79 berman integrative ecofem

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To wards an Integrative

cofeminist Praxis

Duns l'tthique environnementale the feminist claim that women sh ouldainsi que ns les thtories fkministes have equal opportunity, they resistetpolitiques, l'introduction u terme fundamental restructuring of powerkcofkminisme provoque de vives relations (Burt, 192). Liberal femi-controverses. Cet article examine les While men s revolutions have often nists and ecofem inists use traditionaldifftrentes dkfinitions de been about dying for Cause, lobbying techniq ues to influence leg-l'tcoftminisme ainsi que son feminist conceived transformation islation and incorpo rate wom en fullyeficacitk en tant que thkorie. into the mainstream of contemporary

is about daring to live society.Ecofeminism reinforces a deep and forU cause. Liberalism focuses on equal ac-very personal understanding of the cess of individuals to reso urces andconnection between the oppression oppo rtunities. This is problem atic forof wom en an d nature in patriarchal Petu~ Kelly environm ental issues because it is soso cie ty. A lth ou gh the term highly individualistic, and environecofeminism has b een used in many mental regulations can be seen asways, its basis is an understanding of limiting to individual freedom. Lib-the interconnectedand mutually reinforcingsubjugation of women era1 ecofemin ists have argued, how ever, for environm ental reguand the domination of nature. How ever, the description and lation and compensation and thus, the implied restriction explanation for these pheno mena, as well as the prescription for individual liberties.chan ge vary considerably. Liberal, socialist, and radical femi- Karen Warren argues, how ever, that liberalism is inadequanism all contribute to anec ofem inist perspective and policy. This for ecofeminism as it creates inequality through its acceptance article examines these different concepts of ecofeminism . Due to hierarchical framew orks. She further argues that the individuathe scope and limitations of the article, it focuses on Western istic nature of liberalism negates the weblike interconnectedn efeminist theory and policy, and introduces the contributions of of the human and non-h uman world-a concept which is centwom en from around the world in a brief discussion of interna- to ecofeminism10). How ever, liberal ecofeminism does play antional policy and the recent United Nations Conference on important role in challenging the structure of the state anEnvironment and Development. broadening the environmental agenda.

Wom en s actions are often not explicitly carried out under thebanner of ecofeminism . W omen s participation in the environ- Socialist ecofeminismmental mo vemen t, how ever, and their recognition of the connec-tions between the oppression of women and the non-human Socialist ecofeminism links the oppression of w omen an d thworld are, by their very nature, ecofeminist. non-human world to the patriarchal and capitalist systems. So

cialist feminism and socialist ecofeminism are about a dram atic

Libera l contributions restructuring of society rather than the redistributive app roach oliberal feminism.Liberal feminism stem s from the ideology of liberalism which Carolyn Merchant notes that the strength of socialist

promotes individual freedom and equality (Warren). Liberal ecofeminism is a critique of capitalist development in whichfeminists explain the oppression of wom en as the result of a lack reproduction and ecology are both subordinate to productionof equa l rights. Liberal ecofemin ists call for equal representation (1992, 12).of women in government as w ell as in non-governmental organi-zations and scientific research institutions. Liberal ecofemin ism Ecofem inist actions address the contradiction between pro -seeks redistributive rather than restructural policy changes.Al duction and reproduction. Women attempt to reverse thethough Canadian policymakers are increasingly sympathetic to assaults of production on both biological and social repro-

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duction by making problems visible and proposing solu-tions. When radioactivity from nuclear power-plant acci-dents, toxic chemicals, and hazardous wastes threaten thebiological reproduction of the human species, women expe-rience this contradiction as assaults on their own bodies andon those of their children and act to halt them (Merchant,1992: 3).

Socialist ecofeminism view s both nature and gender as so-cially and culturally constructed, and critiques the Cartesian orAtomistic world view which fosters such conceptual dichoto-mies as: masculine/feminin e, mind/body, publiclprivate, natureand society (Lahar, 26 . Ecofeminist theorists believe that theCartesian worldview im plies an adversarial approach to the non-human world, and perpetuates inequalities in human societies.Furtherm ore, the isolationism and individu alism which is inher-ent in this world view prevents community organizing for socialchange, and the creation of egalitarian societies. Essentially itserves as a barrier to a recognition of the interdependen ce andinterrelationships of humans to each other and the non-humanworld (Lahar). Like socialist feminists, socialist ecofeministsbelieve that collective action and collective rights are moreempowering and m ore important than individual actions andrights (Adamsonet. al. .

Socialist ecofeminism has emerged recently on an interna-tional scale around the United N ations Conference on Environ-ment and Development(UNCED), and has succeeded in recogniz-ing the interdependence between the exploitation of the non-human world, race, class, and gender. In a vision statementwritten at the Wom en, Procreation and Environment pre-conference, women from around the world called for a funda-mental reorganization of patriarchal value systems.

We want to recover our interconnectedness as a relationbetween human beings that has been transformed into acommodity by m odem science, technology and the laws ofthe market economy We want to restore the dignity ofwomen and nature which has being [sic] used and abusedaccording to the logi c of the market.. .We wan t to redefinewealth in an ecological framework , peace in a new mean ingof people's security and development in the fulfilment ofbasic hum an needs (Corral, 92).

At the World Congress for a Healthy Planet in 1990, 1,500women from 8 3 countries drafted the Global Action for WomenTowards Sustainable and Equitable Development which waspresented toUNCED ncluded in genda 21 and published by theUnited Nations General Assembly. This document stresses theneed to recognize ecological value and to define 'productivity7asthat which sustain s life. In addition, the docum ent stresses theimportance of ensuring women's participation in 'public life'through the elimination of, constitutional, legal, administrative,cultural, behavioral, social and econom ic obstacles. TheresaSanta Clara Gomes notes that wom en's participation is importantbecause,

[Wlom en move on realities interfaces, because they inhab itsimultaneously the public and the private universes, it isbecause they experience the marginsas places where differ-ent realities communicate, that women today are increas-ingly aware that they represent an unexplored and unprec-edented potential in society that the future cannot d o without(91).

Socialist ecofeminists feel that women's knowledge can beempow ering in breaking down traditional dualistic assump tionwhich devalu e what hav e traditionally been feminine characteristics: caring, nurturing, friendship, and an interdepend ence withthe non-human w orld.

In summary, Carolyn M erchant notes that the goal of socialisecofeminism is to develop sustainable, non-dom inating relationwith nature and create an egalitarian socialist state, in additionto resocializing men and women into nonsexist, nonracist, nonviolent, anti-imperialist forms of life (1990, 105).

Radical and nature ecofeminism

Within the ecofeminist literature much confusion exists ovethedifferencesbetweenradical, cultural, and nature' ecofeminists.Radical ecofeminism can be divided into two categories: the'nature' ecofeminists who believe that women have a biologicaand spiritual link with the non-human world and are therefore'closer to nature' than men , and radical ecofeminists who believethat women's oppression is rooted in wom en's reproductive roleand the sexlgender system.

Radical feminists believe that,

[Platriarchy oppresses women in sex-specific ways by de-fining women as beings w hose primary functions are eithertobea r and raise children (i.e to be mothers) or to satisfy malesexual desires (i.e., to be sex objects) (W arren, 1 987: 14).

For radical ecofeminists, the liberation of both women and thnon-human world lies in the dismantling of patriarchal systemand the end of male control over women 's bodies and the earthRadical ecofeminists focus on revaluing characteristics whichhave traditionally been associated with women and nature. Thbasis of this is that the cultural devaluation of natural processewithin patriarchal society is a manifestation of masculine consciousness (Diamond and Orenstein, ix). By recognizing thevalue of the non-human world and revaluing women's culturand practices, radical ecofeminists believe that it is possib le tobreakdow n the dualistic assumptions from which gender categories (not sex categories) are created. Traditionally, women h avebeen associated with nature-they are seen to have a biologicalink with the natural world. This association creates gendestereotypes that to be feminine is to be passive and intuitive, antob e masculine is to be strong, unemotional and rational (Jagger)These gender roles have been socially and culturally constructedover time to value the 'masculine7 side, and the femininelnatu rcategory is less coveted. Radical ecofeminists, like socialisecofeminists, believe that these dualistic assumptions must b

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broken down. H owever, radical ecofeminists believe that this canbe done through emb racing that which has been devalued.

Nature ecofeminists embrace women's association with natureas a source of wom anly pow er. Many nature ecofeminists cel-ebrate ancient Goddess worship and rituals around the femalemenstrual and lunar cycles. They seek to develop a women-centred culture and alternative institutions. Many ecofeministand fem inist theorists find this essentialistwomenlnature con-nection degrading, as well as detrimental to social change. Theyargue that the domination of wom en and nature stems from thedualism which biological determinism reinforces. A replace-ment of the patriarchy with a similarly hierarchical matriarchywould d o little to solve the problems.

Both radical and n ature ecofeminism explore the connectionbetween wom en's spirituaVmystica1 and intuitive experiencesand their relationship with the non-human w orld. This is apparentin actions which challenge the values of male culture throughdirect action-ften sym bolic and essential to the reform ulationof environmental issues. Ynestra K ing recounts one very power-ful event:

In England on December 12,1 982 , thirty thousand wom ensurrounded a U.S. military installation, weaving into thefence baby clothes, scarves, poems and other personal-lifesymbols Th e politics embodied by these actions draw onwom en's culture: embodying w hat ,is best in women'ssocialization.. .[and] seeking an integration of issues(1990,26).

Radical and nature ecofeminism promote an ethics of care,compassion, and personal accountability. This has been impor-tant in broadening the agenda of environm ental organizations.

Towards an integrative ecofeminist praxis

The full im plications of an ecofeminist praxis are impossibleto delineate as ecofeminism is still emerging around the world.This article does not provide a m ap of what ecofeminism shouldbe, or what an ecofeminist policy would be; it is a celebration ofthe diverse ways that it is being explored and acted upon.Ecofeminist theory creates progressive dialogue which plays animportant role in broadening the policy agenda of non-govern-mental and government isntitutions,reframes environmentalissues to recognize gen der im plications, and qu estions the struc-ture of the decision m aking body.

Critics of ecofeminism believe that the ecofeminist movementcould be forcing wom en back in to traditional gender stereotypes.Even though they are moving into the pub lic sphere, wom en are

still 'cleaning up'. Recognizing this danger, however, does notnegate the importance of having women's v oices heard on theseissues. Without women's participation in the environmentalmovem ent many issues and solutions will continue to be definedwithin a patriarchal framework.

It is essential for feminist theory and practice to include anecological perspective and conv ersely, for solutions to ecologi-cal problems to include a feminist perspective (Warren, 5).

Ecofeminism brings a recognition to policy development that orelationships with each other are reflected in ou r relationshwith the non -human world. We cannot separate our politics frothat which sustains us, and that to which we are connectthrough our mind, body and spirit.

Tzeporah Berman is currently pursuing a Maste r's d egree in theFaculty of Environmental Studies at Y ork U niversity . The focuof her work is ecofeminist theory andp rac tice and the docume ntation of women's experiences and c ontributions to the environmental movement. She is also w orking with The W omen, Envronment, Education and Developm ent Foundation on the Stopthe Whitewash campaign, and sat on the Board of Dir ect ors othe Onta rio Public Interest Research Gr oup for four years.

eferences

Adam son, Nancy, Linda Briskin and Margaret McPhail.Feminist Organizing for Change: The Contem porary Wom enMovement in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Pres1988.

Burt Sandra, Organized Wo men's G roups and the State. PoliCommunities and Public Policy in C a n a d a 4 StructuralApproach. William D. Coleman and Grace Skogstad, edToronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1990. 191-211.

Corral, Thais. ECO '92 Through Women's Eyes. Terra FeminaRosiska Darcy de Oliveira and Thais Corral, eds. BrazCom panhia Brasileira de Artes Graficas, 199 2. 92-98.

Diamond , Irene and Gloria Feman O renstein. IntroductionReweaving the World. Irene Diamond and Gloria FemaOrenstein, eds. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990.

Gom es,Theresa Santa Clara. AFe minin e Utopia.Terra FeminaRosiska Darcy de Oliveira and Thais Corral, eds. BrazCom panhia Brasileira deArtes Graficas, 1992.84-92.

Jagger, Alison.Feminist Politics and Human Nature. TotowaN.J.: Row an and Alan held, 198 3.

Kelly, Petra. Women and Global Green Politics. Wom an oPower 20 (1991): 24-25.

King, Ynestra. Healing the Wounds: Feminism, Ecology, athe Nature/Culture Dualism. Reweaving the World. IrenDiamond and Gloria Feman Orenstein, eds. San FranciscSierra Club Books, 19 90. 106-122

Lahar, Steph anie. Ecofeminist The ory and Grassro ots PoliticHypatia 6, (1): 28-45.

Merchant, Carolyn. Ecofeminism and Feminist TheoryReweaving the Wo rld: The Emergence of Ecofeminism.IrenDiamond and Gloria Feman Orenstein, eds. San FranciscSierra Club Books, 199 0. 100-108.

Merchant, Carolyn. Ecofeminism. Terra Femina. RosiskDarcy de O liveira and Thais C orral, eds. Brazil: Com panBrasileira de Atres Graficas, 1992. 12 .

United Nations. Global Action for Women Towards Sustaable and Equitable Development. Agenda 21 Chapter 24United Nations, 1992.

Warren, Karen. Feminism and Ecology: Making ConnectionEnvironmental Ethics 9 (1): 3-2 0.

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WOMEN S ACTION AGENDA 21

Preamble Toward a Healthy Planet

People everywhere are frightened by mounting evidence of the deterioration of Earth's lifegivingsystems. Human beings are part of the web of life, not above its laws. We have a specialresponsibility to respect all of the Earth community, including our air, water, soil and naturalresources, our fauna and flora, and the atmosphere that shelters us.

We, women of many nations, cultures and creeds, of different colors and classes, have cometogether to voice our concern for the health of our living planet and all its interdependent life forms.

s caring women, we speak on behalf of those who could not be with us, the millions of womenwho experience daily the violence of environmental degradation, poverty, and exploitation of theirwork and bodies. s ong as Nature and women are abused by so-called free market deology andwrong concepts of economic growth, there can be no environmental security. Rainforest dwellers,island peoples, and inhabitants of fragile arid zones are threatened with displacement anddispossession due to human disruption and pollution of vulnerable ecosystems. In a world thatcondones such practices, there lies little hope for long-term survival or peace among peoples.

We are deeply troubled by the increasing quality of life disparities between inhabitants ofindustrialized nations and those so-called developing nations and by the growing numbers of poorwithin the rich countries. In all instances, women, children, minorities, and indigenous people arethe chief victims.

We are outraged by the inequities among children the world over, with millions denied food,shelter, health care, education and opportunities for a full and productive life. We condemn theracism and disrespect of diversity on which this inequity feeds.

We equate lack of political and individual will among world leaders with a lack of basic moralityand spiritual values and an absence of responsibility towards future generations.

We will no longer tolerate the enormous role played by military establishments and industries nmaking the 20th century the bloodiest and most violent in all of human history. Militarism isimpoverishing and maiming both the Earth and humanity. It is urgent that resources currently

consumed by the military be redirected to meet the needs of people and our planet.We believe that a healthy and sustainable environment is contingent upon world peace, respectfor human rights, participatory democracy, the self-determination of peoples, respect for indig-enous people and their lands, cultures, and traditions, and freedom of information.

We come together to pledge our commitment to the empowerment of women, the central andpowerful force in the search for equity between and among the peoples of the Earth and for abalance between them and the life-support systems that sustain us all.

Women are a powerful force for change. In the past two decades, thousands of new womengroups have been organized in every region of the world, ranging from community-based groupsto international networks. Everywhere, women are catalysts and initiators of environmentalactivism. Yet policy-makers continue to ignore the centrality of women's roles and needs as theymake Fate of the Earth decisions.

We demand our right, as half the world's population, to bring our perspectives, values, skills and

experiences into policy-making, on an equal basis with men, not only at the United NationsConference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992 but on into the 2 st century.

We pledge to undertake our Action Agenda 2 on behalf of ourselves, our families, and futuregenerations. We appeal to all women and men to join in this call for profound and immediatetransformation in human values and activities.

The W orld Women s Congress Action Agenda is a compilation of the work, ideas, and values of15 women from around the world, North and South, East and W est. It is meant as a challengeto women and men to work together to create a safe and sustainable future.

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79 berman integrative ecofem

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