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PAPERREF#8005

Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium

EditedbyM.Greene,J.ReyesandA.Castro.SantiagodeChile:PUC,2012.

8005:1

DEGREESOFSUSTAINABLELOCATIONOFRAILWAY

STATIONS:IntegratingSpaceSyntaxandnodeplacevalue

modelonrailwaystationsintheprovinceofNorth

Hollandsstrategic

plan

for

2010

2040

AUTHOR: AkkeliesvanNES

DepartmentofUrbanism,FacultyofArchitecture,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Netherlands

email:[email protected]

EgbertSTOLK

DepartmentofUrbanism,FacultyofArchitecture,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Netherlands

email:[email protected]

KEYWORDS: RailwayStation,Accessibility,NodePlaceValueModel,Sustainability

THEME: MethodologicalDevelopmentandModeling

Abstract

Mobilityonrailsisacknowledgedtobeoneofthemostsustainablemeansoftransportationbetweencities

and towns.Therefore,a railway stations location inabuiltenvironmentand itsdegreeofaccessibility is

essentialtoreachasmanytravellersaspossible.Eventhoughthereexistseveralwritingsonnetworkcities

andTODprinciplesconcerningrailaccessibilitytourbancentresandsubsentres,thespatialconfigurationof

the local streetand roadnetwork ina railway stations vicinity is seldom taken into consideration in the

discussionon

railway

transport.

Therefore,

two

different

analyses

methods

were

used

with

purpose

to

identify the degree of regional and local interaccessibility of all train stations in theprovince of North

Holland in the Netherlands. The space syntax method provided measurements on a street nets inter

accessibilityondifferentscalelevels,whiletheNodePlacemodelanalysesprovidedthedegreeofastations

attractiveness intermsofplacevalueandmeansoftransportationvalue.Astheresultsshow,correlations

werefoundbetweenastationsdegreeof localandregionalaccessibilityandfrequencyofthetimetables.

When implementing and improving sustainablemeans ofpublic transportation, urbanfunctions such as

dwellings,shops,services,workshopsandofficeshavetobeinshortwalkingdistancesfromstationsandthe

streetnetworkmustbeeasilyunderstandableforwayfinding.Theresultsfromthis inquirywereapplied in

theprovincespolicyplanasaprioritylistforstationimprovementsintermsofdegreeoflocalaccessibility.

Moreover,theprioritylistoftheimplementationofnewhousingareaswasmadeonbasisonthedegreeof

localand

regional

accessibility

to

existing

railway

stations.

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SantiagodeChile:PUC,2012

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1.INTRODUCTION

Interaccessibility is acknowledged in regional planning to be an important socioeconomic indicator

influencingseveraldecisionsconcerninglanduseandinfrastructuralplanning.Ithasbeenwelldocumented

that car dependence gives impacts on the environment, urban social life and economic investment and

development.Themoreprivatecardependentacityis,themoreofthewealthofitsinhabitantsisspenton

gettingaround

(Newman

&

Kenworthy

1999).

Conversely,

the

more

acity

spend

on

public

transport,

the

more itsavesspaceandthemorespace isavailable intheurbanisedareastogeneratediversificationand

intensificationwithinshortwalkingdistances for thecreativeeconomy (Hall1997and Jenks1996). Inter

accessibilitycanbeapproachedfromseveralscale levels inbuiltenvironments,fromneighbourhood level

uptolargeregions.Inthiscontext,interaccessibilitymeansthataplaceoranodecaneasilybereachedby

alargevariationofmobilitymeanswithinareasonabletraveltime.

In2008 theprovinceofNorthHolland in theNetherlandsasked two researchers fromDelftUniversityof

Technology,FacultyofArchitecturetocarryoutspacesyntaxanalysesoftheroadandstreetnetworkinthe

wholeprovince.Thepurposewastousetheseanalyses inthenewstrategicplanforthenext30yearsfor

theprovince.

TheNetherlandshas,incomparisonwithotherEuropeancountries,ahighdensityoftherailnetwork.Trains

arerunningfrequently,andevenseveralsmallvillagesareconnectedtotherailnetwork.TheDutchcapital

cityAmsterdamandSchipholinternationalairportarebothlocatedinprovinceofNorthHolland.Intotalthe

provincehasanareaof2670km2,and2.613.992peopleareatpresentlivingintheprovince(Structuurvisie

2008). The density is 979 inhabitants pr km2.Most of the urbanised areas are aroundAmsterdam and

Haarlem,whiletheruralareasareintheprovincesnorthernparts.

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Figure1:MapofprovinceofNorthHolland.

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Intotalthereare57railwaystations intheprovince.Theyvary from largermetropolitanrailwaystations,

airportstations, intermodalhubstations, small local stationswithonebuildingalong rail tracks, tojusta

trackwitha ticketmachinealong the rails.A strategicplan for the railwaynetwork is important for the

province. It isacknowledgedtobe thebestway forsolving the trafficcongestionsproblems intheurban

areasinsideandaroundAmsterdam(Structuurvisie2008).Moreover,therailnetworkhastointerconnect

theremoteareastothelargercitieswithfrequentlyrunningtrains.Inparticulartherailnetworkalsohasto

servepeoplewhocanordonottravelbycar.

It is often believed that a railway station attracts economic activities such as shops, retail and offices.

However, the spatial configuration of the local street and road network in a railway stations vicinity is

seldomtaken intoconsideration(MuldersKusumo2005).Somestationsareeasilyaccessiblebyfootorby

publictransport,whileotherscanonlybereachedbyprivatecar.Thereforethenextquestionistofindout

how sustainable thepublic transportnetwork is in theprovince in termsof thedegreeofaccessibilityof

railwaystationstothebuiltenvironmentonvariousscalelevels.Firstareviewofwritingsonrailwaystations

andbuiltenvironmentswillbegiven.The literatureaboutrailwaystationsandurbandevelopmentcanbe

groupedintwogroups.Oneisabouttheroleoftherailwaystationitselfanditssurroundings,andtheother

isabouttheroleofthemobilitynetworkinalargemetropolitancontext.Thediscussionisbrought in light

withthecompactcitydebate.Thenthemethodsappliedinthecasestudieswillbedescribed.Thenthecase

studiesarepresentedandfinallytheapplicationoftheresultsinstrategicplanningwillbediscussed.

2.THERAILWAYSTATION,ITSVICINITYANDSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

Railwaystationsarepointsoftransportinterchangewherethedepartureandarrivalactivitiestakeplace.In

essence,thestation isaspacebetweenaparticularplaceandthetrains(Edwards1997,p.173).Arailway

station isapublicplacewithapublic facade to the city,open foreveryone.Atpresent, railway stations

perform a variety of functions. First of all, they are places where people change from trains to the

pavement,

to

subways,

buses

or

cars,

to

a

bicycle,

a

taxi,

the

light

rail,

to

other

trains,

or

to

airplanes.

Otherwise they simply arrive at their final destination,which is in the immediate vicinity of the railway

station. Furthermore, train stations are also shoppingmalls,meeting places and urban landmarks. The

passengers station is the architecturalmanifestation of the railway system and its connectionwith the

urbanfabric.Itisbothagatewaytoarailnetworkanditisathresholdforpassengersenteringacity.What

givestherailwaystationparticularsignificanceasarchitectureandessentialelementsinthelifeandcultures

ofcitiesispreciselythisinterfacebetweenthesetwoworlds therailwaysystemandtheurbanbackcloth

(Edwards1997,p.xi).

Afterhalfacenturyofagloballyhighemphasisonroadconstructionandanequallywidespreadneglectof

railwayinfrastructures,thelasttwodecadesweremarkedbyarenaissanceoftherailway.Duetoincreased

pollution, congestionofprivate cars in streets,ecologicalmovementsandan increasedpublic interest in

sustainabledevelopment,publictransportbyrailhasregainedattentionthe lasttwodecades.Therailway

system can be regarded as a solution for the transport problem of the cities. The ecological benefit of

travellingbytrain,combinedwithtechnicalbreakthroughsconcerningnewtypesoftrains,suchasthefast

FrenchTGVtrainsrunningat250km/h,newtypesofsuburbanlightrailsystems,andnewcombinedtypes

ofmetrosystemshasledtoanincreasedrailinvestment.Likewise,newhighspeedraillinkshavebeenbuilt

betweencitiessuchthatathroughoutmodernisationoftheoldrailwaystationsortheconstructionofnew

ones became inevitable.Onewas thus heading for a functionally smooth transport system. Basically, it

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seemsthatmodernrailwaystationsmostlyhavethesamespatialstructureasoldones.Thetexturesofthe

material,however,areslightlydifferent(Edwards1997,p.ix).Modernrailwaystationsappeartobelighter,

safer,andmorecommercialthanolderones.

Interestingly enough, stations have become important economic catalysts for urban development. Their

improvementhasleadtomassiveurbandevelopmentaroundseveralstationareas,duetothatthelocation

ofrails

is

fixed

and

last

along

time.

It

gives

acertainty

for

investment

going

beyond

the

period

that

investors

needtogettheirinvestmentback(Cervero2003).

Airportstationsand intermodalhubstations located in industrialareasarepoorlyconnected to the local

placewheretheyare located.Larger railwaystationsareplacedwithinorclosetoacitycentre.Theyare

localisedinitsdensenetworkofcentralfacilities.Itisevenmoreapartofcitylife,withasmoothtransition

from thecitystreettoaseatonthetrain (Edwards1997,p.26). Insmallertownsorvillages,therailway

stationtendtobeonebuilding locatedalongthetracks.Oftenthearchitectureofthebuildingmirrorsthe

localbuildingstyleattheplace.Thesmallesttypeofrailwaysstationconsistsofatrack locatedalongthe

railswithoneshelterfortherainandaticketmachine.Thesestationstendtobelocatedinthecountryside

orinpostwarsuburbanareas.

3.THERAILWAYSTATION,THEREGIONALSCALEANDSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

Onapolicy level,twomajorstreamsofthoughtsare identifiedonhowtodesignplacesand infrastructure

networks for generating sustainablemobilitymeans. The first one is the TransitOrientedDevelopment

(TOD)inspiredbyPeterCalthorpesbookThenextAmericanmetropolis.Theemphasisisontheroleofthe

pedestrian and the mixed usage of urban space in neighbourhood areas. Calthorpes concept of the

pedestrianpocketaccountsfortheideaofanopportunityforwalkingdistancesforallkindsofpeopletoall

activities fromhome.CalthorpeexplainsTODas follows:moderateandhighdensityhousing,alongwith

publicuses,jobs,retailandservicesareconcentratedinmixedusedevelopmentsatstrategicpoints,along

theregionaltransitsystem(Calthorpe,1993,p.41).TheTODconceptorpolicyideaisanalternativetocar

dependentsprawledreality,mostlyaprobleminAmericanbuiltenvironments(Bertolini,2006).

Theother streamsof thoughtsare the ideaofamobile networkedurban society (Bertolini,2006).This

Europeanbased thoughts conceive that a built environment is multinodal with a network that has to

accommodatetelecommunicationtechnologies,cartrafficandpublictransport.Thefocushere ismoreon

whatagenericgodcityis,ratherthansustainableurbandevelopmentasinTOD(Bertolini,2006).Thework

ofamongothersDupuy(2008)andKlaasen(Klaasen,Rooij&Schaick2007)belongstothisgroup.

Accordingtotheseauthorsthenetworkconsistsofnodesandlinks.Thenetworkconceptisdefinedinthree

layers.Theirconceptofthesocalledtopologicalcriterionreferstophysicalnetworkssuchasrail,road,and

ICTinfrastructures

located

in

space.

Their

concept

of

kinetic

criterion

refers

to

the

movement

and

communicationbetweenthenodes,basicarelationshipbetweentimeandspace:speed.Theirconceptof

adaptivecriterionconcernsthecapacityfortheevolutionofnetworksovertimeandspace(Klaasen,Rooij&

Schaick2007). The rail and roadnetwork is considered to be the carriersofurban systems. The central

aspectinthenetworkcityapproachisthatthereisaninterrelationshipbetweenthephysicalnetworks,the

functionalnetwork,and theusersof thesenetworks.AsKlaasen,RooijandSchaickstates:Basicallyone

couldsaythatitisnotlongeraboutbeingsomewherebutaboutgettingthere:designandplanningisnot

aboutplacesbutaboutplacesinconnectingwithroutes(Klaasen,Rooij&Schaick2007,p.8).

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InherPhDthesisKnowledgebaseddesign:Developingurban&regionaldesignintoascienceInaKlaasen

discussestowhatextendvariousurbanmodelsencouragecollectiveorindividualactivitiesandwhichtype

ofmodelencourageprivatecardependency.Assheclaims,thecollectivetransportcanbebestsupported

byastarshapedorthefingermodelstructuredmainroutenet.Theorthogonalgridshapedmainroute

networkgeneratesprivatecardependencyandademandforlargeparkingspaces(Klaasen,2004,p.136).

Theconcepts

used

in

the

network

city

approach,

as

describe

above,

tend

to

be

rather

abstract.

It

is

difficult

toapplytheseconceptsintoconcreteresearchprojectsaswellasstrategicplanningandurbandesign

projects.Afinermorphologicaldescriptionismissing.

Inthiswayitisdifficulttomakeadetaileddescriptionofthespatialconfigurationofthevarioustypesof

streetandroadnetworksofthenodesandthelinesconnectingthesenodes.Likewise,aspatialdescription

onamicroscalelevelismissingonhowthevariousfunctionsarelinkedtooneanotheralongatransit

system.Thechallengehereistolinktheunderstandingsofthenetworkcity,locationofactivitiesorurban

functions,andrevealtheminlightofhowtheseaspectscangeneratesustainablemobilitymeans.

During the last two decades, several authors such as Richard Rogers and Mike Jenks search for an

understandingof

the

compact

city

model,

which

is

recognised

to

encourage

sustainable

ways

of

living

and

energyuse for transportation.Generally speaking,urban sustainability is thus accounted for in termsof

compactness.AsRogerspropose,anetworkwithcompacturbancentrescansupportpublictransportwith

frequentservices(Rogers1999,p.53)

Rogers approach to urban sustainability is reinterpreting and reinventing the dense city model. It is

defined toconsistsofantizoning, increaseofenergyefficiency,consuming fewer resources,produce less

pollution and avoiding sprawling over the countryside (Rogers 1997, p. 33). Separation of functions

contributestothelossofstreetlife,encouragescaruseandcreatesnomansland.Asinglemindedspace

useisdefinedintermsofurbanspacefulfillingasinglefunction.Thedesignofresidentialareassegregated

fromworking and leisure areas exemplifies this case.According to Rogers, rigid planning standards and

controls

on

zoning,

parking

and

density

contribute

to

encourage

a

development

towards

car

dependency

(Rogers1997,p.9).Theoppositelabel,i.e.openmindedspaceuseisdefinedintermsofmultifunctional

spaceuseopenforeveryone. It ischaracteristicofthecompactcity.Anotherfeature isfineurbangrain

whichrelatestoqualitiesofmixtureandvariety(Rogers1997,p.10).

Likewise, the space syntax method has been used for describing the spatial properties of vital well

functionedcities.Theconcepturbansustainabilityhasnotbeenusedexplicitly.However,theidentification

ofthespatialparametersforgeneratinga livelywellfunctioningcitycanbefound inseveralspacesyntax

paperspresentedat symposiums and injournals.A livelyurbanarea isdefined tohavehigh locally and

globally integrated street network (Hillier et at 1993, 1998), high degree of connectivity of the street

networkwithinashortmetricaldistance(Hillier1999),andtohaveactivefrontages(vanNes&Lopez2010).

In2003

the

space

syntax

method

was

applied

on

various

urban

centres

with

purpose

to

identify

the

spatial

parametersforgeneratingsustainablemobilitymeans.Asthiscontributionconcluded,urbancompactness

canbestbeapproached fromaconfigurablepointofviewdue to thatcompactness isa topological term

(Encyclopaedia1955).Thereforeurbancompactnessconsistsinahighdensityofthestreetnetworkwithina

shortmetricaldistance (vanNes2007).As concluded in this research, it isnotenoughencouraginghigh

densityinurbanareasbyincreasingthenumberofdwellingsandlocalesforeconomicactivitiesoringeneral

highdensityofthebuiltmass.Itisalsothedensityofthestreetgridanditslocalandglobalpositioninthe

wholesystemthatareat issue.Thedegreesofconnectivityofastreetanditsconfigurationalposition ina

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city influence the relationship between inhabitants and visitors. Seemingly, urban compactness is a

necessary condition for a sustainable urbanprocess in terms ofhighdegreeof interconnectivityof the

streetgridandthewayitisconnectedtothewholecityonlocalandglobalscales(vanNes2007).

InherPhDthesis,CameliaMuldersKusumoinvestigatedtowhatextendrailwaystationsattractinvestments

andvitalshoppingareasintheirvicinity.Plannersanddesignersputalotofeffortintotransformingrailway

stationsinto

urban

areas.

However,

the

spatial

structure

of

the

local

street

the

railway

stations

are

connected to isoftennot taken into account at all. Therefore she analysed the local streetpattern and

correlatedthedegreeofspatial integrationwiththe locationpatternofshops.Ashercasestudiesshows,

stationsinitselfisnotenoughtoattractshopsandinvestmentinthevicinity.Alocalareasdegreeofvitality

hastobespatiallysupportedbya localwellconnectedand integratedstreetandroadnetwork(Mulders

Kusumo,2005).

Sheapplied the traditionalspacesyntaxmethod,whereonly thenumberofdirectionchanges fromeach

streettoallothersistakenintoaccount.However,duringthelastthreeyearsnewmethodologicalaswellas

software development has taken metric and geometric distance into account. These new spatial

measurementsandtoolsmake itpossibletoanalyse largermetropolitanareaswithmorediversityonthe

typesof

spatial

analyses

than

in

the

past.

Asindicatedfromtheliteraturereview,thespatialconditionsofasustainableurbandevelopmentseemsto

beacompactcitywithaninteraccessiblestreetandroadnetworkthathaveaspatialstructuregenerating

sustainablemobilitymeans.Adefinitionofinteraccessibilityinthiscontextimpliesthattherailwaystation

isembeddedorwellconnectedto itsvicinitysstreetand roadnetworkandthat thevariousservicesare

easilyaccessible from the railway station.Moreover, the frequenciesofpublic transport servicesand the

mixtureofurbanfunctions(suchasdwellings,offices,shopsandleisureactivities)hastobehigh.

4.THENODEPLACEVALUEMETHODANDTHESPACESYNTAXMETHOD

Twomethodswereusedtoinvestigatethecorrelationbetweenastreetnetsdegreeofspatial integration

andthevalueofarailwaystation,thespacesyntaxmethodandtheNodePlacevaluemodel.

TheNodePlacevaluemodel,developedbyLucaBertolini,aimsatcorrelatingthedegreeoffunctionalityand

degreeof localplacequalitiesfornodes (Bertolini1999).Accordingtothismodel,astation functionswell

whenthenodevalueandtheplacevaluecorrespond.Theparametersfordecidingthenodevaluearethe

variationinthemobilitytypes,thefrequencyofthepublictransportsystemofahub,theaccessibilityofthe

network connected to thenode, and thenumberofmobilitymeans that can reach thehub.Thehigher

variationofmobilitymeansand thehigher frequencieson the time tablesduringaday, thehighernode

value. The parameters for the place value are dependent on the number of functions accessible in the

vicinityof

the

node,

such

as

dwellings,

offices,

public

buildings,

leisure

activities

and

shops

and

the

way

these functionsareconnected toeachother.Thehighernumberof functionsandserviceswithinashort

walkingdistancefromastation,thehigherplacevalue.AccordingtoBertolini,amonofunctionalnodewith

forexampleonlyofficeshasa lowdegreeofplacevaluethananodewithdwellingsandoffices (Bertolini

1999).

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Figure2:Degreesofbalancebetweenanodevalueandaplacevalue(Bertolini1999)

TheNodePlace valuemodel illustrates therefore theoptimal correlationbetweenplace value andnode

value.When there is abalancebetween this correlation it isdefined tobe a successfulnode andplace

(figure2).Oftenrailwaystationslocatedinthesekindsofplacestendtobesuccessful.Assoonaseitherthe

placevalueorthenodevalue isdominating,theseplacesaredefinednottobesuccessful fornodes.The

modelhasbeentestedonstationareas in theprovinceofNorthHollandbyGertonPieters (figure3).He

usedthefollowingfourcategoriesfortheclassificationoftheplaceandnodevalueofarailwaystation:(1)

largeurbancentrenode,(2)transfernode,(3)regionalnode,and(4)localnode.Thenextstepistocompare

theseresultswithspacesyntaxanalysesoftheroadandstreetnetworkofthewholeprovince.

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Figure3:GertonPietersanalysisofstationsinProvinceofNorthHolland(Source:NorthHolland2009)

Theaimwithusingthespacesyntaxmethodistogetinsightsonhowthespatialstructureofthestreetand

roadnetworkinastationsvicinityrelatestothestationsplaceandnodevalue.Thespacesyntaxmethodis

abletocalculatehowastreetrelatestoallothers inatownorcity.TherecentversionsoftheDepthmap

softwareareabletocalculatetopologicaldistance(howintegratedastreetisinrelationshiptoallothersin

termsof

the

number

of

direction

change),

geometrical

distance

(how

integrated

astreet

is

in

relationship

to

allothersintermsoftheangularrelationshipbetweenthem),andmetricaldistance(Hillieretal2007).

Whenanalysinglargesettlements,recentsoftwaredevelopmenthavemadeitpossibletoanalysehoweach

streetrelatestoallothers insettlementswithmorethanhundredthousandstreetsegments.Asresearch

has shown, there are correlations between a built environments spatial layout of its street and road

networkandthelocationofeconomicactivities,crimedispersal,landusealongstreets,andpropertyvalues

(Hillieretal1998).Thereforethedegreeofspatialintegrationaffectsmobilityflowrates.Moreover,italso

affectsthe locationofvariouseconomicactivitiessuchas firmsandshops (Hillieretal1993,1998). Ifthe

structureofthestreetandroadnetworkchanges,themobility flowandthe locationpatternofeconomic

activitiesareaffected(vanNes2002). Inthisrespect,astationoranodesplacevaluecanbequantitative

measuredonthevariousdegreesofspatial integrationofthestreetandroadnet.Thespatialparameters

canbecorrelatedwiththesocialandtechnicalparametersindicatedintheNodePlacevaluemodel.

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Figure4:GlobalaxialintegrationanalysisofthestreetandroadnetworkinNorthHolland.

5.ANEWTYPOLOGYOFRAILWAYSTATIONSINTHEPROVINCEOFNORTHHOLLAND

Figure4showsaglobalaxial integrationanalysisoftheroadandstreetnetwork inthewholeprovinceof

NorthHolland.Theredandorangelinesrepresentthespatialmostintegratedareasintermsofthefewest

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numberofturns.Themorebluethelinesget,themorespatialsegregatedthestreetsare.Inordertoreduce

the edge effect of the global axial analyses,we added the Rijland region to the axialmap. This region

belongstoanotherprovince(ProvinceSouthHolland).However,dueto itsstrongconnectionstoSchiphol

AirportandAmsterdam,itisadded.

Ascanbeseenonthemap,theareasaroundAmsterdamsringroadarethemost integratedareas inthe

province.There

most

of

the

international

companies

and

advanced

producer

services

(APS)

are

located.

The

northernareasarethemostsegregatedones,coloured inblue.Theseareasaredominatedbyagricultural

production,consistofsomesmallvillagesandhaveaslightstagnationinthepopulationgrowth.Withother

words,theglobal integrationmapshowsthetomovementpotentialsonaprovincialscale level.Hence,

thespatialpotentialsforthelocationoflargebusinesscentres,largescaleindustrialactivities,megamallsor

carbasedshoppingcentresareindicated.

Onalocalscalelevel,figure5showsalocalangularintegrationanalysisofthewholeprovince.Theangular

analysis is segmentbased and the local radius is three timesdirection changes. The various localurban

centres are highlighted in red and yellow, in particular the main streets andmain routes through and

betweenurban areas. Therefore themap shows the throughmovementpotentialson a local scale. It

showsthe

spatial

potentialities

for

the

local

urban

centres.

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Figure5:Localangularsegmentanalysiswithatopologicalradius3ofthestreetandroadnetworkintheprovinceofNorthHolland

Whenapplyingvariousmetricalradiusesontheangularchoice integrationvalues,thedegreeofvitalityof

variousnodesorcentresishighlightedonvariousscalelevels.Anangularchoiceanalysiswithalowmetrical

radiushighlightstheoldhistoriccentres. Inthepastthesecentreswereplannedtobe interaccessiblefor

pedestrianmovement.A highmetrical radius highlights themodernurban centres and themain routes

network.Figure6showsanangularchoice integrationanalysiswithametricalradiusof800units.Ascan

bee seen in the figure, themain streets in the historical core ofAmsterdam,Haarlem andAlkmaar are

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8005:13

highlighted inredcolours.Likewise,allthesmalltownandvillagecentresarehighlighted in lightblueand

yellowcolours.Thesestreetsarefrequentedbypedestriansandhavetheliveliestshoppingstreets.

Figure6:Angularchoiceanalysis(segment)witharadiusof800metricalunitsofthestreetandroadnetworkinNorthHolland

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Figure7showstheangularchoiceintegrationanalysisoftheprovincewithametricalradiusof9000units.

Theregionalmaincentresarehighlighted.InAmsterdamthesestreetsareaccessiblebytram,bussesaswell

asprivatecars.Oftenthemainrailwaystationsare inthevicinityofthesecentres.Ascanbeseenonthe

map,themaincentresareAmsterdam,followedbyHaarlemandAlkmaar.

The locationofall railway stationsaccording to the typologypresentedbyGertonPieters (NorthHolland

2009)can

now

be

correlated

with

the

results

from

the

spatial

analyses.

The

degree

of

potentialities

and

obstacles fordevelopmentaround stationareascanbe revealed.These results canbeuseful formaking

prioritiesofthedevelopmentofstationareas. Inparticularthecombinationofthesetwomethodsshows

the degree of accessibility and vitality on various scale levels. But first the identification of the spatial

parametersofwhatasustainabletrainstationiswillbediscussedforeachtypeofrailwaystation.

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Figure7:Angularchoiceanalysis(segment)witharadiusof9000metricalunitsofthestreetandroadnetworkinNorthHolland.

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Figure8:Thedegreeofaccessibilityonvariousscalelevelsatonerailwaystation.

Intermsofthedegreeofaccessibilityofanode(anodesspatialprofile),fivetypesofrailwaystationsare

indicatedbasedonthespacesyntaxanalysesandthenodeplacevalueclassification;(1)Wellconnectedon

all scale levels, (2)Regionalwellconnected, locally isolated (3)Wellconnectedon town level,butpoorly

accessible for pedestrians, (4) Locally wellconnected, poorly connected on regional level, (5) Poorly

connectedonall scale levels.Themethod for theclassification isbasedon the spacesyntaxanalyses for

eachstation,asshowninfigure8.

Asitturnsout,astationsdegreeofnodeandplacevaluedependsonthespatialconfigurationofthestreet

androadnetinitsvicinity.Thestationsdefinedasbeingalargeurbancentrenodewithbothhighnodeand

place valueshave a street and roadnetworkwellintegratedonall scale levels. Stationswithhighplace

value, but low node value tend to have a street network that are highly locally integrated but poorly

integratedon regional level.Conversely, stationswithahighnodevalue,but lowplacevalue tend tobe

located inmonofunctionalareaswitharegional integratedstreetandroadnetwork.The local integration

onthestreetandroadnetwork is low.Stationswithbotha lownodeandplacevaluetendtohavebotha

lowintegrationonitssurroundedstreetandroadnetworkonlocalaswellasregionallevel.

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Figure9:Thelocationofvarioustypesofrailwaystations.

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Figure9showsthe locationofthetypologiesofallrailwaystations inprovinceofNorthHolland.Thewell

connectedrailwaystationsonallscale levels(type1)arethecentralstationsofAmsterdam,Haarlemand

Alkmaar.Thesestationsareeasilyaccessibleonaprovinciallevelaswellasforpedestriansfrequentingthe

stationsvicinityinsideoradjacenttothecityandtowncentres.

Thereisabalancebetweentheplaceandthenodevalueinthevicinityofatype1railwaystation.According

tothe

Node

Place

value

model,

there

tend

to

be

high

pressure

on

the

land

in

the

vicinity

of

these

kinds

of

stations. Therefore, the location of a main railway station contributes to sustainable means of

transportation inthesekindsofareas.Thesestationsareasplacevalue isveryhighduetoa largemixof

functionssuchasoffices,shops,services,dwellings,cafsandrestaurants inthevicinityofthesekindsof

railwaystations.Likewise,thedensityofthebuiltmassishighintermsofagoodbalancebetweenhighfloor

space index(FSI)andgroundspace index (GSI) (HauptandBerghauserPont,2010).Thesestationshavea

highnodevalueduetoahighfrequencyofalltypesoftrains(intercityandlocaltrains)andbussesortrams

departingfromthem.Sincethesestationsarewellconnectedtotheregionalaswellasthe localnetwork

andhaveahighvariationof sustainablemobilitymeans (train, trams,busses,bicycleetc), these stations

havethemostsustainablelocation.Oftenstreetsintheirvicinityaredifficulttoaccessbytheprivatecardue

totrafficregulations,inwhichforcepeopletousethepublictransportorthebicycle.

The regional wellconnected stations with poor pedestrian accessibility in the vicinity (type 2) are the

Schipholairporttrainstation,andstationsinindustrialareas.ExamplesontheseareHoofddorp,Sloterdijk,

AlkmaarNoordandDiemen.Thevicinityofthesestations isnotpedestrianfriendlyandthesestationsare

mostly transferstations.Oftenofficeswithgoodparking facilitiescanbe found in thesestationsvicinity.

TheseareastendtohavelowGSIbutsometimesahighFSIontheirbuiltmass.Thesestationstendtobeon

anunbalancednode.Theplacevalue is lowbecausethenode ismonofunctional. Intermsofnodevalue,

the frequencyof trainsdeparting from these stations tend tobe relativelyhigh. Some stationsarewell

connectedtothelocalbusnet.

The trainstationsaccessibleonacityor townscale level,butwith lowdegreeofpedestrianaccessibility

(type3)

are

the

train

stations

located

on

the

edges

of

settlements.

In

particular

railway

stations

in

the

vicinityoflargethroughoutplanneddwellingareasfromthe60s,70sand80swithahighdegreeofprivate

car dependency belong to this type. Examples on railway stations of this kind areAmsterdam Lelylaan,

Beverwijk, Nieuw Vennep and Castricum. Often local centres can be found on only one side of these

stations,ortheydonothaveanycentresatall.TheseareastendtohavealowGSIandmediumtohighFSI

ontheirbuiltmass.Alargepartofthesestationsareaslandsurfaceisdominatedbyroadsandparkinglots.

Duetothatthereisamixoffunctionsinthestationsvicinity,theplacevalueishigh,butthenodevalueis

lowduetothatonlylocaltrainsdepartfromthesestations.Thereforethenodeplacevalue isunbalanced.

The challenge here is to encourage an urban development with a locally integrated street network

generatinganaturemixoffunctions.

Thelocally

well

connected,

but

poorly

connected

on

regional

level

railway

stations

(type

4)

are

often

located

in the town centres in the provinces edges. Examples on this are the railway stations in Den Helder,

Hilversum and Enkhuizen. These towns have a small historic centrewhere the railway station is easily

accessiblebyfoot.Localvitalshoppingstreetsandprovisionofservicesare inshortwalkingdistancefrom

thesestations.Thedensityof thebuiltmass ismediumtohigh in termsofagoodbalancebetweenhigh

floorspace index(FSI)andgroundspace index(GSI).Likewise,thesestationareashaveagoodbalanceon

theirplaceandnode value in termsofabalancedmixof functionsand thatboth local trains and some

intercitytrainsdepartsfromthesestations.Someofthemareinterchangepointstoalocalbusnet.

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Finally,therailwaystationswithpoorconnectionstothestreetnetworkonallscalelevels(type5)tendto

havearemotelocation.Thesestationscanonlybereachedbycarandthestreetandroadnetworkintheir

directvicinitydonotgeneratepedestrianmovement.ExamplesonthesekindsofstationsareDenHelder

Zuid,WeespandNaardenBussum.Therearenoservices in thevicinityandtheseareashave lowFSIand

GSI. The node value is low due to that these areas are either dwelling areas or local industrial areas.

Likewise,theplacevalueislowintermsoflowfrequenciesoflocaltrainsdepartingfromthesestations.

Astheanalysesshows,Amsterdamisthemostvitalcentreintheprovinceonallscalelevels.However,the

centreofHaarlemhasaveryhighlocalintegrationcombinedwitharelativehighregionalintegration.Itcan

bemirroredinthevariationofshopsinthesecentres.InHaarlemcentrethereisamuchlargervariationin

typesofshopswithinashortmetricaldistancethan inAmsterdamcentre. InAmsterdamthechoicesand

variationsofshopsarelargerthaninHaarlem,buttheyarespreadoveralargemetricalradius.Conversely,

theprovincesareasinthenorthhavelowlocalandregional integration.Theseareasarepoorlyaccessible

byrailandpublictransport.Someofthelocalcentresinthevillageshavehighlocalintegrationonthestreet

networkandareknowntobepedestrianfriendlyareas.

Whatare then the spatialconditions fora sustainable locationofa railway station?Firstofall,a railway

stationlocated

directly

to

acity

centre

or

town

centre

that

have

ahighly

integrated

road

and

street

network

on various scale levels has themost sustainable ones. As regards the theory of the naturalmovement

economic process, streetwith high spatial integration on various scale levels tend to have high human

movementflowratesaswellashighconcentrationofservices(Hillieretal1993,1998).Moreover,streets

withbothgloballyand locallyhighangularchoice integrationvalueswithin shortmetricaldistanceshave

highvariationoffunctionsandhighdensityofthebuiltmass(vanNes,BerghauserPont,Mashhoodi2011).

Sincethesekindsofurbanareasattracthumanmovementtowardsthem,arailwaystationeasilyaccessible

tothemcanstimulatetransportonrailratherthanprivatecaruse.Whencomparingtheresults fromthe

spacesyntaxanalyseswiththenodeplacevalueanalysis,stationswithahighlocalintegrationonthestreet

grid in their vicinity tend tohaveagoodbalancebetween theplaceandnode value.There isabalance

between the timetables, frequencies,degreeofmultifunctionality in landuse,andservicesand facilities

provided.The

higher

global

integration

values,

combined

with

high

local

integration

values,

the

more

pressure there ison thearea. In thesecases, theneedofa railway stationwithhigh frequencieson the

timetablescancontributetosustainablemeansofmobilitytoplaceswithahighaccessibilitydemand.

6. THE APPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS IN THE STRATEGIC PLAN OF PROVINCE OF NORTH

HOLLAND

The classification of the various railway stations based on their location in the province is usefulwhen

makingapriority listofsustainabledevelopmentofnewhousingareas.Intheprovincesstrategicplanfor

thenext30yearssomeareasareproposedforfacilitatingfutureurbanexpansionmostlyontheprovision

of new dwellings. The province hasmade amap of potential future location of new dwelling areas for

facilitating living in thecountrysideor in thenatureareas.According to the recentnationalspatialpolicy

document(MinisteriesvanVROM2006),thereisademandforthisdwellingtype.Therefore,incomparison

withearliernationalpolicydocuments,thegovernmentandtheprovincesaimatchoosinglandfacilitatinga

developmentofthiskind.However,newhousingareasofthiskindtendtogenerateprivatecardependency

and to contribute to urban sprawl into the countryside. It is therefore worth revealing the degree of

sustainabilityof theprovincesproposedhousingareas in termsofmobilitymeans.Theaim is tomakea

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classificationandaprioritylistoftheseproposedhousingareasbasedontherailwaystationanalyseswith

thespacesyntaxmethodandthePlaceNodeValuemodel.

Theseproposednewdwellingareaswerecorrelatedwiththe fourspacesyntaxmapsandcombinedwith

theabovepresentedvarioustypesofrailwaystations.Theaimwastoinvestigatewhatkindoflocal,regional

and provincial accessibility these proposed new dwelling areas have. In particular the degree of spatial

integrationand

hence

the

degree

of

vitality

of

the

existing

local

centres

street

network

were

taken

into

account. Inthisway,thesedwellingareaswereclassifiedaccordingtohowtheycontributetosustainable

meansofmobility,thetypeofeventualarailwaystationinthevicinity,andtowhatextendtheseproposed

newareasgenerateurbansprawl into thecountryside.Thedwellingareaswereclassified in sixdifferent

groupsaccordingtotheirlocationintermsofgeneratingsustainablemeansofmobilityanddegreeofvitality

oftheexistingstreetandroadnetworkinthedirectvicinity.Figure10showsthelocationsoftheproposed

newdwellingareaswiththeirclassificationletters.

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Figure10:Thelocationoftheprovincesproposalofnewdwellingareas.

TypeAispoorlyconnectedtotheexistingurbanareas,hasnorailwaystationandispoorlyaccessibletothe

highway net. Implementing dwellings in these areas contribute to sprawl into the countryside and high

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8005:22

degreeofprivate cardependency,whichconflictswith theKyotoagreement.Theareasbelongingunder

typeAarelocatedattheedgesoftheprovince,withnoconnectionstoexistingtownsorvillages.

TypeBareasarecloselylocatedtotheexistingsmallvillages.Thelocalaccessibilityishighandcanstimulate

movementby footorbike for the localmovement.The regionalaccessibility ison theotherhand low in

termsof lowdegreeofspatial integrationof thestreetand roadnetworkanda lackofa railwaystation.

Proposeddwelling

areas

of

this

kind

can

be

supportive

to

the

existing

small

village

centres.

It

all

depends

howthedegreeofspatialintegrationofthelocalstreetnetworkwillbeonalocalscaleinthesenewareas.

TypeCareasarefillinnareasbetweentheexistingurbanisationpatterns.Theseareashaveahighdegree

ofregionalaswellaslocalaccessibilityoftheexistingstreetandroadnet.Theseareasaredefinedtobethe

most sustainable proposals for urban expansion, since the existing road, street and rail infrastructure is

presentinthedirectvicinity.Inadditionthesekindsofdwellingareasgivesextrasupportforthesurvivalof

existingadjacentlocalurbancentresandtogetahighamountofpeopleusingtheexistingrailnetwork.

The type D areas are located along the highly integrated regional road and rail network. They are not

connectedtoanyexistingvillages,townsorcitycentres.Thechallengeinthedevelopmentoftheseareasis

toprovide

them

with

anew

well

connected

local

street

network

with

high

degree

of

spatial

integration

withinashortmetricaldistanceforgeneratingamixoffunctions.Thebestsolutionistomakeanewtown

withalocallyintegratedstreetnetworkintheseproposedareas.

ThetypeEareasarelocatedadjacenttolargertownsandcitiesandarewellconnectedtotheregionalrail

androadnetwork.Inordertoavoidspatiallysegregatedsleepingsuburbs, itis importantthattheseareas

localstreetnetworkiswellconnectedtothemainroutesthroughandbetweenurbanareas.Inaddition,the

newlocalcentreswiththenecessaryfacilitiesneedstobeonthesemainroutes.Inthiswaytheseareascan

benefitfromthepotentialextensionoftheexistingtramandrailnetwork.

ThetypeFareasarethespecificcasesnotbelongingtoanyoftheseotherabovementionedtypes.These

areas have to be treated individually, depending on their specific local context of the street and road

networkandthedegreeofadjacencyofarailwaystation.

Ascanbeconcluded,theproposed locations fornewhousingareasbelongingundertypeCgenerate the

mostsustainablemeansofmobility.Thereforeurbanexpansionshouldtakeplacefirstintheseareas.These

areas have the potentials for becoming vital local communities and to generate an optimal use of the

existingmobility infrastructure and localurbanpedestrian friendly shopping areas. These areashashigh

localaswellasregionalspatialintegration,theyareadjacenttoexistingcentres,andgeneratespedestrian

activitiesandusagesofpublictransport.TypeDexpansions isonthesecondplace,typeE isonthethird

place,andtypeBisontheforthplace.TypeAexpansionsshouldbeavoided,sinceitgeneratesurbansprawl

andprivatecardependency.

7.THESPATIALPARAMETERSFORGENERATINGSUSTAINABLEMOBILITYMEANS

Attheresultsfromthisinquiryshow,thespatialconfigurationofthelocalstreetandroadnetworkmatters

forthedegreeofsustainablemobilitymeansaroundstationsareas.Highangularchoice integrationvalues

withbothahighandlowmetricalradiigeneratemultifunctionalurbanareaswithhighvariationofmobility

means(walking,bicycling,tram,bus,lightrail,trainetc)andhighfrequenciesontimetables.

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8005:23

Itiswellknownthatsuccessfulrailwaystationswithhighfrequenciesofservicesandtimetableshavehigh

numberofpeople(inhabitants,commutersandvisitors)usingit.Itisdependentonhighnumberofservices,

functions(suchasjobs,shops,amenities,dwellings,andoffices)initsvicinity,highdensityofthebuiltmass

(FSIandGSI),andhigh variationof stepoverpossibilities toothermobilitymeans (bicycle, tram,metro,

lightrail,bus,walking, taxiand car)withina shortmetricaldistance.However,diversityand frequencies

seemstodependonthespatialconfigurationofthestreetandroadnetworkinastationsvicinity.

Mainrailwaystations in largetownsandcitieshavehigh localandaswellasregionalinteraccessibilityon

thespatialconfigurationofthestreetandroadnetwork,whilerailwaystationsinsmallertownsandvillages

havemostlyhighdegreeof localaccessibility.Thesetwostationtypeshave incommontohave livelyand

vitalstreetsintheirvicinity.Thereisabalancebetweentonodeandtheplacevalue.Seemingly,thedegree

ofbalancebetweenplaceandnodevalueisdependentonthespatialconfigurationofthestreetnetworkin

termsofhighlocalangularchoiceintegrationwithinashortaswellaslargemetricaldistance.

Stations with high regional accessibility and low local accessibility are transfer stations such as airport

stationsorindustrialareaswheretwoormoremajorrailwaylinesareintersection.Inthesestationsvicinity,

the street networks spatial structure is only suitable for vehicle transport and these areas are not

pedestrianfriendly.

They

are

unbalanced

nodes.

Train

stations

with

both

alow

regional

and

local

integration

valueson the street and roadnetwork in their vicinity are located in remote areaswithhighdegreeof

privatecardependency.Thesestationshavealowfrequencyoftraindepartures,littlevariationinmobility

means,andtheirsurroundingsaremonofunctional.Theyareunbalancedplaces.

Correlationswerealsofoundbetweenthefrequencyofthetimetablesandastationsdegreeofaccessibility

to itsvicinity.Themoreregionalaswellas localastationisspatiallyconnectedto its localstreetandroad

network, the higher frequencies of the timetables. Accessibility to potential train travellers is therefore

essentialforgettingthecriticalnumberofpopulationforusingtherailnetwork.

Thevarioustypesofstationareasanddwellingareasrequiredifferentstrategiesforgeneratingsustainable

means

of

mobility

in

the

planning

and

urban

design

practice.

For

example

a

station

and

a

proposed

housing

areawitha strong regionalaccessibilitycanbe sustainableona localscale level through implementinga

wellconnected and integrated local street net. However, not every type of station area and proposed

housingareacanbeimprovedupon.Atleast,fromasustainabilityperspective,thetwomethodsappliedin

this inquirycontributetomakeapriority listofurbantasks intheprovincialplans.Likewise,thisapproach

shedssome lightonrealisticandeffective investmentstrategies. Itshowsthespatialpotentialsaswellas

constraintsinthevariousstationsvicinities.

Railwaystationsseemtobeadirectproductofthetransportationmodesofthesociety.Newtechnology

relating to new kinds of trains or to public transportation in generalmight come about in due course.

Developmentsofthissortwillprobablysetnewclaimsonrailwaystations.Butuntilnow,asustainablewell

functioningstationgeneratingsustainablemeansofmobility,dependsonbeingwellconnectedtothestreet

networkinitsdirectvicinity.Itencouragesalargeamountofpeopletouserailtransportinsteadofprivate

caruse.Suchbasicqualitiesdonotonlydependon thenumberof shops, tracks, railwaycompanies, the

density of the builtmass, and on the size of the piece of architecture inwhich they figure. The spatial

structureofthestreetandroadnetworkonvariousscalelevelsinthevicinityplaysalsoasignificantrolein

generatingsustainablemeansofmobility.

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