ICT in Schools Research and Evaluation Series No.18

ICT and pedagogyA review of the research literature

A report to the DfES by Margaret Cox, Mary Webb, Chris Abbott, Barry Blakeley, Tony Beauchamp and Valerie Rhodes

1Executive summary 3

Introduction 5

Section 1 Theories of pedagogy 7

Section 2 ICT pedagogy and attainment in subject areas 12

Section 3 Emerging themes 24

Section 4 Case studies 29

Conclusions 33

Priorities for future research 35

References 36

Contents

2ICT and pedagogy

Executive summaryThe evidence from the research literature showsthat teachers pedagogies and pedagogicalreasoning influence their uses of ICT and therebypupils attainment.

Teachers subject knowledge

The way ICT is used in lessons is influenced by theteachers knowledge about their subject and how ICT isrelated to it. Some teachers choose ICT resources thatrelate to a particular topic, while others use ICT topresent the pupils work in an innovative way, withoutany direct application to the topic.

The evidence shows that when teachers use theirknowledge of both the subject and the way pupilsunderstood the subject, their use of ICT has a moredirect effect on pupils attainment. The effect onattainment is greatest when pupils are challenged tothink and to question their own understanding, eitherthrough pupils using topic-focused software on their ownor in pairs, or through a whole-class presentation.

The effects of using ICT to present and discuss pupilswork are less well researched, and therefore the effectson pupils attainment are not so clear.

Teachers pedagogical knowledge

The teachers own pedagogical beliefs and values playan important part in shaping technology-mediatedlearning opportunities. It is not yet clear from theresearch literature whether this results in technologybeing used as a servant to reinforce existing teachingapproaches, or as a partner to change the way teachersand pupils interact with each other and with the tasks.Teachers need extensive knowledge of ICT to be able toselect the most appropriate resources. They also need tounderstand how to incorporate the use of ICT into theirlessons; they may need to develop new pedagogies toachieve this.

Pedagogical practices of the teacher using ICTThe pedagogical practices of teachers using ICT canrange from only small enhancements of practices usingwhat are essentially traditional methods, to morefundamental changes in their approach to teaching. Forexample, some teachers using an interactive whiteboardhave displayed content and ideas for class discussions ina traditional way, while other teachers have allowed pupils

to use the whiteboard to present dramas to the wholeclass that they had planned and filmed themselves.

Studies show that the most effective uses of ICT arethose in which the teacher and the software canchallenge pupils understanding and thinking, eitherthrough whole-class discussions using an interactivewhiteboard or through individual or paired work on acomputer. If the teacher has the skills to organise andstimulate the ICT-based activity, then both whole-classand individual work can be equally effective.

Access to ICT resources

An important influence on the use made of ICT in subjectsand classes is the amount and range of ICT resourcesavailable to the teachers. Where there are limitednumbers of computers in a class, mostly in primaryschools, this limits their impact, because each individualpupil is only able to use the computer for a few minutes.

Whole-class use of an electronic whiteboard has bothpositive and negative effects. It promotes pupils debatesand helps them visualise difficult concepts and processes.However, some teachers focus only on the presentationaspects, disregarding the use of simulations and modellingwhich might be more challenging for the pupils. Only a fewteachers report using subject-specific software which linksdirectly to the content and purpose of the curriculum.

Teachers knowledge of the potential of ICT in education

In spite of teachers often being limited by the ICT resourcesavailable to them, there are many examples in the literatureof teachers having a good understanding of a particularresource. However, very few teachers have a comprehensiveknowledge of the wide range of ICT resources now availablein education. This means that their pupils are not given allthe learning opportunities which ICT could provide.

Teachers confidence in using ICT

Teachers are confident in their chosen uses of ICT. Fewteachers are confident in using a wide range of ICTresources, and limited confidence affects the way thelesson is conducted. Many teachers still fear some formsof technology, which prevents them making much use ofthem in their teaching.

Organisation

The use of ICT has a limited impact on teaching andlearning where teachers fail to appreciate that interactivity

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IsmailSticky NotePedagogi mempengaruhi penggunaan ICT dalam kalangan guru

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IsmailHighlightPeranan guru untuk menggerakkan budaya berfikir memberi impak kepada pencapaian/kejayaan pelajar

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IsmailSticky NoteKeperluan pengetahuan memilih media yang sesuai dan mengintegrasikannya dalam P&P

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IsmailSticky NoteKepentingan strategi (aspek pedagogi) dalam proses pengintegrasian ICT dalam P&P

requires a new approach to pedagogy, lesson planningand the curriculum. Some teachers reorganise the deliveryof the curriculum, but the majority use ICT to add to orenhance their existing practices. Teachers need to employproactive and responsive strategies in order to guide,facilitate and support appropriate learning activities.

Collaborative work and insights into pupils learning

Using ICT with pupils in pairs, groups or with a whole class,through, for example, the use of an interactive whiteboard,enables teachers to gather extensive feedback from pupilsby listening to their explanations. From this, teachers areable to gain deeper insights into pupils understanding andprogress. Pupils collaborating in pairs or teams usingsubject-specific ICT resources are able to challenge eachothers understanding and learn from such collaborations.

Pedagogy beyond the classroom

Despite the need for a new pedagogy with ICT, includingat times moving to a facilitator role, teachers still need toadopt a leadership role in the planning, preparation andfollow-up of lessons. Where little planning has occurred,the evidence shows that the pupils class work isunfocused and leads to less than satisfactory outcomes.

Effects of pedagogical practices on pupils attainment

There is extensive evidence of ICT contributing to pupilsattainment (see for example the companion publicationto this literature review (Cox and Abbott, 2004)). However,the evidence shows that these benefits depend on theway in which the teacher selects and organises ICTresources, and how this use is integrated into otheractivities in the classroom and beyond.

At present, the types of ICT resources available mean thatICT use is nearly always focused on specific aspects ofthe curriculum. There are two clear areas where teachershave been shown to embed ICT in their teaching, andwhere this has enhanced learning; these are in:

English and literacy, through the use of word processing,presentation software and interactive video

mathematics and science, through the use ofsimulations, modelling and other specific ICT resources.

Effective pedagogical practices with ICT

This literature review has identified a range of practiceswhich should be part of teachers pedagogical

frameworks if they are to integrate ICT effectively intoteaching, learning and the curriculum. These include theneed for teachers to:

understand the relationship between a range of ICTresources and the concepts, processes and skills intheir subject

use their subject expertise to select appropriate ICTresources which will help them meet the specificlearning objectives; this includes subject-specificsoftware as well as more generic resources

be aware of the potential of ICT resources both interms of their contribution to pupils presentation skills,and their role in challenging pupils thinking andextending their learning in a subject

develop confidence in using a range of ICT resources,via frequent practice and use beyond one or twofamiliar applications

appreciate that some uses of ICT will change the waysin which knowledge is represented, and the way thesubject is presented to and engages pupils

know how to prepare and plan lessons where ICT isused in ways which will challenge pupils understandingand promote greater thinking and reflection

recognise which kinds of class organisation will bemost effective for particular learning tasks with ICT, forexample, when pupils should work on their own, howworking in pairs and groups should be organised, andwhen to use ICT for whole-class teaching.

The majority of teachers, including the most innovative,require more knowledge of and confidence with ICT, and abetter understanding of its potential to help pupils learning.This suggests that further substantial support for continuingprofessional development is necessary in order that teachersintegrate the use of ICT and improve pupils attainment.

Background and further readingThis literature review is published alongside a companionliterature review on the impact of ICT on attainment (Coxand Abbott, 2004). The reports complement each otherand serve to provide a foundation in understanding theresearch literature on ICT, attainment and pedagogy.

The full report on which this publication is based isavailable on the Becta Research website[www.becta.org.uk/research/].

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ICT and pedagogy

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IntroductionBackground to the study

This study was commissioned by the British EducationalCommunications and Technology Agency (Becta) onbehalf of the Department for Education and Skills (DfES)to investigate the effects of ICT pedagogy on attainment,based on evidence from the published research literatureand a small set of cases studies in schools identified fortheir advanced and or integrated uses of ICT.

This study aims to address the following questions:

a review of the existing literature on ICT pedagogy, inorder to identify how ICT can have some impact onattainment, through studying aspects of the ways inwhich ICT is used, and the accompanying actions ofteachers

a small-scale study of schools known to be using ICTeffectively to support attainment, to gather additionaldata and to illuminate the findings emerging from thestudy of the literature.

The study aimed to addess the following questions:

What are teachers pedagogies?

What is the relationship between different types of ICTuse and teachers pedagogical practices?

What types of hardware, software and communicationsare being used by teachers and for what purposes?

In what ways has ICT been integrated with other moretraditional teaching methods?

What are the levels of use of ICT in schools for differenttypes of ICT?

What impact has ICT had on specific conceptknowledge, on specific skills and on specific processes,and how does this relate to different teaching practices?

Approach to the literature review

The study involved collecting data from various sources,published in the English language from 1990 to thepresent day (with the exception of a few key sources),including quantitative surveys and statistical publications,qualitative or case study data and previously publishedmeta-analyses (studies which aggregate the findingsfrom many other studies). The emphasis was onidentifying work that was both original and nationally

important. Additional attention was also given to thevariables considered and the applicability of results.

The areas and types of studies for review included:

the ways in which ICT has been used and theattainment outcomes for Key Stages 14

specific studies of clearly defined uses of ICT forlearning particular concepts, processes or skills

meta-studies which have measured the large-scaleimpact of ICT on attainment

research evidence relating to specific curriculum subjects

research evidence relating to specific socialcharacteristics, for example, age, gender, class andethnicity

evidence relating to factors which might influence thelearning outcomes, such as teachers pedagogies, theenvironment in which ICT is used, and level of ICTresources.

Approach to the case studies

The short case studies involved 26 teachers who arealready known to be using ICT effectively to supportattainment, drawn from six primary and seven secondaryschools. The selection criteria were based on evidence ofimproved learning outcomes of their pupils through oneor more of the following:

Increased gains in subject tests compared withcomparable classes

Improvements in class work compared with otherclasses in the school

Quality of pupils work compared with theachievements of pupils in previous years.

A more detailed account of the procedures and sourcesused can be found in the full report on which thispublication is based, available on the Becta Researchwebsite [www.becta.org.uk/research/].

This study is one of two literature reviews, commissionedas part of the ICT and Attainment project. The otherreview (Cox and Abbott, 2004) considers the researchevidence relating to the impact of ICT on attainment.Both studies were carried out by the same researchteam, and many of the procedures and methods used bythe team were the same for both studies. The reportscomplement each other and serve to provide a 5

foundation in understanding the research literature onICT attainment and pedagogy.

It was not possible within the time-scale of the project toreview all the published evidence. However, in order toutilise the evidence from this broader literature the projectteam produced two literature bases. The first is a list ofreferences to which this report specifically refers, whichare included in this publication. These include a widerange of empirical findings and theoretical perspectives.The second is a wider bibliography which has informedand underpinned the approach and analysis. This isavailable along with the full version of this report on theBecta Research website [www.becta.org.uk/research/].

The project team

Editor and project director Margaret CoxStudy editors Chris Abbott and Mary WebbEndnote co-ordinator Barry BlakeleyResearch team Chris Abbott, Tony Beauchamp, BarryBlakeley, Margaret Cox, Valerie Rhodes and Mary Webb Educational consultant Deryn WatsonProject administrator Montanut Turnbull

All members of the project team are based in theDepartment of Education and Professional Studies atKings College London.

Acknowledgements

The project team wishes to acknowledge the support ofBecta and the DfES for initiating and funding the twoprojects reviewing the literature into ICT and attainmentand ICT pedagogy, and also acknowledge the ongoingadvice, encouragement and support received, inparticular from Malcolm Hunt, Head of Evidence andResearch, Becta, and from Andrew Jones and MichaelHarris, Education Officers, Becta.

The team would also like to acknowledge the supportand advice from academic and administrative colleaguesat Kings College London and also at the University ofLeeds. Finally the team would like to thank all theteachers and schools who participated in the study intoICT pedagogy, who gave their time willingly and freelyand who provided exciting examples of innovative usesof ICT in their teaching.

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ICT and pedagogy

Section 1 Theories of pedagogyThis section presents a discussion of differentpedagogical perspectives and theories derived from theliterature review. There is clear evidence that teachersperceptions of pedagogy relating to ICT are often confinedto classroom practice. This section provides a broaderbase for understanding what pedagogy involves and howthis might apply to the use of ICT in teaching. For a moreextensive review of pedagogy see Webb (2002).

What is pedagogy?

Watkins and Mortimore (1999), in a review of researchliterature on pedagogy, assert that the models ofpedagogy held by researchers and academics havebecome more complex over time, incorporating, forexample, recent developments in our understanding ofcognition and meta-cognition.

1

Alexander (1992) identifies teaching methods and pupilorganisation as the two facets of pedagogy. These areincluded in Alexander's conceptual framework for

educational practice (see Figure 1.1) where pedagogy isone of seven interrelated aspects (Alexander describesthe dimensions of his framework as a minimum list ratherthan a fully comprehensive framework).

This suggests that the pedagogy of ICT should beunderstood within a broader framework of educationalpractice. What is observed in the classroom is only partof this practice. Thus, illuminating good practice inteaching and learning with ICT will require examiningteachers ideas, values, beliefs, and the thinking thatleads to observable elements in practice.

Pedagogical reasoning

The processes of planning, teaching, assessing andevaluating, and the knowledge needed for theseprocesses, are described in Shulmans model ofpedagogical reasoning (Shulman,1987). Shulmanfocuses on knowledge rather than ideas and beliefs.Moreover, there is evidence that teachers ideas, beliefsand values may also influence practice (Fang, 1996;Moseley et al., 1999). Therefore both facets need to be

7

OBSERVABLE

PRACTICE

IDEAS

VALUES

BELIEFS

CONTENT

CONTENT

PEDAGOGY

MANAGEMENT

CHILDREN

SOCIETY

KNOWLEDGE

whole curriculum subject/areas

physicalinterpersonalteaching methodspupil organisationplanning operationassessment of learningevaluation of teaching

developmentneedslearning

needs of societyneeds of the individual

childrens ways of knowingculturally evolved ways of knowing

WHAT should children learn

HOW should children learnand teachers teach?

WHY should children beeducated in this way?

and

WHAT is an educated person?

ASPECTS CENTRAL EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS

Figure 1.1 Educational practice: A conceptual framework (Alexander, 1992, p. 184)

1Meta-cognition can be simply defined as thinking about thinking. It refers to higher order thinking and includes activities such as planning how to

approach a learning task and self-evaluation of progress in a task.

considered. According to Shulman, teachers knowledgebases include the following categories of knowledge:

Content knowledge.

General pedagogical knowledge (knowledge related togeneral teaching issues, for example, teachingapproaches and classroom management).

Curriculum knowledge (knowledge about the tools ofthe trade: schemes of work, resources, and so on).

Pedagogical content knowledge: that specialamalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely theprovince of teachers, their own special form ofprofessional understanding. (Shulman, 1987, p. 8.)

Knowledge of learners and their characteristics.

Knowledge of educational contexts: groups, classes,the school and the wider community.

Knowledge of educational ends, purpose and valuesand their philosophical and historical grounds.

This list matches many of the elements in Alexanderslist. One of the implications of this model for teachersuses of ICT is that they need to have sufficientknowledge about the topic or subject. Therefore theyalso need to understand how this knowledge will beaffected by the use of ICT, in order to make appropriatedecisions about using ICT with pupils.

Alexander (1992) suggests that, in the UK, we havefocused more on content rather than pedagogy, and heargues that content and pedagogy are linked. In order toexplore this link, Shulmans model of pedagogicalreasoning (Shulman, 1987) focuses on the processesinvolved in teaching, including the transformation ofknowledge and how this knowledge can be taught. Animportant component of knowledge in Shulmans modelis pedagogical content knowledge.

The implication for the use of ICT in education is thatsince pedagogical content knowledge differs betweensubjects, the choice and use of ICT resources will differin terms of pedagogical practices for different subjectteachers. In some situations, teachers may use theirbeliefs to filter their knowledge bases at the start, so that

during the processes of pedagogical reasoning they areonly drawing on a limited subset of the knowledge base.

Shulmans model includes a range of pedagogicalreasoning skills:

Comprehension examining the content to be taughtand considering its interrelationships with other subjectcontent.

Transformation transforming ideas of knowledge sothat they can be learnt by pupils.

Preparation preparing the curriculum in relation toaims and objectives.

Representation thinking of ways that the ideas andskills may be made accessible to pupils.

Adaptation fitting the material to the characteristics of thepupils, taking account of age, gender, culture, and so on.

Tailoring fitting the curriculum and teaching plans to aspecific group of pupils.

Instruction performing a variety of teaching and classmanagement activities.

Evaluation assessing the effectiveness of theteaching through the assessment of pupils, as well asother types of evaluation.

Learning environments, particularly those based onmultimedia, are increasingly being described in terms ofaffordances

2which focus on how the learning

environment is perceived by the user (Laurillard et al.,2000). Affordances may be similar to scaffolding,

3but

may be a more useful way of conceptualising aspects ofthe system, as scaffolding suggests somethingadditional, possibly external to the system, whereasaffordances may be integrated into the system.

Linn and Hsi (2000) report on a collaborative project thathas investigated these pedagogical issues for scienceeducation within ICT classrooms, and produced a list ofpragmatic pedagogical principles:

Encourage pupils to build on their scientific ideas asthey develop more and more powerful and usefulpragmatic scientific principles.

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ICT and pedagogy

2Affordances are the properties of a system, as perceived by the user, which allow certain actions to be performed and which encourage specific

types of behaviour.3

Scaffolding means that pupils build up knowledge and understanding by linking new concepts to those previous understood through a mental

framework of linked concepts.

Encourage pupils to investigate personally relevantproblems and revisit their scientific ideas regularly.

Scaffold science activities so pupils participate in theenquiry process.

Model the scientific process of considering alternativeexplanations and diagnosing mistakes.

Scaffold pupils feedback to explain their ideas.

Provide multiple visual representations from varied media.

Encourage pupils to listen and learn from each other.

Design social activities to promote productive andrespectful interactions.

Scaffold groups to design criteria and standards.

Employ multiple social activity structures.

Engage pupils in reflecting on their scientific ideas andon their own progress in understanding science.

Engage pupils as critics of diverse scientific information.

Engage pupils in varied sustained scientific projectexperiences.

Establish an enquiry process which can be generalisedand is suitable for diverse scientific projects.

Linn and Hsi (2000) found that each pupil drew ondifferent pivotal cases to organise their thinking. Foreach class, the teacher needed to research pupilsunderstanding, analyse their thinking and identify pivotalcases that would build on pupils ideas and inspire themto reflect on and restructure their views. The teachersthen had to use these pivotal cases at appropriatetimes in discussion with the pupils. For example, apupil that believes that metals have the capacity toimpart cold would be asked How do metals feel in ahot or cold car?

Assessment is one of the most important and difficultaspects of the educational process, especially whereassessment procedures involve ICT, and there is muchresearch evidence to show that the everyday practice ofassessment in classrooms is beset with problems andshortcomings (for example Black and Wiliam, 1998). It isalso especially difficult to measure attainment which isattributable to ICT, because the pupils are often notassessed in these activities other than through theproducts they produce at the end of ICT-based lessons.

Teacher-centred or pupil-centered pedagogy

Shulmans model has been criticised for leaning on atheory of cognition that views knowledge as fixed andexternal, and on a teacher-centred pedagogy (Banks etal., 1999). Because the model does not incorporatepupils thinking processes or provide a basis foranalysing pupilteacher interactions, it may fail toaddress the important experiences resulting from ICTuse. Understanding or identifying the thinking processesof learners, as far as possible, is particularly important fornew technologies, since research has shown that newways of learning and new representations are presentedto pupils through ICT.

Students can literally initiate the process,proceeding by discovering, inventing, or inquiring,to prepare their own representations andtransformations. Then it is the role of the teacher torespond actively and creatively to those studentinitiatives. In each case the teacher needs topossess both the comprehension and thecapacities for transformation. In the student-initiated case, the flexibility to respond, judge,nurture, and provoke student creativity will dependon the teachers own capacities for sympathetictransformation and interpretation.

(Shulman, 1987, p. 14.)

However, there are aspects of pedagogy in the classroom,other than pupil-led ICT activities, which teachers need toembrace in order to devise and follow through worthwhilelearning experiences with the use of ICT.

ICT and the changing nature of pedagogy

Researchers and academics conceptualisation ofpedagogy has changed in tandem with recentdevelopments in our understanding of cognition andmeta-cognition (Watkins and Mortimore, 1997). Manywriters have also suggested that developments in ICTprovide very different learning opportunities, and a needto design a new integrated pedagogy has beenidentified (Cornu, 1995). For example, McLoughlin andOliver (1999) define pedagogical roles for teachers in atechnology-supported classroom as including settingjoint tasks, rotating roles, promoting student self-management, supporting meta-cognition, fosteringmultiple perspectives and scaffolding learning. Anassumption here is that the use of ICT is changing thepedagogical roles of teachers, and a compelling 9

rationale for using ICT in schools is its potential to act asa catalyst in transforming the teaching and learningprocess (Hawkridge, 1990). The processes described byShulman will still be necessary but the decisions andoutcomes from those processes may be different asteachers knowledge, beliefs and values change in linewith affordances provided by new technologies.

A dynamic model for such a transforming pedagogy forICT was derived from the Palm project (Somekh andDavies, 1991). The authors identified pedagogicalchange as the following types of progress:

from a view of teaching and learning as discrete,complementary activities to an understanding thatteaching and learning are independent aspects of asingle activity

from a sequential to an organic structuring of learningexperiences

from individualised to communicative learning

from a view of the teachers role as an organiser oflearning activities to one as a shaper of quality learningexperiences

from a preoccupation with fitting teaching to a group,to a knowledge that teaching needs to be suited toindividuals, which calls for continual self-monitoring toensure sensitivity to unintended forms of bias anddiscrimination

from a view of the learning context as confined to theclassroom and controlled by the teacher to one of thelearning context as a supportive, interactive, whole-school culture

from a view of technology as either a tutor or a tool toone where it is part of a complex of interactions withlearners, sometimes providing ideas, sometimesproviding a resource for enquiry, and sometimessupporting creativity.

(ibid., p. 156157.)

The theories discussed in this section provided thefoundation for the analysis of the empirical evidence inthe next section, and they are referred to where relevantin the analysis.

Studies of effective teaching

The process of instruction as described by Shulman(1987) involves performing a variety of teaching and

class management activities. In general terms, much ofthis is observable and documented in the researchliterature on effective teaching, for example the HayMcBer (2000) report to the then Department forEducation and Employment has been particularlyinfluential in the UK. The literature on effective teaching,including the Hay McBer report, makes little reference tothe use of ICT.

The Hay McBer report looked for characteristics ofteachers that were associated with good progress inpupils. They found that pupils progress is mostsignificantly influenced by a teacher who displays bothhigh levels of professional characteristics and goodteaching skills which lead to the creation of a goodclassroom climate. They identified characteristics ofgood teachers as:

Professionalism Challenge and support. Confidence. Creating trust. Respect for others.

Thinking Analytical thinking. Conceptual thinking.

Planning and setting expectations Drive for improvement. Information seeking. Initiative.

Leading Flexibility. Holding people accountable. Managing pupils. Passion for learning.

Relating to others Impact and influence. Team working. Understanding others.

In relation to the model of pedagogical reasoning, thereare some aspects of the Hay McBer report of particularinterest. Many of the characteristics relating toprofessionalism are based on beliefs and values. Thethinking characteristics of teachers include the complexanalytical thinking required for planning and evaluating,

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ICT and pedagogy

and the conceptual thinking links to the transformationprocess. For example at the highest level the teacher:

Makes the complex simpleHelps pupils and others to understand somethingcomplex by finding a new and creative way toexplain it in simple terms.

(Shulman, 1987, p. 14.)

It is interesting to note that the development of pupils asindependent learners, an ability that is often consideredto be crucial for making effective use of ICT, and which iscategorised under passion for learning, is onlydemonstrated at the highest level:

Motivates pupils to learn independentlyContinuously provides pupils with opportunities toexperience learning as enjoyable and satisfying, toincrease their self-motivation. Consistentlyprovides a range of opportunities for pupils todirect their own learning; provides independentlearning options, and enables pupils to accessthese. Encourages self and peer evaluation. Buildspupils capacity to question themselves.

(Hay McBer, 2000. p. 61.)

According to Brown et al. (2001) the Hay McBer study islikely to be flawed, but it does provide a set of generalcharacteristics that were certainly associated with someeffective teachers.

Moseley et al.(1999), in a study of primary schoolteachers known to be achieving either average or aboveaverage gains on measures of relative attainment bypupils, focused on pedagogy using ICT. They also founda very complex picture in which it was difficult tocharacterise effective teachers using ICT. The teacherswere supported in developing their practice in literacyand numeracy using ICT. The project explored linksbetween teachers thinking about their teachingbehaviours or actions in the classroom and pupilslearning gains. The work indicated that a key feature ofthe more effective teachers was their use of effectiveexplanations. Observations showed that these teachersused examples and counter-examples and involvedpupils in explaining and modelling to the class. Teacherswho favoured ICT were likely to have well-developed ICTskills and to see ICT as an important tool for learning andinstruction. They were also likely to value collaborativeworking, enquiry and decision making by pupils.

Studies of teachers views of pedagogy

The review by Watkins and Mortimore (1999) of researchinto practitioners views on pedagogy suggested thatteachers recognised the complexity of pedagogy and thecomplex nature of classroom life. Watkins and Mortimoreidentified some tensions between the review ofpedagogy in the academic and research literature andthe views of practitioners. In particular, while the trendamong researchers and academics has been towards amodel that supports the active construction of meaningand endeavours to help learners learn about learning,teachers may adopt a simplified model of practice in theface of contextual constraints.

Survey methods for measuring pedagogical knowledgeare being developed. However, the multifaceted nature ofthe knowledge and the fact that much still needs to belearnt about its nature makes this a difficult task (Rowanet al., 2001).

Studies that examine specific aspects of teachersdetailed knowledge of learners and their misconceptionsrequire careful investigation of pupils learning comparedwith teachers predictions of their difficulties andmisconceptions. For example Hadjidemetriou andWilliams (2001) propose a methodology that will help tobridge the gap between pupils difficulties and teachersperceptions of these difficulties. They devised adiagnostic assessment instrument to elicit pupilsmisconceptions of graphing, and used it as aquestionnaire for teachers.

Many of these studies are considered in more detail insubsequent sections of this report.

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Section 2 ICT pedagogy andattainment in subject areasOverview of the research literature

The focus of this section is on the relationship betweenattainment and pedagogical practices involving the useof ICT, as revealed through published, empiricalresearch. The studies that have contributed to this reviewcan be classified into six main groups:

Bibliographies, literature reviews and meta-analysesSeveral articles in this category made some analysis ofpedagogy, although these did not focus specifically onpedagogy for ICT use at school. For example, Draper(1998) reviewed evaluations of software in use inhigher education that was associated not just withsatisfactory learning but with demonstrableimprovements. A review by Scanlon et al. (2002) thataimed to develop understanding of technology-mediated practical work in science for higher educationdrew on studies at secondary school level.

Studies of effective teaching and teachers views thatmake little reference to ICT useOne example is Askew et al. (1997). A small number ofrecent studies in this category are discussed brieflybecause recent research on the contribution of ICT toattainment shows that ICT is effective only whencombined with good teaching.

Short-term interventions associated withsoftware design, in which a specific aspect of ICTuse is evaluatedAn example of this type of study is Lavonen et al.(2003). Many of these studies focus on the interactionbetween the computer and the pupils rather thanconsidering the role of the teacher and of peers.Only those that address pedagogical issues arediscussed. They may involve a few hours or a fewweeks work. Despite the very short-term nature of thestudies, some provide useful evidence of specificbenefits of ICT and how it enables learning objectivesto be achieved.

Studies associated with the introduction of anadditional general ICT resourceSuch resources include the use of laptop computers orthe internet in science lessons. Many of these studies

are looking for a wide range of effects and they may ormay not involve teachers professional development.Some reports yield disappointing results. For example,Jarvis et al. (1997) evaluated the effect of collaborationvia email on the quality of 10- to 11-year-old pupilsinvestigative skills in science in six rural primaryschools. They found no real indications that the use ofemail enhanced learning in science. In this instance, thestudy encountered problems with hardware, softwareand the teachers abilities.

Studies focused on specific aspects of pedagogy inspecific subjects, involving development work withICT over two to three yearsSee for example Moseley et al. (1999).

Longitudinal studies involving development work,usually over at least five years These studies address the changing nature of teachingand learning associated with the introduction oftechnology. See for example Linn and Hsi (2000).

ICT in primary education key aspects

There is evidence that ICT helps primary school teachersto be more effective in their teaching, especially if they arewell resourced (Becta, 2001). In this series of reportsanalysing pupils attainment at Key Stage 2 alongsideOfsted inspection judgements, statistically significant linkshave been revealed between the good use of ICTresources and higher attainment in ICT and other subjects.Given the nature of the analysis, this does not prove acausal link that is, that the good use of ICT causeshigher attainment but it does point to an important anddeveloping relationship. However, the reports also showthat other factors, such as good leadership and thegeneral quality of teaching, remain important.

Teachers confidence with ICT has increased in recentyears, but the use of ICT remains relatively low. Accordingto government statistics (Department for Education andSkills, 2001), 75% of teachers reported that they feltconfident in using ICT, 78% had received some training,and 71% had updated their training in the last two years.Yet a survey conducted by Preston et al. (2000) of 100 ICTteachers found that over 90% used only word processingmore frequently than once a month out of all the genericapplications.

Findings of a research and development project whichinvestigated effective pedagogy with ICT in literacy and12

ICT and pedagogy

numeracy in primary schools (Moseley et al., 1999) provideillustrations of teachers practices and the complexity ofchoices which teachers make in deciding when and how touse ICT to strengthen their teaching. At this time, manyprimary classrooms still only had regular access to one ortwo computers, and this affected the choices teachers wereable to make about using ICT. Moseley et al. (1999) usedpre- and post- standardised tests to check improvements inpupils attainment. Part of the development work involved anexploration of the links between teachers thinking, theirteaching behaviours or actions in the classroom, and pupilslearning gains. It was found that teachers thinking andbeliefs about teaching and learning were linked to what theydid in the classroom and to the choices they made inselecting how to integrate ICT into their teaching. A keyfeature of the more effective teachers was their use ofeffective explanations. Teachers who favour ICT are likely tohave well developed ICT skills and to see ICT as animportant tool for learning and instruction. They are alsolikely to value collaborative working, enquiry and decisionmaking by pupils. Teachers who have reservations aboutusing ICT are likely either to exercise a higher degree ofdirection or to prefer pupils to work individually.

This study also recognised the value of support from thehead teacher, or of a collaborative working environment.It suggested that the task of developing teacherseffectiveness in using ICT is a long-term goal and needsto become established as a regular part of theirprofessional development. As new equipment andsoftware become available, teachers will need to developnew skills and pedagogical approaches.

A literature review for the evaluation of DigitalOpportunities projects in New Zealand (Boyd, 2002), inanalysing the lack of impact of some innovationsinvolving laptops, includes this valuable reminder that it isthe type of use that is most important:

There are two possible reasons for the reportedlack of impact. One is that the use of laptops doesnot in fact have any effect on studentachievement. The other, perhaps more likelyreason, is that changes to student achievementare conditional on context, changes are due to acomplex interplay of factors such as teacherschanging their pedagogical approaches tosupport a more student-centred environment inwhich ICT use is integrated into the curriculum. Ifthis does not occur and laptops are used within

the traditional classroom environment simply asword-processors and presentational devices, thenit is unlikely that improvements in studentachievement or changes to classroomenvironments will be reported.

(Boyd, 2002, p. 30.)

It is also important to consider the extent of home use ofICT, and the way this may affect pupils perceptions ofschool use. Research suggests that there is a gap betweenthe types of use at home and at school. One survey(Mumtaz, 2001) of pupils in years 3 and 5 (ages 78 and910) found that the most frequent activity at school wasword processing (which the pupils found boring), while themost popular activity at home was playing games. As aresult, the author suggested that schools should learn fromwhat works at home and allow pupils to work on activitiesthat they find valuable, motivating and worthwhile. Anotherproblem arises from the fact that pupils computers athome are often far in advance of those they have access toat school. Teachers need to acknowledge pupils innovativeuses of technology at home when developing theirpractices at school (Comber et al., 2002).

This said, while many primary school children could beconsidered to be sophisticated and knowledgeable users ofICT, access to ICT resources at home does vary widely. Thestudy by Selwyn and Bullon (2000) of 267 year 2 and year 5children in south Wales revealed that although the majorityof pupils reported making some use of computers inschools, patterns of sustained use and varied engagementwith ICT were rare. Writing and drawing were identified asthe most widely experienced uses of computers. Given thathome use is variable, the authors argued that theparamount role of schools should be to balance the needsof the computer haves and have lesses.

OrganisationIn a study of three primary schools, Goodison (2002)confirmed that a range of organisational factors, such as thecommitment of the head teacher and good forwardplanning, were correlated with successful implementation ofthe use of ICT, and the commitment of staff played a pivotalrole in the process. However, as Goodison pointed out, theimplementation of new technology needs to be managedproperly, to ensure the continued commitment of teachers.

Group workThere is little evidence in the research literature toindicate that collaboration inevitably enhances learning. 13

As Eraut (1995) has pointed out, group work is acomplex process which limits the ability to generalise onits benefits, but his study involving 19 case studies in 16classes of 8- to 12-year-olds offers strong support for aVygotskian

4rather than a cognitive conflict

5explanation of

the benefits of group work among pupils.

Yu (2001) examined the effect of competition incomputer-assisted co-operative learning situations onpupils cognitive, affective and social outcomes, in astudy of 192 5th-grade students (aged 1112 years) insix classes in one Taiwanese school. The results showedthat co-operation without competition engendered betterattitudes towards the subject matter and promoted moreinterpersonal relationships. However, studies of pupilsusing ICT at primary school level suggest that effectivepupil collaboration for learning is not easily achieved(Crook, 1998)

ICT in secondary education key aspects

Two of the fundamental differences between primary andsecondary schools are in the allocation of ICT resourcesand the cross-curricular nature of primary educationcompared with the subject-specific teaching andorganisation in secondary schools. Most primary schoolshave a few computers in each classroom, and sometimesan electronic whiteboard, whereas most secondaryschools have a greater emphasis on networked computerrooms. In some secondary schools, ICT is taught as adiscrete subject within an ICT department; in others ICT istaught across the secondary curriculum through othersubjects (Beauchamp, 2003). The 2001 survey by theBritish Educational Suppliers Association (BESA, 2001)found that in 86% of secondary schools the majority ofcomputers are located in labs, compared with only 16 percent for classrooms, while in primary schools theequivalent figures are virtually equal.

This difference has implications for teachers pedagogies,for example it has been shown to be a key influence onthe way primary school teachers have been using ICT(Watson, 1993, Selwyn and Bullon, 2000). In secondaryschools, there is more focus on ICT within subjects, butthe demands of ICT teachers who are responsible for

teaching ICT as a subject can limit other teachers accessto the technology (Beauchamp, 2003).

The following sections discuss the research evidencerelating to pedagogy and attainment with ICT in specific-subject areas. Further research relating to attainment canbe found in the companion literature review to thispublication (Cox and Abbott, 2004).

English

Primary EnglishThe first ImpacT project (Watson, 1993) found teachersusing a range of software, including word processing, inprimary school English lessons. However, there was aconflict between teachers wanting to help pupils progress intheir writing by the use of word processing, for example,and their desire to ensure that all pupils had equal accessto the computer. This resulted in each pupil in some classesonly having about five minutes use of word processing perterm. Because there was only one computer in theclassroom and the teacher wanted to provide equal accessfor pupils, this led the teacher into inappropriate practiceswhere pupils first hand wrote their stories and then typedthem onto the computer in pairs. This finding is supportedby more recent evidence from the ImpaCT2 project casestudies (Comber et al., 2002). The results again suggestedthat because of the limited number of computers in primaryclassrooms, the sustained and regular use of ICT rarelyoccurred. For ICT to have any benefit, teachers thereforeneed to make the right decisions to enable pupils to havefrequent and substantial access to resources.

Mumtaz and Hammond (2002) found that much of the useof word processing at primary level is individualised andlargely for presentational purposes that is, mainly forentering texts previously written by hand. These researchersreported little intervention by teachers in this activity. Theyconclude that schools are a long way from seeing the useof the word processor embedded...to support pupilswriting and that teachers need more time for reflection ontheir learning objectives. (ibid., p.346.)

The preliminary results of a survey designed to identify howtalking book software

6was being used in the classroom

(Lewin, 1998) highlighted the success of this type of

14

ICT and pedagogy

4Vygotskys theory emphasises social, cultural and contextual influences, and is based on the idea that learning is a process of internalising social and

cultural values. Learning therefore takes place when there is social interaction and agreement between learners.5

Piaget argued that cognitive conflict is the principal mechanism for learning. This conflict occurs when there are disagreements between learners

regarding their understanding of a problem, which are then resolved through teacher-led discussion.

software for both early readers and those older childrenexperiencing difficulties in learning to read. However,many teachers reported that they would like to see futureimplementations of the software enhanced to provideadditional reinforcement activities which would enablethe software to meet the needs of individual learnersmore effectively. The results showed that the softwarewas used mainly with pairs of children (82%), butoccasionally with individuals (29%). A smaller number ofteachers specified that the software was usually used bygroups of three or more children at one computer (11%).Use in groups or pairs was more commonly associatedwith early readers who were progressing normally. Mostof the children were able to use the softwareindependently with minimal adult support, after receivingsome initial training. Several of the classes whichinvolved older children experiencing difficulties learningto read, or those identified as having special needs,worked with an adult for the duration of the session.

Secondary EnglishMuch of the empirical evidence in English reports similaruses of ICT to those found at primary level, although theuses made of ICT are more demanding, and English istaught as a separate subject in secondary schools withmuch less focus on literacy skills. In a study across sixcurriculum areas, which included English, Hennessy et al.(2003) found that the use of the technology was associatedwith a decrease in direction by the teacher, and an increasein pupil self-regulation and collaboration. One effect of thesechanges in classroom practice was that teachers felt theneed to employ a proactive approach in their teaching anddevelop more responsive strategies in order to support,guide and facilitate pupils learning. This also involvedmonitoring pupils progress more closely and maintaining afocus on the learning of the subject. Pupils were alsoencouraged to take more responsibility for their ownlearning through increased participation. While an extensiverange of successful strategies were employed, many ofwhich built on established practice, the authors concludedthat the pedagogy associated with using ICT to supportsubject teaching and learning was still evolving.

According to some researchers, the use of ICT has thepotential to transform English teaching, although the vastchanges to pedagogy that this will entail may well beresisted by teachers (Russell, 1998). The authordescribes secondary pupils experiences of writing aseries of hypertext

7stories over an 18-month period.

Each individual story was written over a period of aboutthree weeks and the pupils were encouraged to write inpairs. Just over half the students supported the use ofcollaboration in hypertext story writing and all theteachers and the majority of the students supported themulti-linear aspect of hypertext. A few students, however,preferred to write straightforward stories withoutbranching. Students presented their stories to theaudience, and this was seen as an important way toencourage them to consider the needs of theiraudiences. Teachers felt that the collaborative pedagogywas encouraging students to think carefully about themeaning of words in their hypertext. It was concludedthat non-linear writing requires different teachingpractices from a story centred on expectations ofclosure, and incorporating pictures into text runs contraryto discourse based on words.

Mathematics

There is much reported research into the uses of ICT inmathematics teaching at both primary and secondarylevels. Some large-scale studies involve investigating theeffects of a range of ICT environments, and others focuson specific uses of ICT. There is clear evidence of thepositive effects of ICT being associated, in many cases,with the particular pedagogies of the teacher and alsowith the relevance of the ICT activity to the curriculum.

Primary mathematicsThe research evidence shows that, in order to integrateICT into their mathematics teaching, it is necessary forteachers to have a substantial understanding of ICTresources and familiarity with a range of applications.Effective uses of ICT should enable pupils to focus onreasoning rather than on answers, and enable them todevelop significant mathematical strategies and connectmathematical ideas with the real world.

15

6 Talking books are designed to be read on a computer, with a combination of features such as text, photographs, drawings, animations, sound effects

and video, and often the option of having the computer read out the text for the user. They are usually stored on CD-ROM.7 Hypertext documents are usually presented by a computer, and contain a web of links to separate but related texts. They express the non-linear

structure of ideas.

When teachers use ICT in ways which challenge pupilsthinking and engage them in investigations, pupilsdemonstrate a higher order of mathematical reasoning andincreased attention than when teachers adopt atransmission view of teaching (where knowledge istransmitted directly from teacher to pupil). For example,Connell (1998) concludes that technology should be usedas a tool for pupils to create their own personally meaningfulrepresentations. The presence of the computer alone as adelivery system of static expert representations does notguarantee, and indeed may inhibit, the development of suchpupil representations. For more details of this study see thesection on mathematics in secondary teaching (p.17).

Large-scale projectsTopics within the first ImpacT study (Cox, 1993) includedthe use of ICT and mathematics in primary schools. Theresults did show a positive effect for the use of ICT inmathematics in the 810 age range (see also Johnson etal., 1994). The conclusions on pedagogy were thateffective use of IT required substantial demands in termsof (teachers) knowledge and understanding of, andfamiliarisation with, a variety of software in order tointegrate the activity, in philosophical and pedagogicalterms, with a larger scheme of work. (ibid., p. 3.)

Another large study involving over 2,000 middle schoolpupils (Waxman and Huang, 1996) examined whether thedegree of implementation of technology in mathematicsclasses affected outcomes such as changes in classroomorganisation and interaction, the selection of activities, andpupils on- and off-task behaviour. The results indicated thatthere were significant differences in instruction in theclassroom depending on the amount of technology used.Whole-class approaches, where pupils generally listened toor watched the teacher, tended to be used in classroomswhere technology was not often used, whereas inclassrooms where technology was used moderately theretended to be much less whole-class instruction and moreindependent work. This study suggests that the use oftechnology may help to change teaching from a traditionalteacher-centred approach to one that is more pupil centred.In addition, pupils in classrooms where technology wasused moderately were found to be significantly more ontask than pupils in classrooms with less use.

Topic-specific ICT in small studiesMuch of the research literature is based on small-scalestudies of children in a narrow learning context, and itgenerally shows that the use of ICT produces someimprovement in pupils performance for a limited set oftasks. As the review by Hennessy and Dunham (2002)points out, studies involving contrasting control andexperimental groups are fraught with difficulties becausecomplex factors arising (particularly teachers behavioursand pedagogy) are rarely accounted for; faircomparisons using test scores alone are almostimpossible. Further, ICT itself can play an important rolein shaping the mathematical activity being studied.

In a meta-analysis8

of many focused studies, Clements(2000) describes the unique contribution of computers toproblem- and project-oriented pedagogical approaches.His research showed that pupils collaborative activitiesresulted in enhanced achievement. An increase in pupilscollaboration resulted in deep conception, and thepupils seeing learning as dependent on thinking andunderstanding. Control groups possessed shallowconceptions of learning, seeing it as a matter of payingattention, doing assigned work, and memorising.However, such results could be independent of ICT usesince the effectiveness of computer software is likely tobe dependent on the pedagogical context within which itis used (Hoyles, 2001).

Another convincing experiment, but with a very smallsample (McFarlane et al., 1995), introduced line graphsto 8-year-old children, using data logging. Children whohad been exposed to data logging showed an increasedability to read, interpret and sketch line graphs whencompared to children using traditional apparatus. Theresults suggested that the manual plotting of points as afirst introduction to graphs interfered with understanding.

Programming and microworldsOne of the most widely researched areas of ICT inmathematics is programming and using microworlds.

9

Many studies using the programming language Logowith primary school children have been reported. The useof Logo has been shown to improve childrens estimationof distance (Campbell et al., 1991) and improve their

16

ICT and pedagogy

8 A meta-analysis is a study which aggregates the findings from many other studies.

9 Microworld is a term coined at the MIT Media Lab Learning and Common Sense Group. It means a tiny world inside which a pupil can explore

alternatives, test hypotheses, and discover facts. It differs from a simulation in that the student is encouraged to think about it as a real world.

ability to create accurate sets of instructions to plot apath through a maze (Johnson and Kane, 1992).

In a meta-analysis, Clements (2000) described a numberof ways in which the appropriate use of Logoprogramming has been shown to help pupils. Theseinclude the development of higher levels of mathematicaland especially geometric thinking, and problem-solvingskills (Au and Leung, 1991), and enhanced socialinteraction (Yelland, 2003).

In a study of primary school pupils using Logo, Copeand Walsh (1990) found that pupils who spent a longtime programming became more accustomed tosustained intellectual activity, which had positive benefitsfor their work in other areas of the curriculum. However,some problems may arise if too little time is spentensuring that pupils have sufficient prior mathematicalknowledge (Cope et al., 1992).

There is some debate regarding Logo as to how muchlearning by autonomous discovery should be expected ofpupils (Hoyles and Noss, 1992). There is a need toprovide a tight framework within which pupil autonomyand mathematical expression can take place, and for theteacher to bridge the differences between Logoenvironments and school mathematics.

Results from one study pointed out that Logo may fostercognitive growth, in part by engendering effectivemotivation, because success is determined internallywithin the Logo environment (Nastasi and Clements, 1994),though pupils may still seek external approval. Whenlearning about variables in a Logo environment, there is aneed for the teacher to be aware of, and be explicit about,using a Vygotskian approach (encouraging pupils to co-operate), since such concepts cannot be taught directly(Sutherland, 1993). Other findings have supported theefficacy of Logo as a medium conducive to the teachingand learning of problem solving, but only when particularproblem-solving skills are taught explicitly (Swan, 1991).

These technologies have also been shown to supportcollaborative learning. Xin (1999) examined the effects ofcomputer-assisted co-operative learning in the USA 3rd-grade mathematics instruction within integratedclassrooms for pupils with and without disabilities, andfound that the co-operative learning group hadstatistically higher achievement than did the whole-classlearning group. Similarly, an Australian study (Yelland,2002) of 28 year 2 children who worked in pairs on tasks

in a microworld embedded in a mathematics topicreported that the children engaged in activities with ahigh level of concentration and found them bothchallenging and fun to complete.

Internet useThere is little research into the effects of internet use onteachers pedagogies and pupils attainment inmathematics at primary level, although there are earlysuggestions that websites dedicated to mathematicscould encourage more effective teaching (Jones andSimons, 1999). More data specific to the pedagogy ofteaching primary mathematics when using such websitesis needed. New research should examine both thepupils and teachers use of such a resource for bothteaching and learning, and its effectiveness in positivelyaffecting learning outcomes.

Secondary mathematicsThere have been both large-scale projects and meta-analyses which provide evidence of a positive effect ofICT use on secondary school pupils attainment. An earlylarge-scale project conducted in the USA (EducationalTechnology Centre Harvard Graduate School ofEducation, 1990) involved studying the uses of computersand other technologies to improve instruction inmathematics, science and computing, in the context ofteaching for understanding. This study identified the needto take account of pupils prior conceptions, link multiplerepresentations, extend the range of manipulatableobjects, and use software to reveal pupils thinking.

Moseley et al. (1999) identified that a key feature of moreeffective teachers was their use of explanations. Theresearchers emphasised the importance of taking intoaccount teachers preferences and beliefs about teachingas well as their attitude to ICT. Teachers need to matchpedagogy with the intended learning outcomes of anactivity. However, Brown et al. (2001) failed to identify anyfactors relating to pedagogical practices which might havesignificant effects on pupils attainment. Although thisresearch cast doubt on claims that teachers effectivenesscan be rigorously assessed by observation in the

classroom, the study team did identify many behavioursthat they felt most reliably distinguished effective teachers.These included challenging pupils to think mathematically,ensuring a consistency between task and objectives, usinga range of modes of expression, and focusing onreasoning rather than answers. 17

Ruthven and Hennessy (2002) analysed the pedagogicalideas underpinning teachers accounts of the successfuluse of computer-based tools and resources to supportthe teaching and learning of mathematics. Mathematicsteachers as a group were found to be relatively stronglyoriented towards a transmission view of teaching asopposed to a constructivist one (where pupils learning isbased on them reconstructing and adding to their existingknowledge), but the use of ICT did help to developpedagogy: As well as serving as a lever through whichteachers seek to make established practice moreeffective, technology appears also to act as a fulcrum forsome degree of reorientation of practice and a measureddevelopment of teachers pedagogical thinking. (Ruthvenand Hennessy, 2002, p. 85.)

Similarly, Goos et al. (2003) in a three-year project inAustralia found that teachers own pedagogical beliefsand values play an important part in influencing thelearning opportunities provided by ICT. This is truewhether ICT is being used to reinforce existing teachingapproaches or as a catalyst which will change the wayteachers and students interact with each other and withthe tasks. In particular, it was found to be the way inwhich the teacher orchestrates pupils interaction with thetask, the technology and their peers which was crucial topupils success (in this case in finding a solution to acubic equation). The researchers suggest four roles fortechnology in relation to such teaching and learninginteractions: master, servant, partner, and extensionof self. Their report highlights the vital role of the teacherin moving pupils towards more thoughtful and powerfulways of working with technology.

The vital role of the teacher is echoed by Glover andMiller (2001), in a smaller study exploring the impact onteaching of the use of interactive whiteboards in onecomprehensive secondary school. Such technology islikely to have limited impact where teachers fail toappreciate that interactivity requires a new approachto pedagogy.

Hennessy (2000), working with graphing software onpalmtop computers, observed that the main gains werein the motivation of the pupils. Graph plotting becamesimple, giving the teacher more time for other, more

interesting learning activities. However, the teachers didnot find any greater benefit from using the spreadsheetsoftware on the palmtops compared with using it on thedesktops already available to them.

Connell (1998) investigated the potential roles whichtechnology might play in enhancing a constructivistapproach. He observed two classes from the same schoolin a rural area over a one-year period. Both classes weretaught by teachers who agreed to implement technologywithin their lessons in markedly different fashions. Oneclass adopted a constructivist approach and utilised thecomputer as a tool for pupils for mathematics exploration,the other as a presentation tool, more in line with abehaviourist

10approach. By the end of the research

period, both classes had shown a significant improvementin achievement, and easily surpassed both regional andlocal achievement goals. The pupils in the class where theuse of technology was consciously aligned with theguiding constructivist philosophy showed a marked andconsistent increase in performance.

In a summary of research on dynamic geometrysystems,

11Jones (2002) reports that interacting with

DGS can help students to explore, conjecture, constructand explain geometrical relationships. It can evenprovide them with the basis from which to builddeductive proofs. Overall, this research has found thatdiscussions and group work in the classroom areimportant components. Also that the teacher plays avery important role in guiding students to theoreticalthinking. (ibid., p. 20.)

The use of computers to support constructivist pedagogywas shown to be effective by Dreyfus and Halevi (1991)also. They showed that the use of computer programs toprovide an open learning environment allowed pupils toexplore within a framework, and, given that the teacherwas working as a guide, even weak students were ableto deal in depth with a difficult topic. Alternatively, Hoylesand Noss (1992), as a result of their studies in Logo-based microworlds, suggested that teachers restrict thesoftware environment within which pupils may exploreand within which pupil autonomy and mathematicalexpression may take place.

18

ICT and pedagogy

10 The behaviourist approach studies observed behavioural responses of humans and animals. The approach is based on the belief that we learn to

behave in response to our environment, either by stimulusresponse association, or as a result of reinforcement.11

Dynamic geometry systems are software packages which allow users to create shapes and mathematical models and then explore their properties.

Science

The most extensive uses of ICT in education have been inscience at both primary and secondary levels. This can beseen through different types of ICT environments such assimulations and modelling, as discussed below.

Primary science

SimulationsFor practical reasons, it is not possible to study certainscientific processes first hand in the primary classroom.ICT provides opportunities for pupils to exploresimulations of these processes in the classroom, wherepreviously they would have needed to travel to a sciencecentre or museum. A body of researchers haveinvestigated the extent to which ICT-based simulationscan substitute for advanced experiments or experiencesin a museum or science centre.

For example, Baxter and Preece (2000) found that thelearning of 48 pupils in years 5 and 6 (9- and 10-year-olds) when they were taught with the aid of computerplanetaria was equally effective as teaching with domeplanetaria. Pupils worked in pairs at a computer, usingplanetarium software.

ModellingAnother important aspect of ICT in science at both primaryand secondary levels is modelling, in which pupils buildtheir own models by identifying relevant factors andvariables and hypothesising relationships. Most of theresearch in this area focuses on learning and attainment,but large projects such as the London Mental Modelsproject (Mellar et al., 1994) have also studied the role of theteacher in the classroom when pupils are building scientificmodels. This study and others have shown that althoughprimary school pupils could investigate existing models andhypothesise relationships, it was more difficult for them tobuild their own model without the guidance and support ofthe teacher. They tended to build very basic models, andcould not decide on strategies for further work without beingtold about the goals which they were trying to achieve.

Jarvis et al. (1997), for instance, evaluated the effect ofcollaboration by email on the quality of 10- to 11-year-oldpupils investigative skills in science in six rural primaryschools. Although the children demonstrated a variety ofscientific skills, in particular observing and recording, anddeveloped some general computer skills, there was noindication that the use of email enhanced their learning in

science. The influence of the teacher was recognised as acrucial element. When teachers provided limited supervisionand guidance there were often periods of unproductiveactivity. Teachers with more confidence in science tended tomonitor activities more closely and intervene more, as aresult of which pupils extended their scientific skills.

Secondary science

SimulationsThe evidence from experimental studies shows thatvarious aspects of achievement can be improved byintegrating simulations into topics that pupils findconceptually difficult. The activities set by the teacherinvolving simulations are often problem solving andenquiry tasks, in which pupils interact with each other aswell as with the teacher. Although these studies rarelyconsider pedagogy in detail, they do suggest that thecollaboration between pupils was an outcome that wasencouraged, but not specifically designed, by theteachers, and that the collaboration is one of the factorsthat leads to improved attainment.

Computer simulations of experiments are often used inshort episodes in existing curricula. For example,Huppert et al. (1998) conducted an experimental study ofthe effect of using computer simulations on 10th-gradepupils (year 11 in the UK) ability to apply theirknowledge to the growth curve of micro-organisms. Theuse of simulations allowed the pupils to carry outinvestigations more quickly and focus on analysing theresults and hypothesising. The structure of the coursehelped to create a collaborative learning atmosphere,with pupils comparing results and exchanging ideas.These aspects resulted in gains in cognitive learning.

Tao and Gunstone (1999) investigated the use ofcomputer simulations integrated into 10 weeks of physicsinstruction for one class in an Australian high school. Thesimulations were specifically developed to confront pupilsalternative conceptions in mechanics. The classroomstudy investigated whether and how collaborative learningusing computers fosters conceptual change. Theprograms provided the pupils with many opportunities forthe co-construction of knowledge. During the process,pupils complemented and built on each others ideas andincrementally reached shared understandings. Theirinteractions led to conceptual change. Although this studydid not directly address the role of the teacher, it doessuggest the desirability of providing opportunities forcollaborative learning.

19

Another type of subject-specific software that has beenused frequently in studies is software providing simulationsor animations of processes that permits pupils to visualiseand investigate phenomena that cannot easily beobserved. An example in chemistry relates to the spatialand temporal (dynamic) properties of molecules and howthey fit together, an aspect which is often neglected inteaching. Draper (1998) refers to work by Tasker, who hasdeveloped extensive animations accurately simulatingthese properties of molecules. This is described as a rareexample of a deep pedagogical motivation for usingsimulation and animation, and pilot trials suggested thatthis approach is very powerful in stimulating learners tomake new and important connections between fragmentsof their existing knowledge.

Dori and Barak (2001) used a combination of physicaland virtual modelling to support the development ofconceptual understanding. They conducted anexperimental study with 276 pupils from nine highschools in Haifa and the northern part of Israel using anew teaching method that combined physical and virtualthree-dimensional molecular models. The pupils in theexperimental group gained a better understanding of theconcepts illustrated by the model and were morecapable of defining and implementing new concepts.They were more capable of mentally traversing acrossfour levels of understanding in chemistry: symbol,macroscopic, microscopic and process. Students in theexperimental group were more capable of applyingtransformation from two-dimensional representations ofmolecules, provided by either a symbolic or a structuralformula, to three-dimensional representations, to adrawing of a model, and of applying reversetransformations. The researchers found that the enquiry-based learning tasks encouraged understanding oforganic compounds and provided pupils with tools forexplaining their answers.

Howe and Tolmie (1998) describe the use of the speciallydeveloped software to help collaborating pupils testhypotheses (relating to water pressure and shadows), anactivity thought to be relevant to conceptual learning. Thesoftware was used by 9- to 14-year-old pupils, and theiractivity compared with that of similarly aged pupils whoworked with otherwise equivalent software, but whichlacked prompts regarding the extent to which inputs frompupils were inappropriate. The findings support the valueof the prompting, which has implications not only for theuse of hypothesis testing as an instructional strategy, but

also for the design of computer-based support for othercomplex and co-ordinated activities.

Producing multimedia and videoMichel et al. (1999) suggest that allowing pupils to makevideo clips can develop their powers of observation andopen new perspectives for their understanding ofscientific concepts. This is because pupils need to thinkabout exactly what should be recorded in order to explaina concept. This type of enquiry-based teaching involvespupils in deciding which problems to investigate,searching for alternative solutions, collecting andtabulating data, reporting conclusions, and suggestingnew related problems for further investigation. Thetechnology also gives teachers the flexibility todemonstrate scientific concepts through a method otherthan a live demonstration. In one example from this study,a high school biology teacher produced a CD-ROM ofshort clips digitised from tapes made by pupils during along-term experiment to grow various plants. The pupilslater incorporated the clips into scientific presentations.

Reid et al. (2002), in an evaluation of a pilot study ofdigital video in 50 schools in the UK, reported thatteachers found that filming and editing a video aboutforces helped pupils to assimilate scientific conceptsmore effectively, quickly and substantially than wouldhave been achieved with handouts or textbooks.

Real-time graphing Barton (1997), in a review of research on data logging,concluded that the main benefit is the time saving, butsuggests that the important factors of interaction with peersand intervention by the teacher need further research.

Linn and Hsi (2000) found that pupils are much better atinterpreting the findings of their experiments when theyuse real-time data collection than when they useconventional techniques for graphing their data, and thatthis greater understanding is carried over to topics wherethey have not collected the data.

Distance education McKinnon and Nolan (2000) describe a distinction courseon cosmology for secondary-aged gifted and talentedpupils in which a learning community supported by ICTlargely replaced the traditional role of the teacher. Instead,the course co-ordinator and astronomers acted as learningfacilitators, mentors and discussion partners. This allowedpupils to manage their own learning, with the necessary20

ICT and pedagogy

support, and to achieve results that were personallysatisfying. Achievements in this context are very muchindividual, but this course did result in pupils achievingwork of a very high standard.

A teacher-based case study (Poland et al., 2003) involvingthe use of a virtual field station for the teaching of an A-level biology topic (about Mediterranean sea turtles)showed that this was an effective substitute for a real fieldstudy, in terms of the development of pupils knowledgeand their understanding for examination purposes.

Long-term small-scale innovationsLong-term small-scale studies provide much betteropportunities for examining the complex issues of therole of the teacher and interactions in the classroom,both between pupils and between teachers and pupils.For example, the Computer as Learning Partner (CLP)collaboration at the University of California (Linn and Hsi,2000) was a longitudinal study involving the developmentof a curriculum and associated pedagogy for a semester-long science course that aimed to integrate theappropriate use of ICT. It is one of the few studies wherethe use of ICT was planned into a new curriculum andthe process and outcomes were researched. The projectencouraged pupils to explore many different ideas aboutany given science topic, while helping them combine andrestructure these ideas so they formed a coherent andcomprehensive perspective on the problem. The designof the CLP curriculum focused on guiding the process ofconnecting, linking and reorganising, so that pupils couldconcentrate on thinking about their experiences inproductive ways. Following a whole-class discussion,pupils engaged in real-time data collection or simulatedinvestigations, then were asked to share results andcome to some consensus on principles and theirrelationship to real-life experiences. Adding simulationsto the curriculum helped pupils to integrate theirunderstanding and apply their ideas to a broader rangeof problems. The software used in the study freed theteacher from answering basic organisational questionsand provided time for the teacher to probe pupilsunderstanding. It also provided scaffolding for pupils towrite their own principles based on their experimentalresults, and included a range of different types ofvisualisation of various processes.

Other long-term studies of the implementation oftechnology in secondary science classrooms areassociated with the Technology-Enhanced Secondary

Science Instruction (TESSI) project (Pedretti et al., 1998;Mayer-Smith et al., 2000). The technology employed in theproject (simulations, multimedia, microcomputer-basedlaboratories) was intended to enhance the instruction doneby the teacher, rather than replace it, so tutorial-typeapplications were excluded. Typically, several differentactivities were in progress simultaneously. Pupils couldchoose to work individually, in pairs or in small groups. Theresearchers reported that the pupils had a strong sense ofpurpose and immediate engagement with lessons.

Other research has also reported increased engagement.Smith (2002) describes how the use of linked web pagesto construct identification keys with year 8 pupils (ages1213) made the topic of taxonomy interesting, whereasit is often seen as boring and outdated. The web-basednature of the keys enabled them to be exchanged via anetwork. Pupils developed transferable ICT skills as wellas observation skills and an understanding ofclassification and biodiversity.

Humanities

Primary humanitiesWe did not find any research reports of the effects of ICT onteachers pedagogies in humanities at primary school level,although there are implications that can be drawn fromresearch studies with secondary school pupils.

Secondary humanitiesHennessy et al. (2003) investigated teachers and pupilschanging roles and strategies when using various forms ofcomputer-based ICT in secondary school English, history,geography, science, technology and classics lessons. Onehundred and fifteen teacher researchers participated inthis collaborative programme of classroom-based projectsinvolving the development, trialling and refinement of newpedagogical approaches, strategies and activities in thesix curriculum areas. The use of ICT was associated with adecrease in direction by, and exposition from, the teacher,and a corresponding increase in self-regulation and

collaboration between pupils. As a result of these changesin classroom practice, teachers felt that they needed toemploy proactive and responsive strategies in order tosupport and guide learning, structure activities morecarefully and maintain a focus on the subject, monitorprogress, and encourage reflection and analysis.

Copeland (1991) suggests that the use of computersmight be beneficial to the success of historical enquiry 21

teaching. Seven teachers, teaching 20 classes ofsecondary school students, were involved in the study.Software enabled teachers to teach in a way they wouldnot otherwise, but this did depend on the teacherscarrying out sufficient preparation.

The use of multimedia learning environments insecondary school geography teaching has been shownto bolster interactions in the classroom (Smeets andMooij, 1999). Pupils were randomly allocated to anexperimental group using multimedia learningenvironments, and a control group using traditionalmethods. Although no differences were found in gains,the results showed a significant increase in interactionsbetween the teacher and pupils and between pupilsduring lessons involving the multimedia learningenvironment compared to traditional lessons.

Beishuizen (1992) in a study of two secondary schoolclasses of 20 and 18 pupils showed that simulations canaid the retention of facts and concepts. Simulations wereused in geography teaching to model the relationshipsbetween erosion and agriculture in a developing country.The researcher suggests that for this study the pupilswere not ready to explore the simulation environment in asystematic way, and that more training was needed forboth the teacher and pupils for them to take fulladvantage of the simulation environment.

Research conducted by the first ImpacT project (Watson,1993) reaffirmed that outcomes where ICT is used ingeography depend on the teachers aims and objectivesand their skill in ensuring these are met. The use ofsimulations was, however, found to enable pupils to developa high degree of empathy with the topic under study.

A more recent study into the use, in geography teaching, ofvideo conferencing between pupils in a network of schoolsshowed it was a valuable way of developing communicationand social skills, and of overcoming the relative isolation ofpupils in special needs schools (Thorpe, 1998).

The evidence presented here for the use of ICT inhumanities teaching supports the evidence described inearlier sections of the importance of the role of theteacher in the success or otherwise of using ICT toenhance the subject. The use of simulations and othermultimedia environments has also changed the roles ofthe teacher and learner, with increased interactionsbetween teacher and pupil promoted by the dynamicinteraction between pupils and computers.

ICT

Primary ICT

A review of the literature reveals that there is littleresearch into either pedagogy for ICT as a subject or intothe process through which skills and understanding inICT develop in children (Webb, 2002). Wood (2001)argues that greater knowledge and understanding of ICTprocesses are required in addition to skills if pupils are tomake effective use of ICT, but many teachers appear toassume that no input is required from teachers duringlessons, and that pupils will learn from the computer orfrom each other.

Webb (2003) suggests that two key elements of thecontent understanding required for ICT-based problemsolving (a key aspect of ICT) are: the concepts andtechniques of representing data, knowledge andprocesses; and the capabilities of types of softwareapplication. These may be best addressed bypedagogies based on the theory of Anderson et al.(1995) and on the minimalism theory of Carroll (1998).These pedagogies need to be developed by teachers,and are likely to incorporate carefully designed practicaltasks with appropriate scaffolding, as well as techniquesto develop understanding. Just as in mathematics andscience, where children are expected to develop theirunderstanding of concepts as well as their numeracy andability to conduct experiments, so in ICT children need todevelop their understanding of ICT systems andprocesses as well as the skills to use ICT.

Studies of existing practice suggest, however, that muchdevelopmental work is still to be done. A report on astudy of 267 primary school children (years 2 and 6) infive schools in south and mid Wales (Selwyn and Bullon,2000) showed that although the majority of children weremaking some use of computers in school, few childrenengaged in sustained periods of ICT use or used manydifferent applications.

Mumtaz and Hammond (2002) observed nine teachersgiving lessons to Key Stage 2 children in five primaryschools and found that work with word processors waslargely individualised and for presentational purposes(mainly entering texts previously written by hand), andthat there was little intervention by teachers.

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ICT and pedagogy

Secondary ICTCope and Walsh (1990) conducted a review of researchon the teaching of programming, and noted that thedevelopment of programming skills requires a muchlarger time commitment than is often allocated.Computer-based modelling has been found to offer greatpotential for the development of causal, spatial andcommon-sense reasoning (Mellar et al., 1994). Theseresearchers investigated the uses of both qualitative andquantitative modelling with secondary school pupils usingdifferent modelling environments. The acceptance andintegration into routine classroom practice of themodelling approach adopted by the project depended onthe extent to which the teacher agreed with the ideology.

ICT in other subjects

There are research studies reported in the literature aboutthe effects of ICT on the teaching of art, physical educationand religious education, but they are very few and providelittle new evidence about the effects of ICT use on teacherspedagogies. There is a need for more research in theseareas, especially because of the specialised nature of artand physical education.

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Section 3 Emerging themesFrom the theories and the literature review discussed inthe previous sections it is possible to identify a number ofemerging themes relating to teachers pedagogies and theuse of ICT.

Collaborative learning

The previous section discussed many research studieswhich point to the role of ICT in supporting collaborativelearning. Crook (1998), in his review of research oncollaborative learning in primary schools