globalization and 59–63government, democracy and 35–43and history 339and human nature 71and individualist anarchism 154–5justice 33–4modern 26, 51–8and multiculturalism 325, 332–3and nation 175, 176natural rights 28, 44–5and nature 256neoliberalism 43, 49–50, 50, 59–60,

87–91, 87, 92origins and development 25–6reason 31–2and religion 286republican 60–1, 60social 56–7social Darwinism 48–9and society 74and the state 144tensions 59, 332

toleration 34–5utilitarianism 42, 45–6, 52

liberation theology 129libertarian conservatism 84–6libertarianism 67, 85, 156–7, 156Libya 194Limits to Growth, The (Club of Rome) 252linear political spectrum see left–right divideList, Friedrich 84Living Dolls (Walter) 248Locke, John 13, 34, 36, 42, 44, 45, 54, 146,

253long boom 58, 86, 87Louis XVI 169Lovelock, James 259–60, 272luck egalitarianism 34Lukács, Georg 124Lyotard, Jean-François 125, 340–1

MacIntyre, Alistair 319Macmillan, Harold 78, 83Macpherson, C.B. 28–9Madison, James 40, 55Maistre, Joseph de 78majoritarianism 40Malatesta, Errico 154, 161Man versus the State, The (Spencer) 48managed capitalism 149, 338managerialism 131Manchester liberals 60, 157Manichaeanism 220, 292Mannheim, Karl 8, 15Mao Zedong 111, 193Marcuse, Herbert 8, 124, 127Margalit, A. 296Marinetti, Filippo 214market 47

free market 47–8, 48, 84–6, 88–9, 94, 157market fundamentalism 49–50, 49Marty, M.E. 293Marx, Karl 2, 6–7, 10, 14–15, 98, 105, 108,

110, 113, 117–21, 125, 126, 137, 141,193, 342

Marxism 116–25, 193classical 117–21collectivist anarchism and 150–1demise of 124–5and ecologism 270economics 119–20nationalism 193–4neo-Marxism (modern Marxism) 123–4,

123, 241philosophy 117–19politics 120–1views of ideology 6–8

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Marxism–Leninism 3, 194, 339materialism 265

dialectical 2, 116historical 117–18, 117

Maurras, Charles 189, 191, 209Mazzini, Giuseppe 182, 183, 190McKinley, W. 161McLellan, David 5Mein Kampf (Hitler) 205mercantilism 47Merchant, Caroline 273meritocracy 34–5, 76metaphysics 275Metternich, K. von 170Mexico 141Middle East 295–6Middle Way, The (Macmillan) 83migration, international 195, 312–13Miliband, Ralph 137militancy 291–3, 291militant nationalism 189militarism 187, 189, 210, 222militias, Christian 304Mill, James 42, 45Mill, John Stuart 13, 29, 35, 41–2, 52, 55,

183, 237–8, 239, 268millenarianism 148, 293Millett, Kate 228, 230, 232, 242, 244Milton, John 34minimal state 43–4, 45, 87minority groups 312minority rights 320–3Mitchell, Juliet 241mixed economy 109, 131moderate (liberal) Islam 299modern liberalism 26, 51–8modernism 177, 340modernist ecology 262, 267–9, 274modernization 308–9

fascist 214Mohammed, Prophet 294, 295, 298monarchy 3, 69–70monism 211Montesquieu, C. de 39, 317Moral Majority 92, 290, 303, 304morality, public 91–3Morris, William 128, 252, 269–70, 271Mosley, Oswald 208, 213Mouffe, Chantal 125multiculturalism 62, 93, 176, 181, 195, 223,

311–36core themes 313–24cosmopolitan 330–1critiques of 331–4culture and identity 317–20

diversity 323–4, 335globalization and 334–5liberal 319, 325–6, 327, 331minority rights 320–3origins and development 312–13particularist 327–30pluralist 326–30, 331and politics 324–31politics of recognition 314–17and society 74

Müntzer, Thomas 282Murray, Charles 91Muslim Brotherhood 297Mussolini, Benito 79, 200, 203, 206, 208,

213, 214, 219mutual aid 153mutualism 151–2, 151

Naess, Arne 255, 267, 272, 275Napoleon III 79–80Nasser, Gamal 296nation 93, 169, 173–6, 175nation-state 178–9, 178, 185national minorities 312, 320, 322National Organization of Women (NOW)

(USA) 238National Women’s Suffrage Association (USA)

227nationalism 19, 63, 168–98, 335

anti-colonialism 171, 192–4black 312, 316civic 176, 181conservative 95, 185–7, 215–16core themes 172–81cultural 172, 174, 179–81ethical 195ethnic 172, 174, 180–1, 196–7, 300–1, 305ethnocultural 312expansionist 185, 187–92globalization and 194–7integral 209liberal 182–5militant 189neoconservatism 93organic community 176–7origins and development 169–72pan-nationalism 188–9, 188political 172, 181–94postcolonialism 192–4self-determination 177–9, 183and society 74tensions 181, 185

nationalization 109, 131natural aristocracy 76natural rights 28, 44–5, 44

366 | I N D E X


natural selection 49, 204nature 256

see also ecologismNavy League 189Nazism 2, 189, 200, 204, 205, 206, 208–9,

210, 212, 221racialism 210, 211, 216–22

need-satisfaction 105negative freedom 31, 43, 53Nehru, Jawaharlal 182, 193Neighbourhood Watch 160neocolonialism 283neoconservatism 87, 91–3neoliberalism (neoclassical liberalism) 43,

49–50, 50, 59–60, 87–91, 87, 92neo-Marxism (modern Marxism) 123–4,

123, 241neo-Reaganism 93neo-revisionism 133–6, 137Netherlands, The 314New Deal 58 new feminism 248New Harmony (Indiana) 102new ideologies 15–21, 341new left 124, 164, 338new politics 163new right 67, 86–93, 94, 164, 338

Christian 290, 301–4conservative 91–3liberal 87–91

new social movements 19, 125, 163New Zealand 312, 320New Zealand First party 332Newton, Isaac 257Nicaragua 99Nicholas I, Tsar 79Nietzsche, Friedrich 203, 206, 218nihilism 156, 203Nolte, Ernst 202, 222non-violent protest 163–4North Korea 99, 124, 194Northern Ireland 173–4, 300–1, 314Northern League (Italy) 95, 197Norway 320Nozick, Robert 89, 91, 157Nunavut 320Nuremburg Laws 221Nyerere, Julius 101

Oakeshott, Michael 10, 72, 73, 89occidentalism 296offence 321–2, 321Omar, Mullah 298On Liberty (J.S. Mill) 29, 35, 52On the Subjection of Women (J.S. Mill) 237

One-Dimensional Man (Marcuse) 8One Nation, Australia 332one-nation conservatism 81–3Only One Earth (United Nations) 252organic community 176–7organic society 73–5organicism 73Orientalism (Said) 316–17Origin of Species, The (Darwin) 48, 204Origins of Family, Private Property and State,

The (Engels) 240Ortega y Gasset, J. 42Orthodox Christianity 300orthodox communism 121–3, 136orthodoxy 287Our Synthetic Environment (Bookchin) 271Owen, Robert 98, 102, 117, 126, 128, 240

pacifism 164Paglia, Camille 248Paine, Thomas 43Paisley, Ian 301, 303Pakistan 237Pan-German League 189Pankhurst, Christabel 227Pankhurst, Emmeline 227pan-nationalism 188–9, 188pan-Slavism 188–9papal infallibility 300paradigms 12Parekh, Bhikhu 327, 328Paris Peace Conference 171, 183particularism 20–1, 21particularist multiculturalism 327–30passive fundamentalism 286–7pastoralism 252paternalism 1, 81paternalistic conservatism 80–4, 86Patriarchal Attitudes (Figes) 242patriarchy 231–2, 231, 242–3, 272–4patriotism 93, 169peasant ideology 221–2People’s Liberation Front (Sri Lanka) 307People’s Will (Russia) 162permissiveness 91, 92–3Perón, Juan 67, 80, 213physics 258Pisan, Christine de 227Pius IX, Pope 79planned capitalism 83Plato 40, 98Plekhanov, Georgi 116pluralism 34, 330

liberalism 34–5, 332value pluralism 326, 327

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368 | I N D E X

pluralist multiculturalism 326–30, 331Pol Pot 111Poland 178, 185, 205political globalization 21political lesbianism 246political myths 152political nationalism 172, 181–94political systems 3politics

feminism and redefining the political 230–1

identity politics 20, 292, 319, 320Marxist 120–1multiculturalism and 324–31nature and 267–77new 163of race 215–16of recognition 314–16religion as 284–7sex and 236–48sexual 231

polyethnic rights 320–1Popper, Karl 9population control 276populism 80, 291positive discrimination 321, 322, 323positive freedom 31, 52–3postcolonialism 192–4, 249, 283, 316–17, 317postfeminism 228–9, 248postindustrial societies 18–19post-Marxism 125postmaterialism 265–6, 266, 279postmodern feminism 234, 246, 247–8postmodernism 62, 340–1poststructuralism 247–8, 247Powell, Enoch 216power 6–7, 14–15pragmatism 3, 72–3, 72preservationism 276primordialism 175, 176private property see propertyprivate/public divide 230–1, 236–7, 285–6,

325–6privatization 78, 90, 160progress 31–2Progress Party (Denmark) 95Progress Party (Norway) 95progressive taxation 106proletariat 7, 106–7, 106, 120–1

dictatorship of the proletariat 121, 151property 77–8, 77, 107–9, 151protection agencies 157–60protective democracy 42Protestantism 83, 300, 301

fundamentalism 288

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 141, 143–5, 146,148, 151, 158

pro-woman position (feminism) 236, 243public morality 91–3public/private divide 230–1, 236–7, 285–6,

325–6Puritans 282

Quebec 312Qutb, Sayyid 297–8, 302

Rabin, Yitzak 293race 210

Nazi theories of 216–21politics of 215–16

racialism 189, 192, 215fascism and 210, 211, 214–22Nazism and 210, 211, 216–22

radical feminism 229, 230–1, 232, 242–6Rafsanjani, Hashemi 299Rand, Ayn 157rape 246rationalism 31–2, 32, 342Rationalism in Politics (Oakeshott) 10Rawls, John 30, 55, 56–7, 325Reagan, Ronald 66, 67, 90, 304Reaganism 49

neo-Reaganism 93reason 31–2Rechtsstaat (state ruled by law) 38recognition, politics of 314–16Red Army (Japan) 162Red Brigades 162redistribution 315–16Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke)

66Reflections on Violence (Sorel) 152, 203refugees 313Regents of the University of California v Bakke

322regimes of truth 15relativism 287, 288religion 173–4, 259, 282, 286

anarchism and 147–8, 286and offence 321–2as politics 284–7 see also under individual religions

religious fundamentalism 9, 20, 63, 194, 223,281–310, 313

active 287anti-modernism 289–91and authority 207Buddhist 306–7Christian 282, 300–4core themes 284–93


religious fundamentalism – continuedand freedom 30fundamentalist impulse 287–9and gender 235globalization and 283–4, 307–9Hindu 305and history 339Islamic 223, 282, 294–9, 340Jewish 306militancy 291–3and nature 256origins and development 282–4passive 286–7Sikh 305–6

Religious Round Table 303representation rights 320–1Republic (Plato) 98republican liberalism 60–1, 60republicanism 315, 316Republicans (USA) 66revisionism 130, 288

neo-revisionism 133–6, 137revisionist socialism 109, 129–32Revolt of the Masses, The (Ortega y Gasset) 42revolution 110–12, 110

social 120–1, 120revolutionary (vanguard) party 122revolutionary violence 161–2Rhine-Alpine capitalism 84Ricardo, David 2, 47, 60, 84right–left divide see left–right dividerights

bill of 38human 44–5, 61–2, 61minority 320–3natural 28, 44–5, 44politics of 315, 316representation 320–1self-government 320

Rio Earth Summit (1992) 253Robertson, Pat 304Rochdale Pioneers 103Rohm, Ernst 209Roman Catholicism see CatholicismRoosevelt, F.D. 56Rosenberg, Alfred 212, 219Rothbard, Murray 157, 159Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 31, 42, 146, 169,

177–8, 182, 190rule of law 38ruling class 120Rushdie, Salman 322Russia 79, 109, 121, 122–3

pan-Slavism 188–9see also Soviet Union

Russian Populists 161, 162Russian Revolution 16, 99, 110, 121, 201Ruthven, M. 282Rwanda 197

SA (Brownshirts) 208, 209 Sadat, Anwar 293Said, Edward 316–17, 328Saint-Simon, C.H. 117Sand County Almanac (Leopold) 275Sandel, Michael 319Sandinista guerrillas 99Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie) 322Saudi Arabia 296–7Schumacher, Ernst Friedrich (‘Fritz’) 261,

262, 266, 272science 12, 257–9, 342scientism 258, 342Scotland 179Scottish nationalism 312scriptural literalism 288Seabright, Paul 25Second Stage, The (Friedan) 239second-wave feminism 228, 238, 242secularism 285, 326secularization 282, 283self-actualization 277self-determination 177–9, 183self-government rights 320Self-Help (Smiles) 48self-realization 266–7, 277Seliger, Martin 10, 13Sen, Amartya 62, 332–3Seneca Falls convention 227separation of powers 39separatism 179, 246September 11 2001 terrorist attacks 19, 93 sex

and gender 233–4and politics 236–48

sexism 231sexual division of labour 230–1, 241sexual oppression 231, 243–6sexual politics 231Sexual Politics (Millett) 228, 242shallow diversity 326shallow ecology 255–7, 255, 257Shari’a law 290, 294, 298Shaw, George Bernard 112Shia Islam 294, 298–9Sikh fundamentalism 305–6Sil, R. 341–2Silent Spring (Carson) 252simple living 276–7Singer, Peter 264

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slavery 19 Slavophile nationalism 188–9Small is Beautiful (Schumacher) 261Smiles, Samuel 48Smith, Adam 2, 31, 46–7, 49, 54, 84Smith, Anthony 176Smuts, Jan 258social capitalism 84social class 3–4, 16, 106, 241

anarchism 148–9bourgeoisie 106–7, 106ruling class 120socialism 106–7, 119–20, 130underclass 115working class 98, 100, 113, 114–15

social contract 36–7, 36, 146Social Contract (Rousseau) 146social Darwinism 48–9, 204–5social democracy 99, 125–36, 128, 132, 136,

137, 338crisis of 132–3

Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP)(Sweden) 114, 130

social-democratic liberalism 56–7Social Democratic Party (SDP) (Germany)

113, 114, 130social ecology 146, 263, 269–74social inclusion 135social justice 33, 129social liberalism 56–7social market economy 84social movements 19, 125, 163social order 91–2social reflexivity 341social reform 82social reformism 315–16, 334social responsibility 29, 81–2social revolution 120–1, 120socialism 9, 16, 19, 94, 97–139, 142, 143,

296, 338anarchism and 150–1anticolonialism and nationalism 193–4and authority 207common ownership 107–9communism see communismcommunity 100–2cooperation 102–3core themes 100–11and culture 318and democracy 41ecosocialism 269–70, 274and equality 103–6ethical 128–9evolutionary 112–16fascist version 208–9

and freedom 30fundamentalist 108–9, 108and gender 235globalization and 136–8gradualism 113–16and history 339and human nature 71and nation 175and nature 256neo-revisionism 133–6, 137origins and development 98–9and religion 286revisionist 109, 129–32revolutionary 110–12roads to 109–16and social class 106–7, 119–20, 130and society 74and the state 144state socialism 109, 123, 149, 270tensions 132, 136third way 133–6, 134, 136

Socialism for a Sceptical Age (Miliband) 137socialist feminism 229, 234–5, 240–2, 246society 74

organic 73–5solitaristic theory 332–3Somalia 295Sorel, Georges 152, 203South Africa 216South Yemen 194sovereignty 177–8, 177Soviet Union 103, 205

demise of 124Soviet-style communism 2, 121, 122–3

‘spaceship Earth’ 260–1Spain 312Spanish Civil War 141Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party 114special representation rights 320–1speciesism 264Spencer, Herbert 48, 49, 153Spooner, Lysander 156Sri Lanka 306–7Stalin, Joseph 109, 122–3Stalinism 123Stanton, Elizabeth Cady 227state 36, 144

bourgeois 111competition state 135–6, 135corporate 213fascism and the 144, 210–14liberal 35–7minimal 43–4, 45, 87proletarian 121welfare state 56, 91, 131

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state of nature 36state socialism 109, 123, 149, 270statism 210Stirner, Max 155–6, 158Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The (Kuhn)

12struggle 204–5Sudan 237, 295, 297suffragettes 227Sumner, William 49Sun Yat-Sen 182Sunni Islam 294, 298supply-side economics 90supranationalism 187surplus value 120sustainability 253, 260–3, 262, 263, 268Sweden 320Switzerland 314syndicalism 141, 152–3Syria 297systems 258–9, 258

ecosystems 254–5open and closed 260–1world-systems theory 138

Taliban 298Talmon, J.L. 9, 207Tamil Tigers 307Tamils 306–7Tanzania 194Tao of Physics, The (Capra) 259Taoism 146, 148, 252, 259Tawney, R.H. 105, 127, 129taxation 90

progressive 106Taylor, Charles 321, 328televangelists 290, 303terrorism 19, 93, 161, 292–3, 292, 304

anarchist 161–2Teutons 217–20Thatcher, Margaret 67, 75, 78, 90, 92Thatcherism 49, 186theocracy 282Theory of Justice (Rawls) 56third-wave feminism 247–8third way 133–6, 134, 136Thoreau, Henry David 156, 159, 276thought, fusion of action and 13–14Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Nietzsche) 206Tocqueville, Alexis de 40toleration 34–5, 34, 324, 325, 327Tolstoy, Leo 163Toryism 82totalitarian democracy 207–8, 207totalitarianism 8–9, 17, 123, 211–12, 212, 287

Tracy, Antoine Destutt de 5trade, free 60, 184tradition 69–70, 69tragedy of the commons 261–2, 261transnational communities 195transnational corporations (TNCs) 59transpersonal ecology 266–7Trevor-Roper, Hugh 201–2tribal socialism 101tribal society 119tribalism 184Triple Alliance 188Triple Entente 188Trotsky, Leon 127truth 14–15Tucker, Benjamin 156, 157Tully, James 329Turkey 299Turning Point, The (Capra) 257‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ (Berlin) 30–1tyranny of the majority 40

Übermensch 206ultranationalism 209–10Umberto, King 161underclass 115unemployment 57–8

natural rate of 90unification 178United Kingdom (UK)

conservatism 66, 81–3cooperatives 103feminism 227, 228nationalism 186, 312nationalization 109neoliberalism 49

United Nations 184, 196, 252Declaration of Human Rights 61

United States of America (USA) 39, 56, 66,325–6

constitution 38feminism 227, 228immigration 313nationalism 174, 180, 312neoconservatism 93neoliberalism 49new Christian right 290, 301–4

universalism 20liberal 20–1, 319, 332

utilitarianism 42, 45–6, 46, 52utility 45–6, 45utopia 8utopianism 98, 146–7, 147

value, green theory of 265

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value pluralism 326, 327vanguard party 122Versailles Treaty 192, 201Vietnam 99, 111, 124, 192, 194Vincent, Andrew 15Vindication of the Rights of Women

(Wollstonecraft) 227, 237violence

religious fundamentalism 292–3revolutionary 161–2see also terrorism

vitalism 203Vlaams Blok (Belgium) 95, 332Volksgeist 180Volksgemeinschaft 204Voltaire, F.M.A. de 34voluntarism 214voting rights for women 227–8

Wagner, Richard 180, 217Wahhabism 296–8Walden (Thoreau) 156, 276Waldron, Jeremy 329, 330, 331Wallerstein, Immanuel 138Walter, Natasha 248war 32, 205

see also under individual warswar on terror 19, 93, 283, 304Warren, Josiah 156, 157, 158Washington consensus 94Wealth of Nations (Smith) 47Webb, Beatrice 112Webb, Sidney 112Weber, Max 206welfare 56–7, 91welfare state 56, 91, 131welfarism 56, 338Wells, H.G. 112

Welsh nationalism 312Weltanschauung (world view) 202West, the 285What is to be Done? (Lenin) 7Whole Woman, The (Greer) 248wilderness preservation 276Wilson, Woodrow 60, 171, 182, 183, 184,

190Wolf, Naomi 248Wollstonecraft, Mary 227, 237, 239, 244Women’s Liberation Movement 228women’s movement, global 249Women’s Social and Political Union 227women’s suffrage 227–8 work, feminization of 249working class 98, 100, 113, 114–15World Bank 94, 278World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995)

249World Hindu Council 305world-systems theory 138World Trade Organization (WTO) 196, 278World War I 171, 183, 188, 200, 201, 296World War II 188, 201Worldwide Fund for Nature 252written constitution 38

xenophobia 170–1, 170

Young Europe 183Young Italy 183Yugoslavia 185

Zambia 194Zapata, Emiliano 141, 161Zen Buddhism 148, 259Zimbabwe 194Zionism 306

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