7mpa - management of human resources -motivation

8/8/2019 7MPA - Management of Human Resources -Motivation

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M ANAGEMENT OF HUMAN

RESOURCESBMG2083/4: Management Principles &

Applications – ILO1b - MOTIVATION



PRESENTATION FORMAT

Herzberg‟s Two Factor Theory

McClelland‟s Achievement Motivation Theory

Alderfer‟s ERG Theory

Douglas McGregor- Theory X and Theory Y

Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Content Theories

Behavior

Motivation Defined

Introduction



PRESENTATION FORMAT

Content theory of motivation

Process Theories of Motivation

Equity Theory of Motivation

Expectancy Theory of Motivation



Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

MOTIVATION

“If you want to build a ship,

don‟t drum up the men to go to the forest

to gather wood, saw it, and nail the planks together.

Instead, teach them the desire for the sea.”



WHAT IS MOTIVATION

Ability Opportunity

Performance



WHAT IS MOTIVATION



MOTIVATION DEFINED

Derived from the Latin term motivus (a moving cause).Defined as:

“forces acting either on or within a person to initiate behavior”.

Encyclopedia Britannica

“Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimesdescribed as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or

energize behavior and give it direction”.

Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (Motivation & Emotion 1981)

“The arousal, direction, & persistence of behavior”.

Franken, R. (Human Motivation 1994)



WHAT IS BEHAVIOR

Person•Abilities•Skills•Personality•Perception•Attitudes•

Values•Ethics

Environment•Organization

•Work group•Job

•Personal life

Behavior



MOTIVATION: A D YNAMIC PROCESS

Drives:

goal-directedtendenciesbased on achange

in an organism'sbiological state.

Needs:

Internal state ofdisequilibrium/ deficiencywhich

has the capacityto energize/ trigger abehavioral response.

Tension:

Physical orphysiological

Behavior

attempt to reduce tension

Needs fulfilled Needs Unfulfilled



MOTIVATION THEORY

Accounts For Behavior By Making Logical Conclusions

And Assumptions

Seeks To Explain How These Are Affected By The Work

People Accomplish And The Situation In Which They

Do It

Types

•Content Theory

•Process Theory



CONTENT THEORY

Asks What Motivates People

Explains Motivation In Terms Of Needs

Specify A Variety Of Needs

In Some Cases Dynamic Shifts Of Needs



CONTENT THEORY

Often Referred To As “Needs Theories”

Underlie The Strength And Character Of Our Desires Or

Wants

Two Types

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs Model

McClelland‟s Needs Model



A BRAHAM M ASLOW

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY 1954

Motivation research has long considered human motivesand needs. However, isolating people's motivational needscan be a difficult process because most people are notexplicitly aware of what their motives are.

In attempting to understand employee motivation, Abraham Maslow proposed Hierarchy of Needs based onthe assumption that people are motivated by a series of five universal needs. These needs are raked, according tothe order in which they influence human behavior, in

hierarchical fashion.



A BRAHAM M ASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY 1954



DOUGLAS MCGREGOR

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE 1960

Suggested that there were two different and opposingviews relating to peoples‟ behaviour at work. These viewshave become known as Theory X and Theory Y .

Theory X:

people generally dislike work and therefore need to becoerced into working effectively.

most people dislike taking responsibility and generallylike to carry out tasks that are clearly defined for them.

people do not like change and are resistant to it.



DOUGLAS MCGREGOR

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Theory Y:

to people work is as natural as play or rest.

people who are committed to goals can achieve them

through their own self-direction without the need for

coercion or supervision.

most people like to be in control of their own actions and

are naturally creative in solving problems without having

to be told.



DOUGLAS MCGREGOR

THEORY X AND THEORY Y (CONTD.)

Therefore a managers who worked from Theory X are

likely to control, make decisions for people who work for

them and closely monitor them, whilst mangers who

operated from Theory Y would encourage and help their

staff to set their own goals and targets.



A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY

Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow's Need Hierarchy to

align it more closely with empirical research. Alderfer's

theory is called the ERG theory Existence, Relatedness,

and Growth.

Existence refers to our concern with basic materialexistence requirements; what Maslow called physiological

and safety needs.

Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining

interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslow'ssocial/love need.



A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY (CONTD.)

Growth refers to desire for personal development; the

intrinsic component of Maslow's esteem need, and self-

actualization.

Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow‟s Need

Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory demonstrates:

that more than one need may be operative at the same

time.

does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need

must be substantially satisfied before one can move on.



A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY (CONTD.)

deals with frustration-regression. That is, if a higher-order

need is frustrated, an individual then seeks to increase the

satisfaction of a lower-order need.



MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

THEORY

David McClelland furthered the idea of Abraham

Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs. McClelland's experimental

work identified sets of motivators present to varying

degrees in different people. He proposed that these needs

were socially acquired or learned, i.e. the extent to whichthese motivators are present varies from person to

person, and depends on the individual and his or her

background.




THEORY (CONTD.)

McClelland's experiment:- Thematic Apperception Test

(TAT)

consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and

asking them to give brief descriptions of what was

happening in the pictures.

The responses were analyzed in terms of the presence or

absence of certain themes.

The themes McClelland and his associates were looking

for revolved around the following motivators:achievement, affiliation and power.




THEORY (CONTD.)

According to David McClelland, regardless of culture orgender, people are driven by three motives:

achievement

affiliation

power (influence) Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies

relevant to achievement motivation have been conducted.These studies strongly support the theory.




THEORY (CONTD.)

Achievement (nAch)

The need for achievement is characterized by

the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to

problems

master complex tasks

set goals

get feedback on level of success




THEORY (CONTD.)

Affiliation (nAff)

The need for affiliation is characterized by

desire to belong

an enjoyment of teamwork

a concern about interpersonal relationships

a need reduce uncertainty.




THEORY (CONTD.)

Power (nP)The need for power is characterized by

drive to control and influence others

need to win arguments

need to persuade and prevail.

According to McClelland, the presence of these motivesor drives in an individual indicates a predisposition tobehave in certain ways. Recognizing which need is

dominant in any particular individual affects the way inwhich that person can be motivated.




THEORY (CONTD.)

High achievement motivationSpecifically, achievement motivation is defined as aconcern for achieving excellence through individualefforts. Such individuals:

set challenging goals for themselves assume personal responsibility for goal accomplishment

are highly persistent in the pursuit of these goals

take calculated risks to achieve the goals

actively collect and use information for purposes of feedback.



High achievement motivated managers:

are also strongly inclined to be personally involved in

performing their organizational tasks.

However, they may also be reluctant to delegate authority and

responsibility. Thus, high achievement motivation may be expected to result

in poor performance of high- level executives in large

organizations.


THEORY (CONTD.)



Achievement motivation positively related to theleadership of small task-oriented groups and small

entrepreneurial firms and negatively related to the

effectiveness of high- level managers in complex

organizations or in political situations.In areas of management where high levels of delegation

may be required, high achievement motivated

individuals may be unable to give up their personal

involvement with the task.


THEORY (CONTD.)



High power motivation:

Power motivation is defined as the concern for acquiring

status and having an impact on others.

McClelland used power motivation as a measure of social

influence behaviors.

Since most management activities require the use of

social influence behaviours and since power motivation

measures an individual's desire to influence, the power

motive is important for leadership effectiveness.


THEORY (CONTD.)



McClelland proposed the Leader Motive Profile Theory(LMP theory) in which he argued that in high power

motivation, greater than the affiliation motive, is

predictive of leader effectiveness.

Highly power-motivated individuals obtain greatsatisfaction from the exercise of influence.

Consequently, their interest in the exercise of leadership

is sustained.


THEORY (CONTD.)



High power motivation is predicted to result in effectivemanagerial performance in middle and high-level

positions.

However, unless constrained in some manner, somepower-motivated managers may also be predicted to

exercise power in an aggressive manner for self-

aggrandizing purposes, to the detriment of their

organizations.


THEORY (CONTD.)



High affiliation motivation Affiliative motivation is defined as a non-conscious

concern for establishing, maintaining, and restoringclose personal relationships with others.

Individuals with high affiliative motivation tend to benon-assertive, submissive, and dependent on others.

Such managers are expected to manage on the basis of personal relationships with subordinates. This mayresult in them showing favouritism toward some.


THEORY (CONTD.)



As managers, highly affiliative individuals are predictedto be reluctant to monitor the behaviour of subordinates,

give negative feedback to others, or discipline their

subordinates.

However, when the power motive is higher than the

affiliative motive, individuals are disinclined to engage in

dysfunctional management behaviors such as

submissiveness, reluctance to monitor anddiscipline subordinates, and favouritism.


THEORY (CONTD.)



Adults are assumed to possess all three motivations toone degree or another, however, one of the motives isusually dominant. Managers need to identify whatmotivates others and to create appropriately motivatingconditions for them.

People with achievement motives are motivated bystandards of excellence, delineated roles andresponsibilities and concrete, timely feedback.

Those with affiliation motives are motivated when theycan accomplish things with people they know and trust.


THEORY (CONTD.)



And the power motive is activated when people are

allowed to have an impact, impress those in power, or

beat competitors.


THEORY (CONTD.)



HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY

WORK & THE N ATURE OF M AN 1966

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, also known as theMotivation-Hygiene Theory, was derived from a study

designed to test the concept that people have two sets

of needs:

their needs as animals to avoid pain (avoidance of unpleasantness)

their needs as humans to grow psychologically

(personal growth)



HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)

Herzberg's study consisted of a series of interviews thatsought to elicit responses to the questions:

Recall a time when you felt exceptionally good about your job.

Why did you feel that way about the job? Did this feelingaffect your job performance in any way? Did this feeling havean impact on your personal relationships or your well- being?

Recall a time on the job that resulted in negative feelings?Describe the sequence of events that resulted in thesenegative feelings.




It appeared, from the research, that the things makingpeople happy on the job and those making them unhappy

had two separate themes.

Five factors stood out as strong determiners of job

satisfaction: achievement

Recognition (for achievement)

work itself

responsibility advancement




The determinants of job dissatisfaction were found to be:

company policy

administrative policies

supervision

salary

interpersonal relations

working conditions




The theme of the satisfiers (motivators) is one having todo with the relationship the employee has with his/ her

job; job content.

The theme of the dissatisfiers (hygiene or maintenance

factors) is related to the environment or context of the job.

Motivators led to job satisfaction because of a need for

growth and self actualization, and hygiene factors led to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid

unpleasantness.




By providing motivators and removing hygiene,management can facilitate the growth of employees.

This is essential to both the individual and the

organization. Growth makes the employee morevaluable to the organization because of his/her ability to

perform higher order duties.



“...management cannot really motivate employees, it

can only create the environment in which the

employees motivate themselves. If you want people to

do a good job for you, then you must give them a good

job to do.”



WHAT ARE THE PROCESS THEORIES OF

MOTIVATION?

Process theories of motivation …

How people make choices to work hard or not.

Choices are based on:

Individual preferences.

Available rewards. Possible work outcomes.

Types of process theories:

Equity theory.

Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory.



EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

The distribution of rewards in organizations has importantbehavioural consequences.

Employees are rarely passive observers of the events that

occur around them at the workplace. They are observers and,perhaps more importantly, they evaluate the events they

observe.

It will be useful to use Exchange Theory to try to understandthese evaluative processes.



Exchange Theories are based on two assumptionsabout human behavior.

There is an assumed similarity between the process

through which individual evaluate their socialrelationships and their economic transactions in themarket.

Contributions to the social relationship may be

perceived as investments for which people expect somereturn (it is assumed that people do not enter intosocial relationships without some expectation that thetime and resources they commit to them will besomehow be returned).

EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)



Perception: Inputs Compared with Outputs

The major components of exchange relationships are

inputs and outcomes.

Inputs, like investments, are what a person puts into

the relationship.

Outcomes are the things that result from the exchange.The relative importance of the inputs and outputs is a

matter of Perception.




Equity: the Input/ Output Ratio

Equity is said to exist whenever the ratio of my

outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of the other

person's outcomes and inputs.

Employees may exhibit satisfaction on a job that

demands a great deal and for which they receive very

little if, and only if, their co-workers are in similar

positions.




Equity theory (J. Stacey Adams, 1965) suggests that

individuals evaluate the ratio of their inputs to

outcomes for a given job in relation to other, referent

employees.

Inequity is assumed or perceived to exist if the ratios

are not equal. As a result of the tension thus created

by this inequity, employees are motivated to restore

equity.




Equity Theory:

perceived inequity creates tension in the individual.

the amount of tension is proportional to the

magnitude of the perceived inequity

the tension created in the individual will motivate

him or her to reduce it

the strength of the motivation to reduce inequity is

proportional to the perceived inequity





Equity theory suggests that over rewarded individuals

might be motivated to increase their performance and

under rewarded individuals to decrease their performance

in an effort to restore equity.

The concept of equity is most often interpreted as a

positive association between an employee's effort on the

job and the pay he/ she receives. Whoever contributes

more is believed to be entitled to more of the outputs. Thismay be referred to as the equity norm.



GOAL-SETTING THEORY

Developed by Edwin Locke.

Properly set and well-managed task goals can be

highly motivating.

Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work.

Clarify performance expectations.

Establish a frame of reference for feedback.

Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.



EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

In recent years, probably the most popular motivationaltheory has been the Expectancy Theory (also known asthe Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory).

Although there are a number of theories found with thisgeneral title, they all have their roots in Victor Vroom's

1964 work on motivation.

Assumption

Vroom's theory assumes that behaviour results from

conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it isto maximize pleasure and minimize pain.



Key Elements: Expectancy (E)

Instrumentality (I)

Valence (V)

EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION



SUMMARY

To summarize, individuals in social interactions

behave in a manner similar to that posited for

the „economic man‟ of classical economics. The

assumption is that individuals are motivated to

maximize their rewards and minimize their costs.



Thank you

7mpa - management of human resources -motivation

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