8 Hints for Better Millimeter-WaveSpectrum MeasurementsApplication Note 1391

Modern spectrum analyzers such as the Agilent E4448Acan directly cover frequencies from 3 Hz to 50 GHz

in coax, and the steps described here will help you make the most of their capabilities.

2

Making good spectrum measurements gets tougher as frequenciesget higher, and there are special challenges in the millimeter-waveregion. Nonetheless, it's possible to make good millimeter-wavemeasurements with a minimum of trouble: Just combine goodbasic microwave measurement practice with a few things distinctive to these higher frequencies. As with so many other situations, avoiding the most common pitfalls can allow even inexperienced users to make measurements which are well optimized and only slightly short of the best results possible.

What is “millimeter-wave?” Definitions of millimeter-wave vary,

but the term generally refers to fre-

quencies of 26.5 GHz or 30 GHz

and above. That is where signal

wavelengths fall below approxi-

mately 10 mm, and thus the ter-

minology changes from centimeters

to millimeters. This document cov-

ers millimeter-wave measurements

to approximately 50 GHz.

Introduction 2

8 hints – A summary checklist 4

Detailed hints 1-8 6 to 15

For more information 16

Agilent contact information 16

Contents

Introduction

3

This application note is primarilyconcerned with measurementsmade in coaxial environments by millimeter-wave spectrumanalyzers to 50 GHz. Modernspectrum analyzers are able to cover the entire range ofdesign tasks for high frequencyapplications well, handling frequencies from IF and RFthrough millimeter-wave, so theyare the ideal fundamental toolsfor designers in this frequencyrange. These measurement hintsapply no matter what type ofspectrum measurement you'remaking – signal power or fre-quency, noise level, distortion, orphase noise.Since many millimeter-wave analyzers will be often used atlower frequencies because of theirflexibility, summary material likethis document may make it easierto transition effectively fromlower frequency measurementsto millimeter-wave ones.

Cables and connectors matterThis measurement from the new 50 GHz PNA series network analyzer shows the effects of using an SMA cableand adapters instead of appropriate 2.4 mm hardware. Note the multiple amplitude drop-outs in the lowertrace at approximately 36 GHz and above. This phenomenon would create significant errors in both signal andnetwork measurements.

4

Hint 1: Use only cables and adapters designed for millimeter- wave frequencies.

Accessories for mm-wave measurements are different (andtypically more expensive!) fromthose used in RF/microwave measurements. The materials,structures and geometries ofthese cables and adapters arespecially designed for these frequencies, to yield more consistent impedance andreduce signal loss. Avoidcompromising the performance of an expensive test system withpoor-quality or inappropriatecabling and accessories.

Hint 2: Use a "connector saver"on the spectrum analyzer.

The small size and precise geometry of mm-wave connec-tors means that they are moredelicate and more costly thanthe larger connectors used atlower frequencies. Millimeter-wavespectrum analyzers often havemale connectors on their frontpanels to encourage users tosemi-permanently attach afemale-to-female adapter or DC block as a connector saver.Measurement cables are thenattached to this connector saver,which can be easily replaced afterit becomes worn or damaged.

Hint 3: Use a torque wrench on all connections.

Proper torque improves measurement repeatabilityand extends connector life. Thetightening torque on connectorshas a significant effect on meas-urements at mm-wave frequencies,and repeatable measurementsrequire consistent torque frommeasurement to measurementand on all the connections in asetup. A torque wrench avoidsdamage due to over-tighteningand helps connectors achievetheir rated lifetimes.

Hint 4: Use the same cables, connectors, and cable routing forthe most consistent measurementresults.

Even the highest quality cablesand adapters have measurableinsertion loss and affect impedance(return loss) at mm-wave frequencies. Bending, kinkingand stretching cables can alsoaffect results–in some measure-ments you can see a differencein real time just by flexing acable while a measurement is inprogress. Since repeatability is asimportant as absolute accuracyin many measurements, it’salways a good idea to use thesame cables and connectors inthe same configuration frommeasurement to measurement.Not surprisingly, the use of semi-rigid coaxial cable canimprove many measurements by reducing incidental movementand making more consistent connections.

8 hints – A summary checklist

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This document is organizedinto eight subject categories,covering the major factors inmaking good measurementsat these high frequencies.This summary page of categories or hints can also beused as a checklist, remindingyou of the elements of goodmeasurement practice when-ever you need to refresh yourmemory. You might want topost this summary page nearyour analyzer to make it easierfor every user to recall theelements of good measure-ment practice. More detailedinformation on each hint isin the pages that follow.

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8 hints – A summary checklist

Hint 5: Perform calibrations oralignments frequently, and whenevermeasurement conditions change.

Virtually all mm-wave analyzershave auto-calibration and align-ment functions in their firmwareand hardware. Take advantage of these functions in each measurement to allow theanalyzer to perform at its best.This is particularly important inhigher measurement bands(where harmonic mixing is used)and where preselectors are used. Analyzers typically initiatecalibrations and alignments on atimed basis, though they mayalso respond to detected changesin temperature. In general, thebest measurements are madewhen the analyzer temperaturehas stabilized and a calibrationor alignment is performed shortlybefore the measurement itself.

Hint 6: Understand the measurement plane and its charac-teristics, and connect the analyzer to the circuit using the shortest, simplest, straightest path possible.

Fewer connectors or adapters,and shorter cables reduce thechance for problems and mini-mize the non-ideal behavior ofeach element. When differentconnections are being madebetween measurements, andespecially for relative measure-ments, it's important to understand the measurementplane. For this it's key to knowwhat parts of the measurementconnection change from measurement to measurement.

Hint 7: Review instrument specifications and the individualmeasurement configuration to understand the actual level of performance you can expect.

Major performance figures suchas amplitude and frequencyaccuracy (or phase noise), flat-ness, noise level (or signal/noise),and repeatability will not be asgood at mm-wave frequencies.Analyzer architectural changessuch as the use of higher-orderharmonics and preselectors tendto widen the inherent bandwidthof measurements and reduce thedynamic range available at mm-wave frequencies. Cabling andconnectors contribute to bothsignal loss and flatness variationsdue to impedance or return lossuncertainty. These sources oferror add to those from anyuncertainties produced by theimperfect impedance of thesource under test.

Hint 8: Make measurements carefully and begin with the bestmeasurement practices that youwould normally apply to RF andmicrowave measurements.

Good practice at mm-wave frequencies is a superset of goodpractice at lower frequencies.Remember the factors that influ-ence measurements are moredifficult, sensitive, and variableat higher frequencies. Expectgood measurements at these frequencies to take significantlymore time and care. Inspect connections and cables frequentlyto detect wear or damage, andpromptly replace gear that hasreached the end of its rated life.

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6

Use only cables and adaptersdesigned for millimeter-wave frequencies.

Since most millimeter-wave spectrum analyzers are used in an environment that alsoincludes work at lower frequen-cies, it can be tempting to usehardware designed for theselower frequencies. However,accessories for millimeter-wavemeasurements are different fromthose used in RF/microwavemeasurements.

Smaller wavelengths demand smaller dimensions in thecables and connectors.

To avoid a phenomenon called “moding,” (excitation of the first circular waveguide propagationmode in the coaxial structure) thediameter of coaxial connectorsand cables must be much smallerthan the signal wavelength. Formillimeter-wave measurements,this means that common SMA andprecision 3.5 mm accessoriesshould not be used.

You may consider using 2.92 mmequipment for frequencies to 40 GHz, and take advantage ofthe fact that 2.92 mm connectorsintermate with SMA and 3.5 mmfor a degree of flexibility andcompatibility when lower frequency measurements aremade. However, for best per-formance and repeatability to 50 GHz, precision 2.4 mm accessories are recommended.

For mixed-frequency environmentsyou may want to standardize on 2.4 mm accessories, usingbetween-series adapters to makeconnections where needed. Thoughthey are slightly more lossy thanSMA and 3.5 mm (primarily above30 GHz), 2.4 mm accessories canbe used to cover all lower fre-quencies and offer superiorrepeatability. However, be careful when connections aremade, to avoid damage fromimproper mating. For example,mating a 3.5 mm or SMA maleconnector to the (smaller butmechanically-similar) 2.4 mmfemale connector will probably damage the smaller female connector.

Hint 1

Connector summaryConnector type Frequency range Mates with Avoid mating withSMA variable, 18 to 24 GHz 3.5 mm, 2.92 mm 2.4 mm 3.5 mm (APC 3.5) 34 GHz SMA, 2.92 mm 2.4 mm2.92 mm or “K” To 40 GHz SMA, 3.5 mm 2.4 mm 2.4 mm To ≥ 50 GHz 1.85 mm only SMA, 2.92 mm, 3.5 mm1.85 mm 65 to70 GHz 2.4 mm only 1 mm 110 GHz

Note: SMA connectors are a common and inexpensive type, but their lack of precision affects their durability andperformance, and can cause increased wear when intermated with other (precision) connectors. SMA connectorsare rated for only a very limited number of connection cycles, and should be examined before each use.

Detailed hints

7

Precise tolerances and different materials and structures are required.

The materials, structures andgeometries of these cables andadapters are specially designedfor millimeter frequencies. Thisprecision is proportional to thesmaller wavelengths of these sig-nals, and it yields more consistentimpedance and reduces variancein insertion (signal) loss.

For example, you can see by visualinspection that SMA connectors

use a Teflon dielectric, while precision 3.5 mm and 2.4 mmconnectors use an air dielectric,perhaps with a bead supportingthe center conductor. Howeveryou can't see the more precise dimensional tolerances of these accessories. You also might notnotice, because they are extreme-ly small, the different structuresof the pins and collets, and theirtapers and shoulders. There are further differences betweenproduction, instrument andmetrology grade connectors,though they are beyond thescope of this note.

The precision and small dimensions of millimeter-waveaccessories inevitably make themsomewhat less mechanically strongand considerably more expensivethan lower frequency versions.While this is an unfortunate consequence of high-frequencymeasurements, it is very impor-tant to avoid compromising theperformance of an expensive test system with poor-quality or inappropriate cabling andaccessories.

SMA vs. precision 3.5 mm connectorsThese cross-section diagrams demonstrate the difference between SMA and precision 3.5 mm connectors. Notethe difference between the plastic dielectric of the SMA connector and the air dielectric of the 3.5 mm connector.

outerconductor

outerconductor

plasticdielectric

center conductor

plasticdielectric

center conductor

outer conductormating plane

outer conductormating plane

outerconductor

outerconductor

center conductor

center conductor

outer conductormating plane

outer conductormating plane

SMA

precision 3.5 mm

8

Use a "connector saver" on the spectrum analyzer.

Many microwave engineers are already familiar with thepotential for expensive electricaldamage to the input sections oftheir analyzers (For example, see hint 8 below, regarding thesuggested use of an external DCblock). The small and precisedimensions of microwave con-nectors also make them subjectto expensive mechanical damage.

Unfortunately, some degree ofdamage and a certain amount ofwear are inevitable after manyconnect/disconnect cycles. Onepractical solution is to protectthe analyzer’s front-panel con-nector by making external connections through a sacrificialadapter called a connector saver.A typical connector saver atthese frequencies is a 2.4 mmadapter with female connectorsat both ends, and that is whymillimeter-wave spectrum analyzers often have male con-nectors on their front panels.

Hint 2

Connector saversFor millimeter-wave applications, the most common connector savers will have female connectors on both ends.Shown here are adapters to connect an analyzer with 2.4 mm front panel connectors to type-N and 2.4 mmaccessories.

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Other (between-series) adapterscan also be used as connectorsavers, accommodating the typicaluse of the millimeter-wave ana-lyzer at lower frequencies. Therobustness of the larger, lowerfrequency connectors, and thepotentially heavier cables attachedto them make connector saversjust as important for these measurements. Examples (all withfemale connectors at both ends)of connector savers are shownare shown in the table below.

At millimeter frequencies it isalso worth considering the inser-tion loss of these adapters. Asdescribed in hint 6 below, a singleadapter may have insertion lossof 0.5 to 1 dB at frequenciesapproaching 50 GHz. For themost accurate measurements,this loss should be accountedfor, and measured if possible,since analyzers are, by necessity,specified at their front panelconnectors, without adapters.

This adapter is usually left inplace on the front of the analyzer,with frequent connections madeto it instead of the analyzer’spermanent connector. This dra-matically reduces the number of

connect/disconnect cycles thatthe analyzer’s connector sees,and can put off the need for(comparatively expensive)replacement of the analyzer’sconnector nearly indefinitely. In the event a damaging mistakeis made in connecting a signal to the analyzer, (for example,connection of the wrong type of cable such as a male SMAassembly, which would damage a female 2.4 mm connector) thedamaged female connector canbe quickly replaced, avoidingrepair expense and down time,not to mention the possibility oferroneous measurement results.

Connect to Adapter part number2.4 mm female 11900B2.92 mm female 11904B3.5 mm female 11901BK female 11904BSMA female (Use 3.5 mm 11901B)Type N female 11903B

Example connector savers for 2.4 mm male front-panel connector:

10

Use a torque wrench on all connections.

Though the metal bodies of connectors and adapters mayseem perfectly rigid, there is always a small amount of flexibility in these structures.The short wavelength of veryhigh frequency signals makesmeasurements of them moresensitive to this flexing. In addition, the small dimensionsof high frequency connection structures means that they do not have great mechanicalstrength, and may be deformedor even permanently damaged byexcessive torque.

The best way to ensure consistentconnections, good repeatability, and long connector life, is to use atorque wrench on all connections(and to ensure that connectionsare always clean – see hint 8below). Some common torquevalues are 90 N-cm (8 in-lb.) for2.4 mm, 1.85mm, and precision3.5 mm connectors, and 56 N-cm(5 in-lb.) for SMA connectors.Torque wrenches are availablepreset to these torques. Takecare to rotate only the nut, andnever rotate the body of the connectors when their matingsurfaces are in contact.

Once properly torqued, most connections will stay that way,but attention should be given to any connections subject tovibration, twisting, repeatedflexing, or thermal cycling.Especially in combination, theseactions can loosen connectionsand affect measurement values.

The emphasis on proper connectortorque is more typically found innetwork analysis, where evenvery slight changes in connectorgeometry can affect phase meas-urements. However, the securityand repeatability of connections,and the importance of avoidingexpensive damage are also validconcerns for spectrum measure-ments. As described in hint 7below, good accuracy at millimeter-wave frequencies is a challenge,and proper torque eliminatesone source of additional error.

Hint 3

Connector torqueSMA 56 N-cm (5 in-lb.)3.5 mm 90 N-cm (8 in-lb.)2.4 mm 90 N-cm (8 in-lb.)1.85 mm 90 N-cm (8 in-lb.)

Some common torque values

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Hint 4

Use the same cables,connectors, and cable routingfor the most consistent measurement results.

Signal connections, no matterhow carefully made, are less perfect at mm-wave frequencies.These imperfections impact bothperformance and repeatability,affecting absolute measurementssuch as signal power and relativemeasurements such as distortion.

The insertion loss of cables and connectors, for example, issignificant and easily measurableat millimeter-wave frequencies.The smaller dimensions of millimeter-wave cables and hard-ware help prevent amplitudedrop-outs due to moding, butcontribute to signal loss. Thisloss typically rises with frequency,and can be more than 3 dB permeter of coaxial cable (notcounting connectors) and morethan 0.5 dB per adapter or connector pair at 40 GHz.

Even in situations where comparable connection length is maintained, different cable/connector combinations with thesame end-to-end gender canresult in different insertion lossand return loss (impedance) figures. The situation is similarwhen using different types orbrands of cables, and even whencomparing good cables to thosethat might be worn or damaged.

A major benefit of coaxial cable,when compared to waveguide, is its flexibility. However it is thatvery flexibility that contributesto potential impedance andinsertion loss variations withdifferent cable routing. Bendingand stretching cables changestheir dimensions, and thusaffects signal propagation. Thiscan be particularly true wherecables meet connectors, andcable manufacturers typicallyprovide some sort of strain relief to reduce the problem. To whatever degree this affectsmeasurements, the impact ofvariations can be reduced by

a consistent approach to connec-tions and, as mentioned in hint3, proper connector torque.

Another way to reduce connec-tion variations is to use semi-rigid cable. The relative rigidityof the cable and the interface toits connectors reduces incidentalmovement and thereforeimproves repeatability. This isespecially helpful where cablingmight otherwise be disturbedduring a measurement, such asby vibration or user interactions.

12

Perform calibrations or alignments frequently, andwhenever measurement conditions change.

Sophisticated internal alignmentand calibration routines, plusinternal reference sources helptoday's spectrum analyzersachieve their high performancefigures. The combination of preselectors and higher measure-ment bands (higher harmonics of the spectrum analyzer localoscillator, in analyzers using harmonic mixing) makemillimeter-wave analyzers moresensitive to environmental and component variations. Analyzerhardware and firmware routines

are designed to compensate forthese variations to the maximumextent possible, and users shouldtake advantage of them for optimum performance.

For example, the (typically YIG-tuned) filters that serve aspreselectors in most millimeter-wave spectrum analyzers run inan open-loop mode, and aretherefore prone to some degreeof drift. The "preselector centering" operation is thus an important one and should be performed when the centerfrequency is changed. Thoughthe analyzer itself performs thecentering, the operator must initiate the process before a final measurement is made.

Temperature has perhaps thegreatest effect on alignmentparameters and accuracy.Therefore it is desirable thatmeasurements be made at a stable temperature close to thepoint at which the analyzer hasperformed its alignments andself-calibrations. Indeed, spectrumanalyzers such as the AgilentPSA series actually measuretheir own internal temperaturein addition to the elapsed timesince the previous alignment andcalibration. By combining thesetime and temperature factors withinternal knowledge of changes in their input configuration, analyzers such as these candetermine the need for calibration to maintain optimum accuracy.

The optimum conditions for accuracy include stable environmental conditions for the analyzer, device under test(DUT), and interconnections. Inthis case the analyzer can be leftto control its own calibrations. If measurement conditions arechanging, it may be better toexplicitly control the timing ofcalibrations and alignments tooccur just before measurementsare made.

Hint 5

Amplitude error without preselector centeringThis example shows the importance of preselector centering in millimeter-wave measurements. The blue trace shows a measurement after centering, removing an error of over 1.5 dB at 30 GHz.

13

Understand the measurementplane and its characteristics,and connect the analyzer tothe circuit using the shortest,simplest, straightest path possible.

When compared with waveguide,coaxial cable (or even semi-rigidcable) is flexible and convenient.By using coaxial cable andadapters one can quickly andeasily measure a wide range of frequencies through different connection configurations.However, as mentioned in previ-ous hints, coaxial connectionsare not an ideal (constantimpedance), lossless path to theanalyzer. Therefore, the best andmost consistent measurementresults will be obtained with the most direct connection to the analyzer.

These direct connections can beoptimized through the use ofcables of different lengths and, asappropriate, different connectors.This is a significant issue formeasurement performance, andnot only convenience. Usingcables which match the availabletype and gender of analyzer andDUT connectors eliminates theneed for multiple adapters,which add insertion loss andimpedance match (return loss)uncertainties to the measure-ment. Cables should not be soshort, however, that they arekinked or bent over a radiustighter than recommended by themanufacturer. Sharp bends willcause physical discontinuities which result in localized impedance problems, and canpermanently damage cables or mechanically distort thecable-connector interface.

Maintaining high accuracy while using different cables andadapters means that the usermust understand the effectivemeasurement plane in eachmeasurement. While spectrumanalyzers are specified at theirfront panel connectors, DUT connections are made at the endof cable/adapter combinations.These cable/adapter combina-tions are likely to be different fordifferent measurements, so foroptimum accuracy it may be nec-essary to estimate or measuredifferences in insertion loss, orto use a calibration signal toextend the measurement planeto a known point at or near the DUTs themselves. Thesetechniques are useful for bothabsolute and relative signal level measurements.

Hint 6

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Hint 7

Review instrument specificationsand the individual measurementconfiguration to understand theactual level of performanceyou can expect.

It is fair to summarize the situationby saying that everything is moredifficult (for both those who use and those who manufacture testequipment) at millimeter-wavefrequencies. Compared to RFand microwave frequencies, the accuracy limits for higherfrequency measurements arewider, and dynamic range measures are lower.

Some specification reductionsare a consequence of the archi-tecture of millimeter-wave analyzers. Preselector filteringintroduces an additional inser-tion loss parameter, reducingsensitivity. The higher LO harmonics which are used for higher bands (in analyzers

which use harmonic mixing) alsoreduce sensitivity because mixerconversion loss increases withincreasing harmonic number. Inaddition, these higher harmonicsincrease analyzer phase noise bymultiplying the phase noise ofthe LO.

Other specification reductions are a consequence of the increasing effect of impedanceuncertainties at higher frequencies and frequencyresponse errors over very widefrequency ranges. These differ-ences are of greatest significancefor absolute power measurementsand comparisons of power fromdifferent sources, since errors ata single frequency and from asingle source (where there areno impedance differences) willtend to cancel each other out.The table below shows some typical performance differencesbetween millimeter-wave andlower frequency measurements.

For high-sensitivity measurementswhere no input attenuator is used,the impedance (VSWR) or returnloss and accuracy specificationsshould be examined for this special case. For most analyzers,this figure is degraded whenattenuator values are small orzero. This effect is present,though smaller, at all frequencies.

Finally, bear in mind that measurement accuracy effectsdue to DUT connections (such as VSWR mismatch) will add tothose described here and (asmentioned in the hints above)these connection effects are larger at millimeter-wave frequencies. Accurate resultsare still possible at these highfrequencies, but they areinevitably more difficult.

Performance parameter Spec. reduction, 50 GHz vs. 5 GHz Absolute accuracy Calibrator unchanged, see flatness Flatness 2.5 dB (uncertainties are 2.5 dB greater)Displayed average noise level 20 dBPhase noise/noise sidebands Approximately 20 dBHarmonics, spurious 5 to 20 dB

Typical performance differences, comparing 5 GHz measurements to 50 GHz measurements

15

Make measurements carefully and begin with thebest measurement practicesthat you would normally applyto RF and microwave measurements.

As mentioned in the summaryabove, good measurement prac-tice at mm-wave frequencies is a superset of good practice atlower frequencies.

Use good quality cables, connectors, and accessories, and inspect them frequently for damage or wear.

Connector gauges are availableto go beyond visual inspection,and network analyzers can beused as additional verification.Take care to keep connectionsclean (use only 99.5% isopropylalcohol on foam-tipped swabsand dry with canned air), andconsider separating the millimeter-wave accessories from others (ormarking them) to prevent improperconnections or damage. The simpleand inexpensive step of usingdust caps on all connectors canprevent expensive damage andkeep skin oil and debris out.Consider using external DCblocks and attenuators, alongwith connector savers orbetween-series adapters, to protect the delicate front-ends of analyzers. These accessories,though they are significant troubleand expense, can save manytimes their cost in repair bills, down-time and bad measurement results.

Hint 8

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© Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2002Printed in USA, April 2, 20025988-5680EN

Additional Agilent literatureCable and Connector Care, literature number 5988-4167EN

Fundamentals of RF andMicrowave Power Measurements,Application Note 64-1C, literature number 5965-6630E

Spectrum Analysis Basics, Ap-Note AN-150literature number 5952-0292

RF and Microwave TestAccessories Catalog, literature number 5968-4314EN

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