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Physical SciencesChemistry Grade 10
Textbook and Workbook
Santie du Plessis • Carlien Fanoy Marga Koelman • Patricia Lees-Rolfe
Judy McDougall • Hela RouxDoret Spykerman • Clarisa SteynSAMPLE
Doc ScientiaPosbus 7011
Ansfrere 1711
www.docscientia.co.za
For any queries and feedback: [email protected]
Jacques Fanoy or Stephan FanoyOffice: 011 472 8728
Fax: 086 546 1423
ISBN: 978-1-920537-13-5
First edition December 2009Second edition December 2010
Third edition December 2011Revised edition December 2012; 2013; 2014; 2015
Graphic design: Helene Jonck
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means –
mechanical or electronic, including recordings or tape recordings and photocopying – without the prior permission of the publisher.SAMPLE
Unit Page
KNOWLEDGE AREA MATTER AND MATERIALS 13
Unit 1 MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER 13
Activity 1 15
Case study: Mopani worms 16
1.1 Mixtures 17
Practical activity 1 19
1.2 Pure substances 20
Activity 2 21
Practical activity 2 22
1.3 Names and formulae of substances 23
Activity 3 28
Exercise 1 29
1.4 Properties of materials 31
Practical activity 3 32
Activity 4 34
1.4.1 Electrical conductors and insulators 35
Experiment 1 35
1.4.2 Thermal conductors and insulators 37
Experiment 2 37
1.4.3 Magnetic and non-magnetic materials 39
Experiment 3 39
Exercise 2 41
Summary of Unit1 43
Mind maps of Unit 1 44
Unit 2 STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETICMOLECULAR THEORY 45
2.1 States of matter 45
Practical activity 4 45
2.1.1 Different states 46
Practical activity 5 51
2.1.2 Determining the state of a substance by looking at melting and boiling points 51
Exercise 3 52
Experiment 4 53
2.2 The kinetic molecular theory 56
Exercise 4 57
Summary of Unit 2 60
Mind maps of Unit 2 62
Unit 3 THE ATOM: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF ALL MATTER 63
3.1 Atomic models 63
Activity 5 65
3.2 Atomic structure 66
Activity 6 68
3.3 Isotopes 69
Exercise 5 70
3.4 Electron configuration 73
Exercise 6 75
INDEX
SAMPLE
Summary of Unit 3 78
Mind maps of Unit 3 81
Unit 4 THE PERIODIC TABLE 83
4.1 Composition 83
4.2 Information 84
4.2.1 General information 84
4.2.2 Zigzag line 85
4.2.3 Valence electrons 85
4.2.4 Reactivity 86
4.2.5 Atomic mass and atomic number 86
4.2.6 Trends in the Periodic Table (periodicity) 87
Activity 7 89
4.2.7 Atomic radius 90
4.2.8 Ionisation energy 90
4.2.9 Electron affinity 92
4.2.10 Electronegativity 91
Activity 8 93
Exercise 7 94
Summary of Unit 4 98
Mind maps of Unit 4 101
Unit 5 CHEMICAL BONDS 103
5.1 Covalent bonds 104
Exercise 8 105
5.2 Ionic bonds 106
5.3 Metallic bonds 107
Practical activity 6 107
Exercise 9 108
Summary of Unit 5 110
Unit 6 MATTER IS COMPOSED OF PARTICLES 111
Experiment 5 112
Practical activity 7 113
6.1 Chemical bonds 114
6.1.1 Covalent bonds 114
6.1.1.1 Covalent molecular structures 114
Case study: The buckyball or buckminsterfullerene 114
6.1.1.2 Covalent network structures (macromolecules) 116
6.1.2 Ionic bonds 116
6.1.3 Metallic bonds 117
6.2 Different types of formulae 117
6.2.1 Molecular formulae 117
6.2.2 Empirical formulae 117
Practical activity 8 117
6.3 Models of molecules 118
Activity 9 119
Exercise 10 121
Summary of Unit 6 122
Mind maps of Unit 6 123
Question paper 124
KNOWLEDGE AREA CHEMICAL CHANGE 131
Unit 1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE 131
SAMPLE
1.1 Separation of particles 131
1.1.1 Physical change 131
1.1.1.1 Change of condition (state) 132
Practical activity 9 134
1.1.1.2 Change of shape 135
1.1.1.3 Colour change 136
Exercise 11 136
1.1.2 Chemical change 138
Practical activity 10 139
1.1.3 Change in particles and mass 140
Experiment 6 140
Experiment 7 (demonstration) 141
Exercise 12 143
1.2 Laws 144
1.2.1 Law of constant composition 144
Practical activity 11 145
1.2.2 Law of conservation of mass 146
1.2.3 Law of volume relationships in gas reactions 146
Practical activity 12 147
Experiment 8 148
Experiment 9 148
Exercise 13 150
Summary of Unit 1 151
Mind maps of Unit 1 153
Unit 2 WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 155
2.1 Balancing of chemical reactions 155
Exercise 14 158
2.2 Energy changes 159
Exercise 15 160
Summary of Unit 2 161
Mind maps of Unit 2 162
Unit 3 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 163
3.1 Ions in aqueous solutions 163
3.1.1 Dissociation and ionisation 164
3.1.2 Hydration 165
3.1.3 Chemical equation for the dissolution process 165
Practical activity 13 166
Case study: Hard and soft water 167
Case study: Acid rain 168
Exercise 16 170
3.2 Electrolysis and the extent of ionisation as a measure of conductivity 171
Experiment 10 172
Exercise 17 173
3.3 Precipitation reactions 174
3.3.1 What is a precipitation reaction? 174
3.3.2 Method of writing equations for the precipitate reactions
175
3.3.3 Tests for anions 175
Experiment 11 176
SAMPLE
Exercise 18 178
3.4 Other chemical reactions in aqueous solutions 181
3.4.1 Ion exchange reactions 181
A. Precipitation reactions 181
B. Gas formation 181
C. Acid base reactions (transfer of protons) 182
3.4.2 Redox reactions 184
Experiment 12 185
Exercise 19 187
Summary of Unit 3 189
Mind maps of Unit 3 191
Unit 4 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE 193
4.1 The mole concept 193
4.1.1 Atomic mass 196
4.1.2 Molar mass and formula mass 196
Exercise 20 198
4.2.1 The relationship between mole, mass and molar mass 199
4.2.2 Empirical formula 200
Exercise 21 202
4.3 Determining the composition of compounds 204
4.3.1 Determine the amount of mol water of crystallisation in copper(II)sulphate 204
4.3.2 Percentage composition of a compound 204
Exercise 22 205
4.4 Molar gas volume and concentration 206
4.4.1 Molar gas volume 206
Exercise 23 207
4.4.2 Concentration 210
Exercise 24 211
4.5 Stoichiometric calculations 212
4.5.1 Calculations based on balanced equations 212
Exercise 25 215
Summary of Unit 4 218
Mind maps of Unit 4 220
Question paper 221
KNOWLEDGE AREA CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 227
HYDROSPHERE 227
1. Why is water important? 228
2. The water cycle is necessary because... 228
3. Processes in a hydrosphere 230
4. The distribution of water 231
Exercise 26 232
5. Systems on earth 235
6. How does sunlight influence the water cycle? 237
7 The hydrosphere’s interaction with 238
SAMPLE
7.1 Atmosphere 238
7.2 Biosphere 238
7.3 Lithosphere 239
8. Influence of dams on the environment 240
Activity 10 241
Project: Quality and purity of water 242
Exercise 27 243
Summary of Knowledge Area 248
Mind maps of Knowledge Area 250
Question paper 253
Information sheets 257
Work cited 259
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Name
Teacher
Class/Combination
Assessment
Term Activity Mark Parent
Term 1 Control test
Experiment
Term 2 Class test
Experiment
Exam
Term 3 Control test
Project
Term 4 Class test
PROGRAM OF FORMAL ASSESSMENT FOR GRADE 10ASSESSMENT TASKS (25%) END-OF-YEAR
ASSESSMENT (75%)TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4
20% Experiment
10% Control test
20% Experiment
20% Mid-year Examination (1½ hours)
20% Project 10% Control test
2 × Final Examinations –Paper 1 and 2(2 × 150 marks = 300 marks)
Total: 30 marks Total: 40 marks Total: 30 marks Total: 300 marksTotal = 400 marksFinal mark = 25% Assessment tasks + 75% Final examSAMPLE
Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 13
KNOWLEDGE AREA: MATTER AND MATERIALS
Matter is everything that: has mass and occupies space.
Matter consists of three states, namely: solid, liquid and gas.All matter is made up of small particles of elements from the Periodic Table. These small particles determine the properties and reactivity of the substance.
UNIT 1 MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Macroscopic properties of matter
States of matter and the kinetic molecular theory
The atom Periodic Table
Matter is composed of particles.
Chemical bonds
Matter and materials
Mixtures
Pure substances
Names and formulae Electrical conductors and insulators
Thermal conductors and insulators
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
Properties
Macroscopic properties of matter
SAMPLE
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14 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
Matter is used to manufacture items essential to humans (food, clothes, accommodation, transport, security systems, etc.).
The properties of matter are determined by its composition.A substance is chosen for a purpose according to its properties. A few examples:• Steel is chosen for construction due to its strength.• Metals are ductile and can be pulled into wires, which are then used for:
- security systems. - conducting wires, since metals are good conductors of electricity.
• Metals are malleable. They can be reshaped into sheets, which are then used to produce pots and pans, for example.
• Substances that have magnetic properties are used to produce magnets and electromagnets. Iron and steel are examples of this.
• Handles of pots and pans are made out of wood or rubber as they are good thermal insulators.• Aluminium is light and does not rust, so it can be used for window frames and door frames.• Rubber is used to make wetsuits, as it is waterproof. A layer of air is trapped between the diver and
the suit, which acts as a good thermal insulator and keeps the diver warm.• Plastic is used for raincoats and umbrellas, as it is also waterproof.• Wool can trap air between its fibres and is therefore a good thermal insulator. Wool is used to
produce blankets, jerseys, jackets and other warm clothing.
The properties of matter can be divided as follows:
Examples• Strength of material• Thermal properties• Electrical properties• Magnetic properties• Solubility • Brittleness, ductility and malleability• Tensile strength• Melting and boiling points
Examples• Constituent atoms• Types of bonds• Intermolecular forces
Properties of matter
Microscopic properties
Cannot be experienced by your senses.
Macroscopic properties
Can be experienced by your senses.
SAMPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 15
Activity 1 Date:Work in groups of two and look at the labels of five products, for example: instant coffee, potato crisps, tinned vegetables, apricot jam and packets of pasta and sauce.
Complete the following table.
Product Ingredients
Instant coffee
Potato crisps
Tinned vegetables
Apricot jam
Packet of pasta and sauce
1. What do the different ingredients tell you about the product?
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Why are the ingredients mentioned on the label?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________SAMPLE
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16 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
Case study Date:Mopani wormsRead the following passage and then answer the questions:
Certain indigenous South Africans use Mopani worms as a source of protein. This has developed into a profitable industry with low costs, few overheads and a protein-rich food source.Mopani worms are the edible species of the caterpillar Gonimbrasia belina. Other traditional names for the Mopani worm are: mashonja (Botswana: Kalanga), phane (Botswana: Setswana), mašotša (South Africa: Sepedi), mashonzha (South Africa: Tshivenda), finkubala (Zambia), mcimbi (Zimbabwe: Ndebele) and omagungu (Namibia).The worms are usually found in Mopani trees, which are predominately found in grassland and bushveld.
When the worms are collected, the tail is cut off and the slimy green innards are squeezed out like toothpaste.The worms can be preserved in the following ways:• Squashed flat and dried in the sun.• Smoked, which results in a very different flavour.• Industrially pickled and bottled.
The dried worms can be eaten just as they are. They do not have much flavour, and taste like dried leaves. They are often marinated and served with tomato or chilli sauce.
Quick factsAdditive: A substance that is added in small quantities to improve the flavour, e.g. MSG.
Preservative: Substance used to preserve and protect, e.g. sulfur dioxide.
Ingredients: The substances of which the product is composed.
SAMPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 17
They can also be marinated and roasted until crisp. Nowadays they are served as a speciality dish in some upmarket restaurants.
Questions:1. Name and discuss three types of preservation that are mentioned in the case study.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Name and discuss two other types of preservation used in industry.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3 What is a preservative? _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Name one preservative mentioned in the case study.
_____________________________________________________________________
Matter can be classified as mixtures or pure substances (consists of a single element or compound). This is revision of work done in Grade 9.
1.1 MixturesMixtures are common in our everyday lives: we breathe a mixture of gases in the air; we eat fruit salad; boerewors is a mixture of meat, fat and spices.SAMPLE
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18 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
What are the properties of a mixture?• The components are not in a fixed ratio.• The components keep their own properties.• The components can be separated easily by physical means.
There are two types of mixtures.
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture with a uniform composition (that will remain constant for a period of time).
This means that the components of a homogeneous mixture:• cannot be distinguished from each other. • are in the same state.
This means that the components of a heterogeneous mixture:• are not in the same state. Examples: mud, smoke from a fire• are easily distinguishable. Examples: cool drink and ice cubes, potjiekos (meat, vegetables and gravy)
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture with a non-uniform composition. Particles can be distinguished.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
Mixtures
Examples - Air is a mixture of different gases – all in the same state. - Alloys are mixtures of metals. - Cool drink concentrate in water consists of two liquids that are mixed.
Quick factsThe following alloys consist of:brass: mixture of copper and zincsteel: mixture of iron and carbonbronze: mixture of copper and tinstainless steel: mixture of iron, chrome and nickel
SAMPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 19
Examples of mixtures:
Example Components Type of mixture
Air Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxideHomogeneous mixture: Uniform composition (will remain constant for a period of time).
An alcoholic drink Alcohol in water
Brine Salt in water
Steel Carbon in iron
Smoke from a fire Soot and ash in air
Heterogeneous mixtures: - Particles are not uniform.- Can be distinguished.
Salad dressing Oil, vinegar, water and herbs
Mud Sand in water
Orange juice Fruit pulp in fruit juice
Dough Flour, eggs and milk
Carbonated (fizzy) cool drink
Carbon dioxide in cool drink
Examples
Quick factsBlood is a heterogeneous mixture because it consists of different particles (like platelets, plasma, etc.) that are not necessarily spread uniformly.
Practical activity 1 Date:Work in a small group and make the following mixtures:• Sand and water• Potassium dichromate crystals (K2Cr2O7) and water• Iodine and ethanol• Iodine and water
Complete the following table.
MixtureHeterogeneous or homogeneous?
Are the constituent particles distinguishable?
Sand and water
Potassium dichromate crystals (K2Cr2O7) and water
Iodine and ethanol
Iodine and waterSAMPLE
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20 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
1. What is a homogeneous mixture?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What is a heterogeneous mixture? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
1.2 Pure substances
Pure substances can be elements or compounds. They are substances with one type of constituent particle.
ElementsExamples: Na, Fe, O2
CompoundsExamples: H2O, NaCℓ
Pure substances
Pure substancesComposed of only one type of particle. They can be elements or compounds (different elements bonded together by a chemical reaction).
Mixture
Elements Compounds
A pure substance consisting of only one type of atom.
A pure substance consisting of two or more types of atoms that are chemically bonded.
Composed of different elements and/or compounds.SA
MPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 21
Pure substancesComposed of only one type of particle. They can be elements or compounds (different elements bonded together by a chemical reaction).
Mixture
Elements Compounds
A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
A substance that can be broken down into simpler particles.
Can be separated mechanically.
Particles cannot be broken down. Particles can only be broken down by chemical means.
Can be separated by physical means (hand sorting, separating funnel, distillation, evaporation, etc.).
Smallest particle is either an atom, a diatomic element (e.g. H2), a molecule of the same atom (e.g. S8) or a positive ion (metallic bond).
Smallest particle is amolecule (covalent bond) oran ion (ionic bond).
Particles are according to composition of mixture.
Examples:Mg, Cu, Zn, S, F2, S8
Examples:H2O, HCℓ, NaCℓ
Examples:Air, mixed vegetables, sugar solution
Activity 2 Date:1 Classify the following as pure substances or mixtures.
Substance Pure substance or mixture
1.1 Blood
1.2 Dyes
1.3 Self-raising flour
1.4 Muesli
1.5 Copper wire
1.6 Distilled water
1.7 Table salt
1.8 Milk
1.9 Bronze
1.10 Tea
1.11 Oxygen
1.12 AirSAMPLE
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22 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
2 Classify the following as homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures, or pure substances. If it is a pure substance, state whether it is an element or a compound.
SubstanceMixture:
homogeneous/heterogeneous
Pure substance:element/compound
2.1 Sugar
2.2 Magnesium ribbon
2.3 Vegetable soup
2.4 Bath oil
2.5 Tin of assorted biscuits
2.6 Peanuts and raisins
2.7 Copper wire
2.8 Bicarbonate of soda (Baking soda)
Practical activity 2 Date: Work in a small group. • Cut some filter paper into long thin strips.• Use four test tubes containing a small amount of water each.• Wet a red Smartie and make a mark with it on one strip of filter paper.• Place the strip in a test tube so that the bottom end of it just touches the water. The top end should
hang over the edge of the test tube. The mark should just be above the water level.• Repeat these steps with the brown, green and blue Smarties.• Allow the test tubes to stand for a while, allowing the filter paper to absorb some water.• Make observations. • This experiment can also be done with ink from non-permanent markers, e.g. koki’s.
red dot brown dot blue dotgreen dotSAMPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 23
Observations:
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusions:
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
1.3 Names and formulae of substances
All matter consists of elements. Elements can be grouped as follows:
Interesting factsIn 1869 two scientists – the Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev and the German, Julius Lothar Meyer – arranged the elements in a Periodic Table. Mendeleev used chemical reactivity, and Meyer the physical properties. The two tables were suprisingly quite similar. These were the first versions of the Periodic Table that we use today.
Elements
Metals Metalloids Non-metals
Left of dividing line,e.g. Na, Mg, Zn, Pb
On either side adjacent to the dividing line, e.g. Si, Ge
Right of the line,e.g. S, O2, Cℓ2, Br2
SAMPLE
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24 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
H
Li Be
Na Mg
K Ca
B C N O F Ne
He
Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
Ge As
Sb
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
AtPo
Te
Description Example
Elements on the left of the Periodic Table are usually named first.
NaCℓ Sodium chloride
Names of elements on the right of the Periodic Table change by adding -ide at the end.
COCarbon monoxide = oxygen changed to oxide.
“Mono” means one, “di” means two and “tri” means three, showing the number of atoms of that element.
COcarbon monoxide – 1 OCO2
carbon dioxide – 2 OsNO2
nitrogen dioxide – 2 OsSO3
sulfur trioxide – 3 Os
Some substances have common names, too. H2O hydrogen oxide = waterHCℓ hydrogen chloride = hydrochloric acid = swimming pool acid
Polyatomic ions, which always consist of the same ratio of elements.
Na2SO4sodium sulphateCaSO4calcium sulphate MgSO4magnesium sulphate
Each element has a unique name. When compounds are formed, the name must reflect the components.The following table applies to the naming of compounds:
SAMPLE
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Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10 25
• When there is a bracket then a subscript, the subscript refers to everything inside the bracket. (Polyatomic ions will be discussed in more detail later.) Example: magnesium nitrate is Mg(NO3)2. This indicates one magnesium (Mg) and two nitrate ions (NO3), in total giving two nitrogen atoms (N) and six oxygen atoms (O). If the brackets were left out it would have meant 32 oxygen atoms, which is impossible.
• The formula can represent a molecule, as in H2O (water), or it could be the empirical formula, as in NaCℓ, which represents the smallest ratio of the components in a crystal.
• Positive ions are written first and negative ions second.
To write a formula you need to take into account the constituents as well as the ratio in which they are combined.• Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2:1. Therefore the formula is H2O. Two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom.
2 H 1 O H2O
+
+
• The number written at the bottom (subscript) refers to the preceding element. Na2SO3 has two sodium, one sulfur and three oxygen atoms. Na:S:O are in the ratio 2:1:3
Na2SO3 2 Na S 3 O
+
+
+
+
Mg(NO3)2 Mg 2 N 6 O
+
+
+
+
H+ HCℓCℓ-
+
+SAMPLE
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26 Doc Scientia CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
The following are names of ions that are used often.
Negative ions (anions)
Polyatomic ionsMonoatomic ions
(the suffix of the name changes to -ide)
OH- Hydroxide SO42- Sulphate F- Fluoride
NO3- Nitrate SO3
2- Sulphite Cℓ- Chloride
NO2- Nitrite S2O3
2- Thiosulphate Br- Bromide
MnO4- Permanganate O2
2- Peroxide I- Iodide
CℓO3- Chlorate MnO4
2- Manganate S2- Sulphide
HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate HPO4
2- Hydrogen phosphate N3- Nitride
HSO3- Hydrogen sulphite CrO4
2- Chromate O2- Oxide
HSO4- Hydrogen sulphate Cr2O7
2- Dichromate P3- Phosphide
H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate CO3
2- Carbonate
CℓO- Hypochlorite C2O42- Oxalate
CH3COO- Acetate PO43- Phosphate
Positive ions (cations)
Be careful of the spelling of the ions. It is important that if it ends in “te” or “de” this changes the composition of the ion. “-ate” and “-ite” refer to the different number of oxygen atoms present.
NH4+ Ammonium Cu2+ Copper(II) Aℓ3+ Aluminium
H+ Hydrogen Ca2+ Calcium Cr3+ Chromium(III)
K+ Potassium Be2+ Beryllium Fe3+ Iron(III)
H3O+ Hydronium/oxonium Ba2+ Barium Co3+ Cobalt(III)
Cu+ Copper(I) Sn2+ Tin(II) Cr6+ Chromium(VI)
Hg+ Mercury(I) Pb2+ Lead(II) Mn7+ Manganese(VII)
Na+ Sodium Zn2+ Zinc(II)
Ag+ Silver Mg2+ Magnesium
Li+ Lithium Cr2+ Chromium(II)
Mn2+ Manganese(II)
Fe2+ Iron(II)
Co2+ Cobalt(II)
Ni2+ Nickel(II)SAMPLE