8TH GRADE INFORMATIVE

WRITING

Bend 1: Writing a Position Paper: Games Based on Fictional Violence-Diverting or Harmful?

Session 1: Debating Positions to Develop a Complex Argument In your literary essays, you analyzed themes in literature, you

wrote about how authors developed these themes, and you wrote about the craft they used as well as the ideas they suggested.

The themes that you wrote about were ones that have moral implications, not just in the novels you read, but also in life. Those moral implications related to decisions about how fictional characters choose to be, and how you as a person might choose to be.

Analyzing the moral ideas that a story suggests and the ways the author suggests these ideas is work you can do with nonfiction.

A nonfiction text that at first seems lighthearted can actually be tackling a serious issue.

Debating Positions to Develop a Complex Argument Together we will be reading “High-Jinks:

Shoot Out.” As a piece of journalism, it is entertaining. It tells a good story. But it also reveals some real moral dilemmas raised when kids play games that simulate violence--these role-playing games like Killer.

Just as you argued your points in your literary essays, you can argue your points about important issues raised by nonfiction texts.

The Purpose of this Unit The issue of how violence shapes teens is a

serious one. Today you’ll be thinking about the impact of simulated violence on teens. It will be interesting for you to compare and contrast these topics, to figure out what you think about the lasting effect of imaginary versus real violence on teens and what that means about how teens should be treated.

In this unit you will hone your argument skills and dive into a troubling, real-life ethical dilemma.

Today’s Teaching Point Oftentimes, texts will suggest debatable

issues, or ethical dilemmas that are hard to figure out. In order to determine their own stance on complicated issues, writers sometimes decide to argue one side or the other, using all of their argument skills.

Our Debate Topic Today, you will be debating a position that is

assigned to you, while your opponent will use the same text to argue an opposing view.

You will need to think analytically to find evidence and formulate some main points, then defend your argument using convincing reasons and evidence.

Here are your positions:Partner 1 Partner 2

Teens SHOULD be allowed to play violent role-playing games.

Teens should NOT be allowed to play violent role-playing games.

As I’m Reading… The article tells an interesting story and teaches

a lot of fascinating facts, but it doesn’t come right out and say, ‘This shows that these games are bad for kids,’ or ‘This proves that all kids should play these games.’

You will need to do the thinking work. Read and listen closely, thinking about what this text suggests about this issue that could support your position.

As I’m reading, jot notes and quotes to gather evidence that supports your position.

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Defending Academic Points of View Now we’re going to take it up a notch. This time,

you will be defending more academic points of view. I’ll tell you your positions. Then you will want to review all of the evidence you’ve gathered so far as well as what you collect as you listen to the rest of the article.

Here are your new positions:

Partner 1 Partner 2

Role-playing games with simulated violence are perilous for kids.

Role-playing games with simulated violence are diverting for kids.

Defending Academic Points of View Since you’re arguing more academic,

sophisticated positions, take a minute and rehearse with someone who shares your point of view.

If you are a 1, partner with another 1, and likewise, if you are a 2, partner with another 2.

Compare your points and add in any evidence or explanation that will help you strengthen your position.

Then, reunite with your original partner to share and defend your position.

Time to Switch! Many of you were wanting to argue the opposite

point of view, while others were comfortable with the point of view you defended-which means you should try the other side to stretch your argument muscles and see what new thinking you come up with.

It is time for you to switch positions with your partner and reread the article. Look for evidence and quotes that support your new position. Then, compare and sharpen your skills with someone who shares your viewpoint before you defend your position with your partner.

Writers Use Exemplars to Plan their Writing The work you did on defending your positions should

serve you well as rehearsal for writing arguments. In this unit you will be working on writing position papers.

Position papers are essentially the same as argument essays, but sometimes you’ll add in more context for your argument, and you have to be fair to others’ points of view.

Together we will look at a position paper that an eighth-grader wrote to the former mayor of New York City, Michael Bloomberg. She turned it into a letter, in the same way you will turn your positions into letters later on.

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What Did She Do Well? In her introduction, Olivia very clearly states her

position on the issue-that she believes sports should be kept in high schools.

In each section, she tackles a different reason to support her opinion, and she ordered those reasons in a logical way.

She began with a reason that is very specific to students, academic success, and end with the reason that feels most universal, bringing people together.

With your partner, think about her elaboration moves. Discuss some of the specific kinds of evidence you notice in her letter.

Homework Tomorrow you will need to be ready to

begin drafting. Our initial debates were just to get you started. You need a plan for your writing, including your overall claim, your reasons, and the evidence you want to include.Microsoft Office

Word DocumentMicrosoft Office Word Document

Session 2: Flash-Drafting Arguments while Working on Specific Writing Goals Get out the plan you worked on last

night, and use it to quickly talk with your partner about how your argument will go. If you have notes, get those out as well.

Discuss how you will begin:What claim did you come up with?What are your main points?What evidence are you planning on

including?

Today’s Teaching Point Writers do more than simply plan what

they will be writing about. They also pause to set writing goals. It helps to ask yourself these questions:What should I work on this time?What specific goals can I set that I can

tackle right now? Tools like checklists, anchor charts, and

mentor texts can help you set goals.

Flash-Drafting a Position Paper One goal for you today is to flash-draft,

or quickly write, a complete position paper. A position paper is one form of an argument essay.

Good position papersIntroduce the audience to the topicState a clear claim supported by reasons

and evidenceStrive to be fair to other viewpoints

Using Tools to Help in the Drafting Process You all know how to use a checklist to assess

your writing once you’ve got a draft going. However, you can also use a checklist to help set yourself up to write the best possible draft.

Please look at the 8th Grade Argumentative Writing Checklist and find a few items that you think you can get even better at as you flash-draft a position paper.

Star at least two items you would like to work on as you draft today. Adobe Acrobat

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Other Tools to Help in the Drafting Process Another tool that may be helpful is to use

mentor texts. Mentor texts will help you not just set goals, but also figure out how to work toward them.

I have some other sample mentor texts such as argument essays, literary essays, and flash-drafts of text-based arguments.

Use these to aid in modeling your writing after an accomplished author if you find yourself getting stuck.

Time to Work! You are ready to begin drafting once you

have a crystal clear vision of what you’re working on.

Get the goal-setting work done first. Make sure to write your goals at the top

of the page you will be writing on. Then, hop to it! Be ready to share at the

end of class!

Time to Share! Now that you have had time to flash-draft, I want you

to take a few minutes and choose a particular part, or parts, where you worked hard on a specific goal. It could be your lead, including evidence gracefully, using powerful transitions, or another technique.

Put a star in the margin where that part is. Exchange papers with your partner and write some

notes to each other about what parts are working well and any ideas for possible improvement.

Use the checklists to incorporate more academic language into your feedback.

Using Exemplars As Inspiration Please get out your copy of Olivia’s letter to Mayor

Bloomberg. Then we will read through “Speech to the School Board.”

These are both examples of on-demand position papers. The writers only had one period to write. Each writer does some work at the very beginning of the piece, to organize the writing so it’s clear, to stir up readers’ emotions, and to explain interesting evidence.

As you look at each piece, notice how they approached some of the moves that you have set as goals for yourself.

How to Write a Position Paper A position paper is one form of an argument essay: it introduces

a topic, it states a clear claim supported by reasons and evidence, and it strives to be fair to other viewpoints.

Use your position as a lens to gather, sort, and rank evidence. Rethink your position, then defend it using reasoning and

evidence. Choose your strongest argument and plan how to argue it. Then

plan the introduction, conclusion, and the evidence (weigh and rank it).

Write a strong introduction/lead Hook the reader (explain why your argument is significant or provide a

compelling fact, statistic, or anecdote). Provide specific context (backstory) for your position and other positions. Name your position clearly (and possible state other positions). Orient your readers to the overall line of argument you will develop.

Homework Tonight, work to specifically mentor or model

your writing after a writer who shines at this work.

Try one or two of the moves the author makes. Get in the habit of doing your strongest writing. Refer to the anchor chart to remember your tips. Come in tomorrow ready to show how you tried

at least two paragraphs of significant revision or experimentation based on the author you chose.

Session 3: Angling Evidence to Support Specific Points Last night, you went home with the goal

of trying out one or two of the moves you admired from an exemplar argument. This work is important to set you up for success in high school and college.

Take a minute to share the work you did with your partner.

Today’s Teaching Point Writers angle their evidence to convince

their readers that their argument is valid. Writers don’t just plop down facts, quotes, and statistics, expecting their evidence to speak for itself. Instead, writers explain how the evidence is significant, showing how that evidence illustrates each point.

Using Text Evidence to Support Your Argument When you use quotes or stories in your

writing, it’s important to remember that those things alone will rarely make the point for you. In fact, the same bit of evidence can also be spun so that it makes opposite points.

You need to ask yourself, “How could I use this bit to support one side or the other of the debate over whether role-playing games are good or bad for kids?

Using Text Evidence to Support Your Argument I want to look for evidence that supports the

argument that these kinds of games might sound bad at first, but can actually be good for kids.The judge…makes a pie chart of death—the order of killing assignments, which he or she then distributes to squads shortly before opening day.“I’m looking for some good massacres early,” this year’s judge said as the competition began, the second week in May… “I’ve arranged at least one boyfriend-girlfriend kill that .” (Martin, 2009, p. 27)

Analyzing Evidence Let’s think about whether this evidence

relates to the question of role-playing games being good for kids or not.

The first thing I notice is that the article doesn’t talk about that. I won’t be able to find a quote that tells me the answer.

Are there things in the article that could be used to support the side of the argument that I’ve been given—that these games can be good for kids?

Analyzing Evidence As I was looking for evidence, I thought about

what an important role the judge plays. That’s a pretty big job for a kid.

Watch how I take this evidence and explain it in a way that makes it work for our argument.This evidence shows that role-playing games, including these violent ones like Killer, are good for kids. For example, some kids end up taking on leadership positions, with a lot of responsibility in those games-- like when the judge in this game thought carefully about the order of the killing assignments.

Supporting Opposing Positions If you were thinking that the evidence is

just perfect for that side of the argument, I want you to see that I can just as easily used THE SAME EVIDENCE to make the opposite case.

Let’s think about how we can use this evidence to argue the other side.

Showing the Opposite SideThe evidence shows that these violent role-

playing games are not good for kids. In particular, they give kids too much power over each other. For example, the judge in this game of Killer sets up the squads and the order of the killings, and that means he sets upperclassmen against lower classmen, he sets girlfriends and boyfriends against each other—it’s just too much power for one kid to have over his classmates.

Evidence is Often Neutral When you are looking for evidence, you

don’t need to look on and on and on for the exactly perfect line that says just what you want. Instead, take some evidence that is relevant and that that could be spun one way or another—and then think carefully about which way the evidence warrants.

Your Turn! Let’s look at a new bit of the text

containing new evidence. Half of you will use this evidence to prove that these games are good for kids, while the other half of you will try to prove that they are not.

It will be up to you to work the evidence to make the case that you are assigned.

Your Turn!In 2007, Jake Protell, a freshman, distinguished himself by ferreting out the itinerary of a field trip that two targets were taking to Tel Aviv. Protell took a car to Newark Airport, found the victims before they passed through security, and dispatched them using two bathtub “squirt fish.”“I had to get special permission from the judge for the squirt fish, because I didn’t want to take my gun anywhere near an El Al counter,” Protell, now a junior, recalled, as he paced Pierrpont Street, three water guns shoved inside the pocket of a hoodie. (Martin, 2009, p. 28)

Your Turn! Partner 1: Your job is to angle the

evidence to show that these games are good for kids.

Partner 2: Your job is to angle the evidence to show that these games are NOT good for kids.

Expanding Research When the evidence didn’t explicitly

support either side, you did some clever thinking to use it to make your case.

Don’t be tempted to just plop evidence into your argument. Instead, unpack it like you did today.

Take the parts that make your case, explain those parts, and angle them to support your position.

Expanding Research It’s important that you don’t simply skim

through articles looking for some perfect line that exactly fits your argument. Instead, look at the material, then pause and think, “Could this support what I’m thinking?” You read in an analytical creative way.

Expanding Research Today, I’ve left out some new sources that you can

read in the same careful, analytical, creative way. They tell you about the impact of other violent video, like Call of Duty. I have chosen these sources on purpose because I know that they have a lot of information to offer.

As you work with the evidence so that it supports your big ideas, your big ideas may change. You’ll do new thinking. Your work today and tonight will be to do this new research and to write a whole new draft, one that advances whatever ideas you end up with after today’s research.

As You Are Working… Remember you’re not only looking for

evidence for ideas you already have, you’re also looking to DEVELOP those ideas.

For some of you, your original claim and reasons will still be sound, and your new draft will advance the same thesis and reasons exactly. You should still aim for a full-scale elaboration effort, bringing in new research and new thinking.

Writing More Effective Introductions You know that strong argument

introductions place the argument. Another move that argument writers might make in an introduction is to include a quote or paraphrase an author, to help the audience understand some of the specific debates taking place.

Be sure to craft an effective introduction in the new draft you will be working on.

Homework & Deadline Your publishing deadline will be five school days from today.

Make sure you are keeping up with your drafting! In high school & college, many teachers will say, “Have the

first two pages of your paper ready for Tuesday. Have the next two pages ready for Thursday.” It sounds like micromanaging, but it’s actually really helpful when someone makes sure you’re getting your paper written bit by bit.

For tomorrow, bring in the first page to page and a half of your most up-to-date draft, which incorporates your newest research for that part of the paper.

Keep in mind: When you analyze quotes from literature, you sometimes write the quote and then write long about it (half a page or more for one quote). You can do that with nonfiction quotes, too. Try that if you find yourself getting stuck.

Session 4: Using Connotative Language to Paint a Tone Yesterday, I had a student ask me what the word

prodigious meant in the article “High Jinks: Shoot Out.” Why did the author say prodigious and not just say smart-and why did he make these kids out to be prodigious when what they are doing is hacking, and that could also be called illegal?

Today we will look and see if this was a one-time choice or if the author does this a lot. Does he often choose overblown words that really play up the kids’ intelligence?

With your partner, reread paragraphs three through six. See if the author did this in other places.

Today’s Teaching Point Today I want to remind you that writers

do things on purpose. You know that fiction writers choose their words on purpose to create a specific tone-but today we’re reminded that nonfiction writers do as well. Nonfiction writers make their case, advance their ideas, not just with evidence but with specific language and comparisons they use.

Changing the Tone of an Argument Let’s take a look at the argument we did

together yesterday. I’m going to try to paint some words across it, particularly adjectives and verbs, to try to make it so you condemn these kids-you think of them as irresponsible, naïve, insensitive. While I do that, you might imagine the words you would add to do the opposite-to make it seem like these are the most brilliant, innovative, persevering kids.

Revisiting Our Argument The kids from St. Ann’s move across the

five boroughs and beyond as they play this game. Some kids travel as far as Connecticut, other kids to New Jersey. They gather information from other kids, they get parents to help, they involve cab drivers; these kids take this game seriously.

Changing the Tone of an Argument The subversive kids from St. Ann’s move

range across the five boroughs and beyond like wolves as they play this pack game. Some privileged kids travel as far as Connecticut, other well-heeled kids to New Jersey. They gather information from gossip with other kids, they coerce get parents to help, they bribe involve cab drivers; these kids take this ferocious game seriously.

Changing the Tone of an Argument I realize that I went a little overboard

with my descriptions, but you get the point. I wanted to use language to make the reader judge the kids, not admire them.

By carefully selecting adjectives and verbs, you can stir your reader up to condemn these kids and this game.

Your Turn! Now it is your chance to try this. Using

the same paragraph, work with your partner to create an admiring tone. Make your reader think these are the most creative, brilliant kids and this game is fabulous.

Changing the Tone of an Argument The innovative kids from St. Ann’s move

courageously across the five boroughs and beyond as they play this ambitious game. Some daring kids travel as far as Connecticut, other daring kids to New Jersey. They collaborate ingeniously with gather information from other kids, they generously involve get parents to help, they befriend neighborhood involve cab drivers; these inventive and determined kids take this ground-breaking game seriously.

Using Words with Connotative Meanings You’ve been choosing words that have

connotative meanings. Connotative means they are suggestive. They stir up a whole lot of images or feelings for the reader. They’re powerful, so be choosy!

You’ll want to do this in your own writing as well. It might be that you want to create a certain tone in one part and a different tone in another.

Supporting an Argument It’s important to remember that it’s not enough

to find valid evidence, because the evidence itself doesn’t support an argument. What supports the argument is the way that you spin, unpack, or explain the evidence.

One way to do this is by asking and answering questions. You should anticipate the kinds of questions that others might ask, and answer them in a way that supports your argument.

Let’s Look at an Example Original Passage: Benjamin Rose talks about how

violent video games are fine, because he likes them. He says, “I started playing that game at 11 years old and still remember the first fight my first character got into.”

Revised Passage: Benjamin Rose talks about how violent video games are fine, because he likes them. He says, “I started playing that game at 11 years old and still remember the first fight my first character got into.” But is that such a good thing, for him to remember his first fight? Why is that so good? Wouldn’t it be better if he could remember the first peace treaty he created, or the first war he ended in these games? He talks about it like it’s great, but actually, it’s not.

Argument Writers Help Readers See Things in a Certain Way Look at the following picture. Do you

see an old woman or a young woman? Tell your partner what you see.

INSERT ILLUSION HERE!!!

Argument Writers Help Readers See Things in a Certain Way The same image can be viewed as two

very different women, depending on one’s perspective. Good argument writing is like that as well. The same evidence can be viewed in very different ways depending on the perspective of the person who is explaining it.

Today you experimented with tone and word choice to present a certain point of view to convince others of your argument.

Analyzing & Commenting on a Source’s Bias or Tone You can also consider ways that the

author of a published source has made choices that further a particular idea or convey a tone. Commenting on an author’s tone is another way to make your case even if the author’s claim is different from your own. Listen to this excerpt from ‘Shooting in the Dark’ by Benedict Carey, from the New York Times.

An Excerpt from ‘Shooting in the Dark’ by Benedict Carey “The young men who opened fire at

Columbine High School, at the movie theater in Aurora, Colorado, and in other massacres had this in common: they were video gamers who seemed to be acting out some dark digital fantasy. It was as if all that exposure to computerized violence gave them the idea to go on a rampage-or at least it fueled their urges.”

Commenting on Tone Could you hear how this author painted a

tone with this systemic violent language-words like massacres, rampage, and dark digital fantasy?

Now let’s suppose I am writing an argument in favor of violent role-playing games. I can comment on this author’s tone in such a way that I am using his language as evidence to support my claim, even though his claim is the opposite.

Commenting on Tone I could write, “Opponents of violent games often try to

demonize the games themselves, making the case that it’s the games, not the players, that cause the trouble. These opponents often pepper their arguments with strong language to evoke certain emotions in their audience. For example, Benedict Carey of The New York Times, in his article “Shooting in the Dark,’ chooses words such as massacres, dark digital fantasy, and rampage to describe the video games played by the Columbine shooters. His word choices connote a world of evil and violence to sway his audience against video games. It’s as if Carey is trying to imply that the games themselves are responsible for real world violence. However, what Carey fails to recognize is that it is the players, not the games, that cause violence in the real world.”

Homework As you become more skilled at composing

arguments, you also become more skilled at studying an unpacking the arguments of others. Tonight, study TV commercials, blogs, or arguments between family members. Take note of how the author is making their case.

Continue to write, revise, and hone your draft so that you will be ready to make your case in a couple of days.

Session 5: Writing Powerful Conclusions Tomorrow you will need a clean, complete

draft of your position paper, so that you can work on the kind of final editing that you can only do when your draft is clean enough to read with that kind of lens.

Find what you’ve got so far for a conclusion, and show it to your partner. Go ahead & actually read it, and tell your partner what work your conclusion does.

Today’s Teaching Point Argument writers call to mind familiar

strategies to write strong conclusions, including not just restating a claim, but also leaving the reader with new thinking.

Powerful Conclusions Might… Restate the claim, finding another way to say the same

thing Leave readers with something to think about Show how the claim of the essay has significance in

your own life or the lives of your reader Suggest a further way of acting or of thinking Show how your own position slightly shifted Demonstrate how you are being fair to other viewpoints Describe the significance of your argument for

stakeholders Offer additional insights, implications, questions,

challenges

Critique the Writing of Older Students A former student is currently studying for

the SAT and has been doing a ton of essay writing practice. Let’s study his work and give him some advice.

I’m not going to tell you what his claim is because you should be able to figure that out if his conclusion has all of the parts it should have. Let’s take a look.

Thomas’s ConclusionWorking Well Tips

Critique Your Own Conclusion Analyze your conclusions with your

partner, this time reading them closely, using this chart, and come up with one quick compliment and one quick revision strategy you know that will help you to raise the level of your conclusion.

Finalizing Your Draft It’s crucial that you arrive at what you

consider to be a near-final version of your position paper. Take a moment and tell your partner what work you must do today.

You’ll want to do your best to attend to spelling and conventions so you’re not leaving that all until the end, and pay particular attention to incorporating your thinking, your thinking, your revision.

Tips for Digital Publishing For some of you, the process of getting your

work typed and polished for publication is very long and arduous. For others, the process is super quick. I was thinking that, in some ways, getting ready to digitize a paper is not that different from getting ready to fly a plane.

To get ready to write a paper, or fly a plane, you need to follow a checklist. Take a look at the emergency publishing checklist to make sure that you have hit all the important steps.

Homework Your homework for tonight is to finish

digitizing your drafts, making sure to follow these guidelines exactly. If you need help inserting page numbers or with any of the other formatting, come talk to me and I’ll show you what to do.

Session 6: Getting Ready to Publish Your job for today is to finish the drafts

of your position papers. Make sure you attend to presentation

and conventions, using the tools such as mentor texts, checklists, exemplars, and digital editing tools. Then, work with a partner to get a second pair of eyes.

Checking the Most Urgent Conventions Please make sure that you have

followed the steps from the convention checklist you will receive. If you need help, please see me or ask a classmate.

Homework Tonight, I would like you to print your

position papers and read it aloud to someone as rehearsal for giving your TED Talk.

Every time you print your own writing and read it over, you will find small mistakes. Additionally, a listener can help to point out awkward phrases or adjectives that you may have overlooked.

Session 7: Giving Speeches More Impact I want to play you a clip of a very skilled

speaker. His name is Cory Booker, and in this clip he’s giving a commencement address to the graduating seniors at Williams College in 2011. Cory was mayor of Newark and is now a senator for the state of New Jersey. However, this isn’t a political speech; it’s a speech to young people about how to fulfill their destinies.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vA2dTrqxnk

Today’s Teaching Point When speakers rehearse their

speeches, they practice techniques that will make them more confident and compelling.

Rehearsing for Speeches As you rehearse for your speeches, you will

want to read through your papers and mark them up, thinking about which lines to emphasize, which examples you want to bring alive, how you want to pace yourself. But you also need to do more than that.

You want to lean on the techniques that actors, poets, politicians, lawyers, advocates, and activists use.

Let’s take a look at the following tip sheet.

Tips for Rehearsing & Giving Confident and Stirring Speeches Mark up your speech. Make notes in the margins when to slow

down & make eye contact, underline words to emphasize. Remember to breathe between lines and paragraphs, and

before you move to a new point. Make eye contact. Vary your tone of voice-quiet (to be serious), rising tone and

volume (call to action), intonation (to show your own emotional response to content).

Try “power positions” to feel more confident-stand tall, open posture, shoulders back.

Use gestures to emphasize points-use your hands to make points, act out parts with small gestures, communicate with audience.

Demonstration Speech As I read a part of my speech, listen for the specific

technique I am using. Then, try to describe how that technique affects the overall impact of the speech. “Regardless of whether or not one enjoys games that have

violence in them, the time has come to admit that they can be damaging. The world we live in today has too much violence in it…In the time of Trevon Martin…of Columbine…acting as if any shooting can be just a game is irresponsible. It’s irresponsible to teach teens that when you shoot someone, they get back up. It’s irresponsible to teach them that it’s okay to play at something that people face for real. It would be better to give kids real guns and set them to hunting their own food—than to teach them that guns are playthings that don’t really hurt anyone.

Your Turn! Now it’s your chance to try this out. I’ve

printed out a small part of Cory Booker’s speech for you to use. With your partner, work to try one technique at a time and listen to the effect of each. Make sure to offer one another feedback and take turns presenting your ideas.

Rehearsal Time This is your chance to work on your own to

rehearse your speeches. Think about the decisions you want to make. Do you want to quietly annotate your piece first? Do you want to rehearse with a partner or alone? Do you want to get any advice or feedback from students with performance experience?

In just a few minutes, you will move into small groups to do a full rehearsal of your speeches and get some feedback.

Attending to Clarity & Conventions Sometimes, when you read your work out loud,

you discover pieces that simply aren’t working for you. Some sentences may be too long or unwieldy, making them difficult to deliver. Consider breaking them into smaller, punchier sentences. Add commas or semicolons to guide you to pause while delivering your speech.

Also, be on the lookout for too many adjectives or adverbs, like very or hugely or really, that are tempting to toss in to strengthen your argument, but don’t really add much to the meaning.

The Role of Direct Address in Argument Let’s take a minute to look at the lead

and ending of a position paper written by a former student. I want you to pay particular attention to a technique she uses called ‘direct address,’ which is a method by which you address the audience by name, and occasionally by you.

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Homework Many of you may still be in the process of typing your

speeches and making sure they are in the right format. That’s important, but you must also take the rehearsal part of your preparation very seriously. The words that Cory Booker spoke were powerful, but they never would have been heard and appreciated without his masterful delivery. As you rehearse, listen for ways to improve your writing.

Rehearse your speech at least three times. Practice in front of a mirror, making sure you lift your head, pause to let your points sink in, practice gestures, and make eye contact with your audience.

Recording Your Speeches Today you and your partner will take turns

recording one another making your speeches. Remember all of the techniques we have discussed, and keep your checklist handy.

While you are working, be sure you are aware of how much time you have to complete this activity. You will be presenting your recorded speeches in class tomorrow!