6.1

Dr. Honghui DengDr. Honghui Deng

Assistant ProfessorAssistant Professor

MIS DepartmentMIS Department

UNLVUNLV

MIS 370 System Analysis Theory

6.2

Chapter 6Chapter 6

REQUIREMENTS DISCOVERYREQUIREMENTS DISCOVERY

MIS 370 System Analysis Theory

6.3

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• Define system requirements and differentiate between Define system requirements and differentiate between functional and nonfunctional requirements. functional and nonfunctional requirements.

• Understand the activity of problem analysis and be Understand the activity of problem analysis and be able to create an Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram. able to create an Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram.

• Understand the concept of requirements management. Understand the concept of requirements management. • Identify and characterize seven fact-finding techniques.Identify and characterize seven fact-finding techniques.• Understand six guidelines for effective listening. Understand six guidelines for effective listening. • Understand body language and proxemics. Understand body language and proxemics. • Characterize the typical participants in a JRP session. Characterize the typical participants in a JRP session. • Complete the planning process for a JRP session. Complete the planning process for a JRP session. • Describe benefits of JRP as fact-finding technique. Describe benefits of JRP as fact-finding technique. • Describe a fact-finding strategy that will make the most Describe a fact-finding strategy that will make the most

of your time with end-users.of your time with end-users.

6.4

Requirements DiscoveryRequirements Discovery

• Requirements discoveryRequirements discovery – the process and – the process and techniques used by systems analysts to techniques used by systems analysts to identify or extract system problems and identify or extract system problems and solution requirements from the user solution requirements from the user community. community.

• System requirementSystem requirement – something that the – something that the information system must do or a property information system must do or a property that it must have. Also called a that it must have. Also called a business business requirementrequirement..– Functional & nonfunctional requirement

6.5

Results of Incorrect RequirementsResults of Incorrect Requirements

• The system may cost more than projected.The system may cost more than projected.• The system may be delivered later than The system may be delivered later than

promised.promised.• The system may not meet the users’ The system may not meet the users’

expectations and they may not to use it.expectations and they may not to use it.• Once in production, costs of maintaining and Once in production, costs of maintaining and

enhancing system may be excessively high.enhancing system may be excessively high.• The system may be unreliable and prone to The system may be unreliable and prone to

errors and downtime.errors and downtime.• Reputation of IT staff is tarnished as failure Reputation of IT staff is tarnished as failure

will be perceived as a mistake by the team.will be perceived as a mistake by the team.

6.6

Relative Cost to Fix an ErrorRelative Cost to Fix an Error

6.7

Criteria to Define RequirementsCriteria to Define Requirements

• ConsistentConsistent – requirements are not conflicting or – requirements are not conflicting or ambiguous.ambiguous.

• CompleteComplete – requirements describe all possible system – requirements describe all possible system inputs and responses.inputs and responses.

• FeasibleFeasible – requirements can be satisfied based on the – requirements can be satisfied based on the available resources and constraints.available resources and constraints.

• RequiredRequired – requirements are truly needed and fulfill the – requirements are truly needed and fulfill the purpose of the system.purpose of the system.

• AccurateAccurate – requirements are stated correctly. – requirements are stated correctly.• TraceableTraceable – requirements directly map to the functions – requirements directly map to the functions

and features of the system.and features of the system.• VerifiableVerifiable – requirements are defined so they can be – requirements are defined so they can be

demonstrated during testing.demonstrated during testing.

6.8

Requirements Discovery ProcessRequirements Discovery Process

• Problem discovery and analysis Problem discovery and analysis

• Requirements discovery Requirements discovery

• Documenting and analyzing Documenting and analyzing requirements requirements

• Requirements managementRequirements management

6.9

Ishikawa DiagramIshikawa Diagram

• The Ishikawa diagram is a graphical tool used to The Ishikawa diagram is a graphical tool used to identify, explore, and depict problems and the causes identify, explore, and depict problems and the causes and effects of those problems. It is often referred to as a and effects of those problems. It is often referred to as a cause-and-effect diagram or a fishbone diagram.cause-and-effect diagram or a fishbone diagram.

6.10

Fact-findingFact-finding

• The formal process of using research, meetings, interviews, The formal process of using research, meetings, interviews, questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect information about system problems, requirements, and preferences. information about system problems, requirements, and preferences. It is also called It is also called information gatheringinformation gathering or or data collectiondata collection..

• Fact-Finding often brings systems analysts into contact with Fact-Finding often brings systems analysts into contact with sensitive information.sensitive information.– Company plans– Employee salaries or medical history– Customer credit card, social security, or other information

• Ethical behavior includes:Ethical behavior includes:– Systems analysts must not misuse that information– Systems analysts must protect that information from people who would misuse it

• Otherwise:Otherwise:– Systems analyst loses respect, credibility, and confidence of users and

management, impairing ability to do job– Organization and systems analyst could have legal liability– Systems analyst could lose job

6.11

Documenting and Analyzing RequirementsDocumenting and Analyzing Requirements

• Documenting the draft requirementsDocumenting the draft requirements– Use cases– Decision tables– Requirements tables

• Analyzing requirements to resolve problemsAnalyzing requirements to resolve problems– Missing requirements– Conflicting requirements– Infeasible requirements– Overlapping requirements– Ambiguous requirements

• Formalizing requirementsFormalizing requirements– Requirements definition document– Communicated to stakeholders or steering body

• Requirements Definition Document – A formal Requirements Definition Document – A formal document that communicates the requirements of a document that communicates the requirements of a proposed system to key stakeholders and serves as proposed system to key stakeholders and serves as a contract for the systems project.a contract for the systems project.

6.12

Sample Requirements Definition OutlineSample Requirements Definition Outline

6.13

Requirements ManagementRequirements Management

• The process of managing change to The process of managing change to the requirements. the requirements. – Over the lifetime of the project it is very

common for new requirements to emerge and existing requirements to change.

– Studies have shown that over the life of a project as much as 50 percent or more of the requirements will change before the system is put into production.

6.14

Fact-Finding MethodsFact-Finding Methods

• Sampling of existing documentation, forms, Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and databases. and databases.

• Research and site visits. Research and site visits. • Observation of the work environment. Observation of the work environment. • Questionnaires. Questionnaires. • Interviews. Interviews. • Prototyping. Prototyping. • Joint requirements planning (JRP).Joint requirements planning (JRP).

6.15

SamplingSampling

• SamplingSampling – the process of collecting a – the process of collecting a representative sample of documents, forms, and representative sample of documents, forms, and records. records. – Organization chart– Memos and other documents that describe the problem– Standard operating procedures for current system– Completed forms– Manual and computerized screens and reports– Samples of databases– Flowcharts and other system documentation– And more

6.16

Things to look at from DocumentsThings to look at from Documents

• Symptoms and causes of problemsSymptoms and causes of problems• Persons in organization who have Persons in organization who have

understanding of problemunderstanding of problem• Business functions that support the Business functions that support the

present systempresent system• Type of data to be collected and reported Type of data to be collected and reported

by the systemby the system• Questions that need to be covered in Questions that need to be covered in

interviewsinterviews

6.17

Sample Completed FormsSample Completed Forms

• Can determine type of data going into each Can determine type of data going into each blankblank

• Can determine size of data going into each blankCan determine size of data going into each blank• Can determine Can determine

which blanks are which blanks are

not used or notnot used or not

always usedalways used• Can see dataCan see data

relationshipsrelationships

6.18

Determining Sample Size for FormsDetermining Sample Size for Forms

• Sample Size = 0.25 x (Certainty factor/Acceptable Sample Size = 0.25 x (Certainty factor/Acceptable error) error) 22

• Sample Size = 0.25(1.645/0.10) Sample Size = 0.25(1.645/0.10) 22 = 68 = 68

• Sample Size =0.10(1 – 0.10)(1.645/0.10)Sample Size =0.10(1 – 0.10)(1.645/0.10)22 = 25 = 25

Or if analyst knows 1 in 10

varies from norm.

Certainty factor from certainty table. 10%

acceptable error.

6.19

Sampling TechniquesSampling Techniques

• RandomizationRandomization – a sampling technique – a sampling technique characterized by having no predetermined characterized by having no predetermined pattern or plan for selecting sample data. pattern or plan for selecting sample data.

• StratificationStratification – a systematic sampling – a systematic sampling technique that attempts to reduce the technique that attempts to reduce the variance of the estimates by spreading out variance of the estimates by spreading out the sampling—for example, choosing the sampling—for example, choosing documents or records by formula—and by documents or records by formula—and by avoiding very high or low estimates.avoiding very high or low estimates.

6.20

ObservationObservation

• ObservationObservation – a fact-finding technique – a fact-finding technique wherein the systems analyst either wherein the systems analyst either participates in or watches a person perform participates in or watches a person perform activities to learn about the system. activities to learn about the system. – Advantages?– Disadvantages?

• Work samplingWork sampling - a fact-finding technique that - a fact-finding technique that involves a large number of observations involves a large number of observations taken at random intervals.taken at random intervals.

6.21

ObservationObservation

• Data gathered can be Data gathered can be very reliablevery reliable

• Can see exactly what is Can see exactly what is being done in complex being done in complex taskstasks

• Relatively inexpensive Relatively inexpensive compared with other compared with other techniquestechniques

• Can do work Can do work measurementsmeasurements

• People may perform People may perform differently when being differently when being observedobserved

• Work observed may not be Work observed may not be representative of normal representative of normal conditionsconditions

• Timing can be inconvenientTiming can be inconvenient• InterruptionsInterruptions• Some tasks not always Some tasks not always

performed the same wayperformed the same way• May observe wrong way of May observe wrong way of

doing thingsdoing things

Advantages Disadvantages

6.22

Observation GuidelinesObservation Guidelines

• Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the observation.of the observation.

• Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or managers.managers.

• Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the observation.the observation.

• Keep a low profile.Keep a low profile.• Take notes during or immediately following the Take notes during or immediately following the

observation.observation.• Review observation notes with appropriate Review observation notes with appropriate

individuals.individuals.• Don't interrupt the individuals at work.Don't interrupt the individuals at work.• Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.• Don't make assumptions.Don't make assumptions.

6.23

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

• Questionnaire – a special-purpose document that Questionnaire – a special-purpose document that allows the analyst to collect information and opinions allows the analyst to collect information and opinions from respondentsfrom respondents. . – Advantages?– Disadvantages?

• Free-format questionnaireFree-format questionnaire – a questionnaire designed to – a questionnaire designed to offer the respondent greater latitude in the answer. A offer the respondent greater latitude in the answer. A question is asked, and the respondent records the question is asked, and the respondent records the answer in the space provided after the question. answer in the space provided after the question.

• Fixed-format questionnaireFixed-format questionnaire – a questionnaire containing – a questionnaire containing questions that require selecting an answer from questions that require selecting an answer from predefined available responses.predefined available responses.

6.24

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

• Often can be answered Often can be answered quicklyquickly

• People can complete at People can complete at their conveniencetheir convenience

• Relatively inexpensive Relatively inexpensive way to gather data way to gather data from a large numberfrom a large number

• Allow for anonymityAllow for anonymity• Responses can be Responses can be

tabulated quicklytabulated quickly

• Return rate is often lowReturn rate is often low• No guarantee that an No guarantee that an

individual will answer all individual will answer all questionsquestions

• No opportunity to No opportunity to reword or explain reword or explain misunderstood misunderstood questionsquestions

• Cannot observe body Cannot observe body languagelanguage

• Difficult to prepareDifficult to prepare

Advantages Disadvantages

6.25

Developing a QuestionnaireDeveloping a Questionnaire

1.1. Determine what facts and opinions must be Determine what facts and opinions must be collected and from whom you should get them. collected and from whom you should get them.

2.2. Based on the facts and opinions sought, Based on the facts and opinions sought, determine whether free- or fixed-format determine whether free- or fixed-format questions will produce the best answers. questions will produce the best answers.

3.3. Write the questions. Write the questions.

4.4. Test the questions on a small sample of Test the questions on a small sample of respondents. respondents.

5.5. Duplicate and distribute the questionnaire. Duplicate and distribute the questionnaire.

6.26

InterviewsInterviews

• InterviewInterview - a fact-finding technique whereby the - a fact-finding technique whereby the systems analysts collect information from systems analysts collect information from individuals through face-to-face interaction. individuals through face-to-face interaction. – Can be used to:

• Find factsFind facts• Verify factsVerify facts• Clarify factsClarify facts• Generate enthusiasmGenerate enthusiasm• Get the end-user involvedGet the end-user involved• Identify requirementsIdentify requirements• Solicit ideas and opinionsSolicit ideas and opinions

– Advantages?– Disadvantages?

The personal interview is generally recognized as the most important and most often used fact-finding technique.

6.27

Types of Interviews and QuestionsTypes of Interviews and Questions

• Unstructured interviewUnstructured interview – an interview that is conducted with – an interview that is conducted with only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any, only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any, specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and direct the conversation. to provide a framework and direct the conversation.

• Structured interviewStructured interview – an interview in which the interviewer – an interview in which the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee. has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee.

• Open-ended questionOpen-ended question – question that allows the interviewee to – question that allows the interviewee to respond in any way that seems appropriate. respond in any way that seems appropriate.

• Closed-ended questionClosed-ended question – a question that restricts answers to – a question that restricts answers to either specific choices or short, direct responses.either specific choices or short, direct responses.

6.28

InterviewsInterviews

• Give analyst opportunity Give analyst opportunity to motivate interviewee to to motivate interviewee to respond freely and openlyrespond freely and openly

• Allow analyst to probe for Allow analyst to probe for more feedbackmore feedback

• Permit analyst to adapt or Permit analyst to adapt or reword questions for each reword questions for each individualindividual

• Can observe nonverbal Can observe nonverbal communicationcommunication

• Time-consumingTime-consuming• Success highly Success highly

dependent on dependent on analyst's human analyst's human relations skillsrelations skills

• May be impractical May be impractical due to location of due to location of intervieweesinterviewees

Advantages Disadvantages

6.29

Procedure to Conduct an InterviewProcedure to Conduct an Interview

1.1. Select IntervieweesSelect Interviewees– End users– Learn about individual prior to the interview

2.2. Prepare for the InterviewPrepare for the Interview– An interview guide is a checklist of specific

questions the interviewer will ask the interviewee.

3.3. Conduct the InterviewConduct the Interview– Summarize the problem– Offer an incentive for participation– Ask the interviewee for assistance

4.4. Follow Up on the InterviewFollow Up on the Interview– Memo that summarizes the interview

6.30

Interview QuestionsInterview Questions

• Types of Questions to AvoidTypes of Questions to Avoid– Loaded questions– Leading questions– Biased questions

• Interview Question GuidelinesInterview Question Guidelines– Use clear and concise language. – Don’t include your opinion as part of the question. – Avoid long or complex questions. – Avoid threatening questions. – Don’t use “you” when you mean a group of people.

6.31

Conduct the InterviewConduct the Interview

• Dress to match intervieweeDress to match interviewee• Arrive on time Arrive on time

– Or early if need to confirm room setup

• Open interview by thanking intervieweeOpen interview by thanking interviewee• State purpose and length of interview State purpose and length of interview

and how data will be usedand how data will be used• Monitor the timeMonitor the time• Ask follow-up questionsAsk follow-up questions

– Probe until you understand– Ask about exception conditions ("what if...")

6.32

Interviewing Do’s and Don’tsInterviewing Do’s and Don’ts

DoDo

• Be courteousBe courteous• Listen carefullyListen carefully• Maintain controlMaintain control• ProbeProbe• Observe mannerisms and Observe mannerisms and

nonverbal communicationnonverbal communication• Be patientBe patient• Keep interviewee at easeKeep interviewee at ease• Maintain self-controlMaintain self-control

AvoidAvoid

• Continuing an interview Continuing an interview unnecessarily.unnecessarily.

• Assuming an answer is Assuming an answer is finished or leading nowhere.finished or leading nowhere.

• Revealing verbal and Revealing verbal and nonverbal clues.nonverbal clues.

• Using jargonUsing jargon• Revealing your personal Revealing your personal

biases.biases.• Talking instead of listening.Talking instead of listening.• Assuming anything about the Assuming anything about the

topic and the interviewee.topic and the interviewee.• Tape recording -- a sign of Tape recording -- a sign of

poor listening skills.poor listening skills.

6.33

Communicating With the UserCommunicating With the User

• Guidelines for CommunicatingGuidelines for Communicating– Approach the Session with a Positive

Attitude – Set the Other Person at Ease – Let Them Know You Are Listening – Ask Questions – Don’t Assume Anything – Take Notes

6.34

Body Language and ProxemicsBody Language and Proxemics

• Body languageBody language – the nonverbal – the nonverbal information we communicate. information we communicate. – Facial disclosure– Eye contact– Posture

• ProxemicsProxemics – the relationship between – the relationship between people and the space around them. people and the space around them. – Intimate zone—closer than 1.5 feet– Personal zone—from 1.5 feet to 4 feet– Social zone—from 4 feet to 12 feet– Public zone—beyond 12 feet

6.35

Discovery PrototypingDiscovery Prototyping

• Discovery prototypingDiscovery prototyping – the act of building a – the act of building a small-scale, representative or working small-scale, representative or working model of the users’ requirements in order model of the users’ requirements in order to discover or verify those requirements. to discover or verify those requirements. – Advantages?

– Disadvantages?

6.36

Discovery PrototypingDiscovery Prototyping

• Can experiment to Can experiment to develop understanding develop understanding of how system might of how system might workwork

• Aids in determining Aids in determining feasibility and feasibility and usefulness of system usefulness of system before developmentbefore development

• Serves as training Serves as training mechanismmechanism

• Aids in building test Aids in building test plans and scenariosplans and scenarios

• May minimize time spent May minimize time spent on fact-findingon fact-finding

• Developers may need Developers may need to be trained in to be trained in prototypingprototyping

• Users may develop Users may develop unrealistic unrealistic expectationsexpectations

• Could extend Could extend development development scheduleschedule

Advantages Disadvantages

6.37

Joint Requirements PlanningJoint Requirements Planning

• Joint requirements planning (JRP)Joint requirements planning (JRP) – a – a process whereby highly structured process whereby highly structured group meetings are conducted for the group meetings are conducted for the purpose of analyzing problems and purpose of analyzing problems and defining requirements. defining requirements. – JRP is a subset of a more comprehensive

joint application development or JAD technique that encompasses the entire systems development process.

6.38

Benefits of JRPBenefits of JRP

• JRP actively involves users and JRP actively involves users and management in the development project management in the development project (encouraging them to take “ownership” in (encouraging them to take “ownership” in the project).the project).

• JRP reduces the amount of time required to JRP reduces the amount of time required to develop systems.develop systems.

• When JRP incorporates prototyping as a When JRP incorporates prototyping as a means for confirming requirements and means for confirming requirements and obtaining design approvals, the benefits of obtaining design approvals, the benefits of prototyping are realizedprototyping are realized

6.39

Fact-Finding StrategyFact-Finding Strategy

1.1. Learn from existing documents, forms, reports, Learn from existing documents, forms, reports, and files.and files.

2.2. If appropriate, observe the system in action.If appropriate, observe the system in action.3.3. Given all the facts that already collected, design Given all the facts that already collected, design

and distribute questionnaires to clear up things and distribute questionnaires to clear up things that aren’t fully understood.that aren’t fully understood.

4.4. Conduct interviews (or group work sessions).Conduct interviews (or group work sessions).5.5. (Optional). Build discovery prototypes for any (Optional). Build discovery prototypes for any

functional requirements that are not understood functional requirements that are not understood or for requirements that need to be validated.or for requirements that need to be validated.

6.6. Follow up to verify facts.Follow up to verify facts.