WHAT MAKES UP THE CONSULTING PROCESS?

The process of consulting is the how of consultation. Consultants can use the same basic

process, regardless of the specialized field in which he or she may be consulting or the

subject matter. The six fundamental phases of this process are:

Phase 1: Making First Contact/Entry This is the first contact with the client. You are identifying who the client is

and what motivation there is to bring about change. You are also exploring the

potential for working together.

Phase 2: Establishing the Relationship This step includes specifying the desired outcomes, deciding who is going to

do what, agreeing on style, costs, timing and accountability.

Phase 3: Problem Finding This is the data gathering and data analysis stage. Here you find out what is,

what should be, what the gap is, and whether or not it is worth working on.

Phase 4: Solution Finding At this stage, the client is given assistance in specifying what it is he wants

and when he wants it.

Phase 5: Planning the Work/Working the Plan At this step the work is planned in terms of who will do what, when, where,

how and with what resources. The plan is then carried out.

Phase 6: Evaluation/Termination

The client and the consultant look back over the project and their relationship

at this step. The consultant then withdraws and terminates the consulting

relationship.

PHASE 1: MAKING FIRST CONTACT/ENTRY

This is where the initial contact is made between the consultant and the client. This is a

critical stage in which the client and consultant establish and verbalize expectations of

the other. At this first meeting of both parties, the following should be discussed:

- the nature of the overall project

- parameters and constraints

- available resources

- the client’s and the consultant’s desired results

- background information relative to the client’s organization

- general ground rules concerning confidentiality

RELATIONSHIP TENSION

Relationship tension is the tension that exists between people when they first meet. It can

prevent the consultant from directing the client’s time and energy toward the project to be

accomplished. The consultant’s objective during this early stage of the consulting

process is to reduce relationship tension so that the client is comfortable focusing on the

task of problem finding and solving.

Relationship tension usually starts out high and generally diminishes as the process

evolves. Task Tension is the opposite of relationship tension. It is a positive

development and facilitates problem solving and task accomplishment.

As illustrated below, when relationship tension is high, task tension is low. The graph

also shows that relationship tension will naturally decrease over time. As you spend

more time with the client, you become more comfortable with each other and are able to

work together towards task accomplishment.

THE TENSION/TIME CONNECTION

T

E Relationship

N Tension Task

S Tension

I

O

N

TIME

In order to recognize whether or not the client is experiencing high relationship tension,

close attention should be given to your client’s body language, tone, and choice of words

to determine if s/he is exhibiting defensive behaviour.

In order to reduce any relationship tension, you must build trust—make the client feel

comfortable with you and the way you work. It is important to remember at this stage

that the client may be sensitive to some of the issues being discussed about his/her

organization. There may be strong emotional elements in the thinking patterns of the

client that will result in defensive behaviour. Such behaviour must be met with respect—

it is extremely important that you are sensitive to the feelings and personal needs of the

client in order to establish trust in the relationship.

BUILDING TRUST

INTERACT AROUND A TASK:

- interact with/involve the client in the project tasks (beginning with building the

relationship)

- use relating skills to build trust and leadership

BE WILLING TO SELF-DISCLOSE:

- be open and honest about yourself---reveal yourself,

(the more you self-disclose, the more the client will self-disclose)

ANSWER THE UNASKED QUESTIONS:

- the client may have questions about you, your approach to work, your

experience, your competence etc. that s/he does not voice

- be prepared for such questions and answer them even if they are not asked

Client questions at this stage can be categorized as follows:

PROPRIETY – your consulting etiquette/conduct

Do you act, talk, and look like a consultant?

Will you respect the client and his/her organization?

SO…meet the client’s expectations by dressing, speaking, and behaving

appropriately.

COMMONALITY – the degree to which you (the consultant) and the client

have common qualities

Are you (the consultant) at all like the client?

Do you have anything in common with the client?

Do you have the same interests, attitudes, background, etc. as the client?

SO…talk to the client about any ideas, experiences, interests and opinions you share.

COMPETENCE – your qualifications/ability to do the consulting project

Do you understand the client’s operation and situation/problem?

Are you open to listen to what the client has to say?

Can you really help the client?

SO…tell your client a bit about yourself, your education, and any related

experience that you may have.

INTENT – your motivation for entering into the relationship with the client

Are your motives compatible with the client’s needs?

What is your attitude going to be?

Will you be easy to work with?

Are you working for the client or your own self-interest?

SO…explain why you are doing the project, what the client’s role is in the process,

how it will benefit you and your client, how much time you wish to put into the

project, etc.

ALSO…Empathize with the client. Imagine yourself in the client’s position.

What worries, concerns or questions might he or she have?

PHASE 2: ESTABLISHING THE RELATIONSHIP

The objective of this phase of the consulting process is to create a win-win situation for

both parties—you, the consultant, and the client. In order to establish a win-win

relationship, both parties must clarify their goals, sort out expectations and

contributions, and affirm and record (in a written contract) a mutual agreement.

During this phase…

THE CONSULTANT SHOULD: - consider what s/he can contribute to the consulting relationship (i.e. know-

how, time, results) and what s/he hopes to get in return

- be prepared as s/he enters the consulting relationship to clearly, fairly, and

honestly state what you will give and what you expect in return

- anticipate the goals, needs, and expectations of the client

- be open and direct when explaining costs and identifying the resources the

client

must contribute to the project

- empathize with the client in addressing his/her concerns at this stage

- identify the source(s) of any conflict that may arise and then deal with the

source rather than the symptoms

- prepare a written contract to confirm the agreed upon goals of the

client and the consultant(s)

- maintain frequent contact with the client after the contract is negotiated

- identify the key decision criteria that are essential for analyzing possible

alternatives

THE CLIENT SHOULD: - identify what specific knowledge, expertise, qualities (accountability,

performance, feedback) s/he expects from the consultant

- consider what s/he is prepared to contribute (i.e. in terms of time, effort,

money)

- begin to specify the outcomes or results that s/he expects from the project, and

to

identify the criteria that must be met in order for a recommendation to be

identified

and implemented

- be made aware of the costs involved

KEY DECISION CRITERIA

A critical part of feasibility and recommendation reports is the discussion of the

requirements you will use to reach the final decision or recommendation. Imagine that

you are trying to recommend a specific laptop computer for use by employees. There are

likely to be requirements concerning size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality,

durability, and battery function.

"KEY" Serving as an essential component; the most important aspect; "a

cardinal rule"; the central cause of the problem; "the operative

word"; something crucial for explaining.

"DECISION" The act of settling or terminating by giving judgement on the

matter at issue; an account or report of a conclusion, a position,

opinion or judgement reached after careful consideration.

"CRITERIA" A means or standard for judging; any approved or established rule,

test or guideline by which facts, principles, opinions, and conduct

are tried in forming a correct judgement respecting them.

Although we may not realize it, we consider key decision criteria in every decision we

make in our everyday lives. For example, when choosing an apartment in Wolfville

while you are attending school, you consider several factors before committing to a

specific apartment. You will consider the key decision criteria that will enable you to

make the best choice. This could include the cost of the apartment per month (you

cannot live somewhere that your budget does not allow for), location (this may differ

depending on if you own a car, where the majority of your classes are, etc.), and size

(you may specifically be looking for a one-bedroom apartment). As you can see, key

decision criteria are the essential points you consider in making any decision. They

cannot be compromised; therefore decisions must be made around them (not the other

way around!).

Requirements can be defined in several basic ways:

1. Numerical values: Many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum

numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement--the laptop should

cost no more than $900.

2. Yes/No values: Some requirements are simply a yes-no question. Does the laptop

come equipped with a modem?

3. Ratings values: In some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with

numerical values or yes/no values. For example, we might want a laptop that has an

ease-of-use rating of at least "good" by some nationally accepted ratings group. Or

we may have to assign a rating ourselves.

Key decision criteria are the requirements that are absolutely essential for the successful

implementation of the final recommendation. These could be things that must

occur, that must be maintained, that must be avoided, or must be

achieved to implement an alternative or to solve a problem. Key decision

criteria must either be directly measurable ($2 million in sales per year), or a non-

measurable event that must be implemented (maintain quality). If an alternative does not

fit with the key decision criteria you identify, then that alternative is not viable.

For example, if you discover a key decision criterion of your client is to keep his/her

debt-to- asset ratio at 2:1, it could be said that an alternative is viable if it gives a return of

3:1. Key decision criteria must then be used as a basis to evaluate the alternatives you

will lay out in a latter phase of the consulting process (Phase 4). You must analyze the

alternatives against each of the key decision criteria to come up with a viable (or the most

appropriate) recommendation.

KDC 1 KDC 2 KDC 3 KDC 4 TOTAL Alternative

1

Alternative 2

Alternative

3

From this simplified table, we can see that Alternative 2 would be the best

recommendation for the client because it satisfies the most key decision criteria. This

table is much harder to complete in reality because some alternatives will not give a yes

or no answer. However, this template should be taken into consideration later in the

consulting process when a recommendation must be made.

DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON OF KEY DECISION CRITERIA:

The key decision criteria component of your project should also discuss the importance

of the individual criteria in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where

there is no one alternative best in all categories of comparison (or when no one

alternative is shown to be the best from the above chart). One option is cheaper; another

has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more

durable. Devise a method by which you can pick a "winner" from a situation where there

is no clear winner. In this case, it is extremely useful to rate the key decision criteria in

order of importance. What criteria cannot be compromised? What can? Is it more

important to be less expensive or to be more durable, etc.?

In addition, it is important that you explain how you narrowed the field of criteria down

to the ones you will use when evaluating your alternatives. Often, this follows right after

the discussion and explanation of each key decision criterion you have chosen. The basic

requirements may well narrow the field down for you. However, there may be other

considerations that disqualify other options - explain these as well (money, time, ease of

implementation, expertise, etc.).

Examples of common key decision criteria:

Quantitative Qualitative Profit Competitive advantage

Cost Customer satisfaction

ROI/ROA/ROE Employee morale

Market share Ease of implementation

Capacity requirements Synergy

Productivity Ethics

Staff turnover Flexibility

Time to implement Safety

Growth Visual appeal

Delivery time Obsolescence

Risk Cultural sensitivity

Cash flow considerations Motivation

Quality Goodwill

Inventory turnover Corporate image

PHASE 3: PROBLEM FINDING

This is the data gathering and data analysis stage where the client’s problem (or

opportunity) is diagnosed. Here you find out what is, what should be, what the gap is,

and decide whether it is worth working on.

WHAT IS A PROBLEM ?

The problem is the difference between what the client has and what the client wants. It is

the gap between what is (the current situation) and what should be (the desired situation).

THE CLIENT AND THE PROBLEM:

S/HE MAY…

- not have a clear idea of what the problem is

- understand the problem but may not be confident that the consultant

understands the problem

- may not be confident that the consultant understands enough about him/her

and his/her organization to obtain a good understanding of the problem

DEFINING THE PROBLEM:

The following four questions must be asked:

What is the current situation?

What is the client’s present situation?

How do things presently work?

What is the desired situation?

What does the client want to see happening with(in) his/her

organization?

What is the nature of the gap?

Is there a gap (and how big is it) between the current and desired

situation?

What forces are pushing in the direction of the desired state,

and what forces are blocking progress?

CLASSIFYING PROBLEMS BASED ON THE PROBLEM DIMENSION AND THE SOLUTION DIMENSION

THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE

PROBLEM IS UNDERSTOOD THE SOLUTION IS KNOWN

AND UNDERSTOOD

clear unclear certainty uncertainty

specific vague cause & effect randomness

predictable unpredictable

PROBLEM CATEGORIES

1. Simple Problem - both the present and desired situations are known and can be well

defined

- the actions for closing the gap are obvious and straightforward

- relatively easy to define using facts, figures, and objective data

2. Hidden Problem - problems are difficult to define

- but there are (often an overabundance of) obvious solutions

3. Hidden Solution - problems can be defined by facts and figures

- cause and effect relationships are difficult to deduce

- it is not known if proposed solutions will produce the desired

outcome

4. Messy Problems - networks of interconnected problems

- solving one problem in isolation may cause several more

problems

- actions taken may have unpredictable outcomes

Collecting Data for Problem Finding

The consultant needs valid data in order to discover actual organizational problems.

There are a number of ways to collect data for identifying problems. For example, you

can collect data via interviews, surveys, research of past and present organizational

practices, direct observation, etc.

DATA COLLECTION SKILLS

(1) QUESTIONING

- ask a lot of questions to find out about the present and

desired situations, and the gap separating the two

Types of Questions:

a) CLOSED Questions - to gain specific information in order to isolate or clarify

the problem and its causes

- usually answered with yes or no, or short facts

Ex: When did this start happening?

Who was involved?

b) OPEN Questions - solicit a lot of information

- enable you to expand on the subject and conversation

- invite expression of relevant beliefs and feelings

Ex: Can you explain how that happened?

What is your opinion regarding the cause of the problem?

c) FACT-FINDING Questions - answerable with verifiable, objective data

- uncover relevant, factual information relating to

the client and his/her situation

Ex: Who was involved?

What time did it happen?

d) FEELING-FINDING Questions - uncover subjective information

- delve into personal emotions, feelings,

opinions,

doubts, worries, etc.

Ex: Do you have any theories about why it happened at that

specific time?

Why has this been going on?

(2) LISTENING

- devote 100% of your attention to the speaker

- make brief written or mental notes

- provide feedback to the speaker

- focus on the central idea of the message and try to distinguish

what is important from what is not

- ask a lot of questions

- pay attention to body language and tone of voice

(3) DIVERGENT THINKING

- unconventional thinking

- not evaluative or logical

- reaching for radical, impossible ideas

- using all of your senses in thought

- helps to define the problem by creating many

problem statements from which to create an

accurate definition of the real problem

(4) USING SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PROBLEM FINDING

- used when problem finding involves large numbers of

people as a substitute for personal contact

- data that is collected through the survey can be fed back

to the people who generated it to help them define the

problem (survey feedback approach)

So… Think you have found the problem?

– make sure you understand the problem

– convince the client that you understand the problem

from the client’s point of view

Then… summarize your understanding of the problem and achieve confirmation from

the client to ensure that you will both be working toward solving the same problem.

GENERAL DATA COLLECTION APPROACHES

Remember to select methods of data collection that are appropriate to your situation and

the purpose of your consultation.

1) SECONDARY DATA (i.e. Statistics Canada Reports)

This method makes use of existing data that were collected for other purposes as the

basis for

new analysis. It is often useful to analyze such available data to provide a base and

direction

for your own further data collection.

2) PRIMARY DATA

i) REPRESENTATIVE METHOD

This method is used to collect information about a population in ways that provide

precise

estimates of the characteristics of the population with known likelihood of error (i.e.

surveys). This is often referred to as the scientific or statistical method of data

collection.

Ideal Conditions for Use of the Representative Method:

- statistically accurate estimates of population characteristics are needed

- random sampling is possible

- data can be collected through specific survey questions administered in

diverse settings

- secondary analysis or multiple rounds of data collection are anticipated

ii) INTERMEDIATE METHOD

This method is intended to reflect larger populations and to permit comparisons of key

differences among groups, communities, organizations, etc., but cases are not

randomly

selected.

Ideal Conditions for Use of the Intermediate Method:

- statistical representativeness is unnecessary, although a rough indication of

the larger population characteristics may be desirable

- comparisons among major groups are sufficient to meet information needs

- a limited budget precludes statistically representative surveys or censuses

- limited organization capabilities or adverse local conditions make

intermediate methods more practical

iii) CASE STUDY METHOD

The case study method is used to collect detailed, often descriptive (qualitative) data

from a

limited number of groups. Examples include focus groups or personal interviews.

Ideal Conditions for Use of the Case Study Method:

statistically representative data are unnecessary, difficult, or impossible to collect

information is needed on a relatively small, homogeneous population or on

identifiable groups within a larger, heterogeneous population

intensive information is needed on a topic rather than extensive data on a

population

useful data are primarily qualitative or are only quantifiable in a limited way

cost and expediency consideration preclude the use of alternatives

SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

There are a number of sources of secondary data to consider. The following pages

contain lists of various local and regional resources that are available to you. Additional

sources of secondary data include local libraries, regional development agencies, local

media, and trade association offices.

Name

Website & Phone

Information

Access Nova Scotia

http://www.gov.ns.ca/ - Business Opportunities Sourcing Services:

bacs/acns/ lists Canadian manufacturers , their

1-800-225-8227 products and technical services to help

(902) 679-6170 people find suppliers; provides market

Information and helps to identify market

Opportunities

- Department of Foreign Affairs Information:

International business developments and

markets for small businesses

- NS public tenders notices

- Information on business related government

financial assistance programs

- Federal, provincial, municipal information,

forms/applications, toll free number directory

Statistics Canada

http://www.statcan.ca/

- Canadian Census Statistics: industry, trade,

1-800-263-1136 Economic - Population statistics: demography,

Geography

Department of Finance

http://www.gov.ns.ca/fina/

- NS economic indicators, trends, facts

statisti/INDEX.HTM - Business statistics

424-5691 - Demographic information

Strategis

http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/

- Industry Canada's industry overview

- Economic research and statistics

- Provincial and municipal business information

NS Economic Development

(902) 424-5014

- Statistical info. pertaining to tourist traffic in NS

& Tourism Nova Scotia (902) 424-4264 (visitor volume - seasonality, accommodations,

1-800-313-4447 visitor origin, mode of travel, length of stay)

http://gov.ns.ca/ecor/

Index.htm

GD Sourcing

Research and Retrieval

http://www.gdsourcing.co

m/

- Canadian Government Data Sourcing - Market and industry data from government and

non-government statistics

- A reference point for other Canadian Statistics

Department of Foreign Affairs

www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca

- International market information

& International Trade - Foreign and domestic investment opportunities

and policies

- WIN (World Information Network for Exports)

Yellow Pages

www.yellowpages.ca

-Telephone listings for specific business

types in specified provinces, cities, and

towns across Canada

Human Resources

http://www.hrdc-

drhc.gc.ca/

- Labour market information/trends, financial

Development Canada common/home.shtml/ assistance/resources, market and industry

Http://www.ns.hrdc-drhc.gc.ca/

information, business links, employment

Http://www.ns.hrdc-drhc.gc.ca/

programs and services, partnership

english/service/service.htm

Information

ACSBE Web Bookshelf

http://acsbe.acadiau.ca/Ex

plore

- Small business guide and directories: getting

%20Self%20Employment/ started, marketing, finances, provincial info.,

Information%20Sources/Web%

family businesses, small business centres

20Bookshelf.htm

TOWN OFFICE

TELEPHONE

Annapolis Royal 532-2043

Berwick 538-8068

Bridgetown 665-4637

Bridgewater 543-4651

Canning 582-3768

Greenwood 765-8788

Hantsport 684-3211

Kentville 679-2500

Kingston 765-2800

Lawrencetown 584-3082

Lunenburg 634-4416

Mahone Bay 624-8327

Middleton 825-4841

New Minas 681-6972

Port Williams 542-4411

Windsor 798-2275

Wolfville 542-5767

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Before you begin to develop and administer surveys, focus groups, etc., it is important

that you acknowledge that a number of primary data sources are already available to you.

Most of this data is in your client’s possession, (i.e. information from receipts, invoices,

order forms, annual reports, customer service inquiries, customer complaints, the

salespeople, and even in the client’s general knowledge of his or her day-to-day business

operations).

*Only after you have determined that more research is necessary do you go ahead

with

your own primary research.

Then…choose the survey method that accomplishes your goal:

THE MOST COMMON PRIMARY RESEARCH SURVEYING TECHNIQUES:

(A) POLLS/QUESTIONNAIRES i) by telephone

ii) in person (i.e. at a shopping mall, at your client’s business)

iii) direct mail

iv) in an newspaper or newsletter

(B) FOCUS GROUPS

(C) PRODUCT OR SERVICE SAMPLING

Criteria for Selection of Survey Method: - COMPLEXITY

- REQUIRED AMOUNT OF DATA

- DESIRED ACCURACY

- SAMPLE CONTROL

- TIME REQUIREMENTS

- ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF RESPONSE

When surveying, it is imoprtant to have an appropriate sample size. To help

you to calculate sample size, go to: http://www.chartwellsystems.com/sscalc.htm.

METHOD MAXIMUM TIME BEST TIME OF DAY TELEPHONE INTERVIEW 15 MINUTES For people at home:

- evening hours after dinner For people at work: - office hours (NOT Monday morning or Friday afternoon)

PERSONAL INTERVIEW AT RESPONDENT’S HOME

UP TO ONE HOUR - Evening hours after dinner - Saturdays - By appointment

INTERCEPT (PERSONAL) INTERVIEW

AT A CENTRAL LOCATION (i.e. at a shopping mall,

school)

5 to 15 minutes (varies by location)

- Daytime hours - Evenings after dinner (mall) - Sundays (mall) - When people are not hurried, relaxed

PERSONAL INTERVIEW AT CLIENT’S BUSINESS

Depends on the nature of the business

- Whenever customers or clients are least hurried

DIRECT MAIL

5 to 15 minutes - Try to time it so that the mail-out does not arrive on Monday or Wednesday

NEWSPAPERS/NEWSLETTERS Varies Varies (usually weekend editions)

(A) POLLS AND QUESTIONNAIRES

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POLLS/QUESTIONNAIRES

Method Advantages Disadvantages

TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

- fast - few people required - good response rate - can control sample size and make- up - can ask complex questions - little influence on subject

- consumers are weary of tele- marketing and surveying - cannot show product/packaging

PERSONAL INTERVIEW

AT RESPONDENT’S HOME

- able to show product or service - can ask largest number of questions per respondent - can ask complex questions and probe for maximum detail - able to control sample make-up - relaxed atmosphere - good response rate

- highest cost per interview - many people required (staff) - a lot of time required - difficult to find people at home - interviewer may personally influence the respondent

INTERCEPT (PERSONAL)

INTERVIEW AT A CENTRAL LOCATION (i.e. at a shopping mall,

school)

- able to show product or service - can visually identify some demographic characteristics - can ask relatively complex questions - good response rate

- high cost - interrupting busy people - difficult to control make-up of the sample - inability to ask complex, probing questions - interviewer may influence respondent

PERSONAL INTERVIEW AT

CLIENT’S BUSINESS

- can show product or service - able to control makeup of sample - can ask relatively complex questions - good response rate - relatively low cost per interview

- interrupting busy people - interviewer may influence subject

DIRECT MAIL

- very wide sample distribution possible - can show photos of product - no interviewer influence - same cost per interview as phoning - people can respond when not hurried

- slow getting all responses back - no complex questions possible - mailing lists may be outdated - impossible to control sample make- up - respondents are most likely to be those with vested interests

NEWSPAPERS/NEWSLETTERS

- same as direct mail except for variation in sample distribution based on circulation of publication

no complex questions/explanations possible - cannot control sample make-up - do not know who is actually responding - respondents may have vested interests

WRITING A QUESTIONNAIRE

THE 3 ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. Make it the right length.

2. Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous.

3. Make sure the questions are not leading.

1) Make it the right length:

The length of your questionnaire depends largely on the place you administer it

and the method by which you administer it. Begin by writing out all of the

questions you would like to ask, then begin eliminating them, question by

question until you have reached a compromise--the maximum number of

questions you can ask in the maximum amount of time your chosen method will

allow. Before administering the questionnaire to your survey group, test it on a

couple of members of your target audience. Administer it to them exactly as it is

meant to be done, (by phone or in person, self-administered or with an

interviewer). This will help to gauge the time it takes and will also help you clear

up any hard to understand or misleading questions.

2) Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous:

- keep questions short and easy to understand

- ask for only one piece of information in each question

- keep the target audience in mind (i.e. how educated they are, how familiar they

are with your client’s product or service, etc.)

- always double check to make sure the meaning of the question is clear

- give enough instructions to tell the respondent exactly how to respond

3) Make sure the questions are not leading:

It is very important to ask questions in such a way that you get the respondent’s

true views, not the answers you want to hear. A number of factors can influence

the person completing the survey, such as the interviewer’s attitude or tone, or the

setting.

4 TYPES OF QUESTIONS:

1. Two-choice

2. Multiple-choice

3. Ranking

4. Open-ended

1) Two-Choice:

Two-choice questions give the respondent an either/or selection.

Example:

Do you drink milk? Yes No

Do prefer this item in Black Grey (Please check one)

2) Multiple-Choice:

Multiple-choice questions allow the respondent to choose one or more

possibilities from a list. When using multiple-choice, it’s important to include

as many options as you can—making sure not to leave out any major ones.

3) Ranking:

The most common form of ranking question is one that gives respondents a

scale on which to evaluate a single item.

Example:

How would you rate the services you received from your waiter?

(Please circle one)

Poor Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Other questions ask people to rank a series of items or qualities against

other items or qualities.

Example:

What is most important to you? Please place a 1 beside the most

important, a 2 beside the second most important, and a 3 beside the third

most important.

____ Taste

____ Speed of Service

____ Price

4) Open-Ended:

Open-ended questions are used when you need more information than you can

get

from the other three question types. They are generally used to get qualitative

data,

whereas the other three types usually yield quantitative data. Open-ended

questions

are often used to elicit detail about a previous two-choice, multiple-choice, or

ranking

question.

HOW MANY TYPES OF QUESTIONS SHOULD YOU USE?

Any survey longer than five or six questions will probably use several types of questions.

Often a response to one question will automatically lead to another type of question. In

general, a balanced, informative survey will include several types of questions.

OTHER INFORMATION TO INCLUDE IN YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE:

(a) An introduction

(b) Keying

(a) AN INTRODUCTION:

Start your questionnaire with a brief written introduction stating the purpose of

your survey. You must have a written introduction on any survey sent

via direct mail, published in a newspaper or other publication, or placed on a table

or counter for customers to fill out. You should even include a written

introduction on surveys administered in person to help the interviewer remember

to give vital information.

In only a few sentences you should try to include who you are (i.e. Acadia

Business students), why you are doing the survey (i.e. what the results of the

survey will be used for), who you are surveying (i.e. your client’s customers), and

a polite request for their participation, followed by a thank you.

(b) KEYING:

If your survey is being given in more than one location, administered at several

different times, or sent to more than one mailing list, you should always put key

letters or numbers on the survey indicating which location, time, or list the survey

is from. Simply print or hand write a combination of letters and/or numbers at the

top or bottom of the form, (i.e. HSC/10/99 meaning Halifax Shopping Centre,

October, 1999).

Focus groups produce qualitative data—data that cannot be expressed in numbers.

Members of the group are carefully selected, usually to fit the description of your

client’s ideal target customer. Focus groups can be used to learn a variety of

things. For example, a focus group could review your client’s product(s),

advertising, and service(s). A group could also be brought together for input

regarding a change in your client’s corporate image, the addition of a new product

or service, or during the expansion of the client’s business.

A focus group is different than a brainstorming session in that it is designed to

discover feelings and perceptions, rather than to elicit ideas.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE FOCUS GROUPS:

- choose a group of 6 to 10 people

- set up an audio or video recorder, preferably where it will not be distracting

- make everyone comfortable and welcome—let them know their ideas are

important

- clearly explain what you would like them to discuss—have a loose outline of

topics or questions prepared

- allow for creative conversation, but make sure the talk doesn’t wander off on

unrelated topics for too long

- don’t let the easy talkers dominate—draw everyone out

- summarize periodically and ask the group to confirm that your summary is

correct

- analyze the results afterward

(B) FOCUS GROUPS

Sometimes you will have questions that can only be answered by having people actually

try your client’s product or service. For example, “Will this product be acceptable? Will

it be easy to understand? Will this service/product have unexpected glitches?”

You may often need samples of your client’s product or service to accompany your

surveys or focus groups.

SAMPLING TIPS:

- if you are testing an item that lends itself to comparison, test a sample of your

client’s product versus a sample of a competitor’s product—otherwise

conduct a single-sample test using your client’s product by itself to get

people’s reactions

- with comparison sampling, never show the name of either product, (avoid

influencing the group)

- never show the packaging or advertising of a product unless that is part of

what you are testing, (avoid influencing the group)

- switch the order in which you give the samples when doing comparisons

(i.e. with food products)

ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING YOUR DATA

Now that you have collected your data, it must be analyzed to determine exactly what it

means. This involves the following four steps:

1. Examine the completed forms (i.e. surveys)

2. Tally the responses

3. Chart the responses to each question

4. Determine the meaning of the responses

#1) EXAMINING THE COMPLETED FORMS:

Go through the completed questionnaires to make sure the responses are useful. In some

cases you may be required to edit the responses when, for example, you know what a

respondent intended to say, but the wording or handwriting makes it unclear. In other

cases you may have to discard some responses or entire forms. If, for instance, someone

checked several boxes on a multiple-choice question where they were instructed to check

only one, you would have to discard their answer. One bad response does not invalidate

the entire questionnaire, however. You need only to discard the entire form when it is

clear that the respondent misunderstood or deliberately disregarded most of the

instructions.

(C) PRODUCT OR SERVICE SAMPLING

#2) TALLYING THE RESPONSES:

Next, you need to record the responses to every question on the questionnaires. This can

be done by hand or by computer. If your survey was brief and administered to a small

sample, (i.e. 10 questions given to 100 people), you can quite easily tally the responses

by hand.

Ex. Question 1: Have you ever shopped at Zellers?

Yes

No

Total “Yes”:

Total “No”:

Total:

Otherwise, you can record the data on a computer. Spreadsheet programs (such as Lotus

or Excel) are useful because they can tally the responses for you. SPSS is also an

excellent program because it is designed not only for recording and tallying results, but

also for analysing, correlating, and cross-checking the results.

#3) CHARTING THE RESPONSES TO EACH QUESTION:

Once you have tallied all of the responses, you should chart or graph the results.

Charting makes it easier to read and interpret your data. It makes it easy for you and your

client.

A simple bar graph is the most readable and versatile method of charting, but other useful

charting styles include a curve for charting responses to ranking questions, and pie charts

for presenting multiple choice data.

#4) DETERMINING THE MEANING OF THE RESPONSES:

To determine the meaning of your charted responses, keep the following four things in

mind:

(A) TRENDS – a significantly high or low response to a given option that will become

obvious when you chart your data and break it down by demographic groups

(B) SIMILARITIES – trends shared by widely varying demographic groups

(C) CONTRADICTIONS – can point to flaws in your survey, product flaws, or

differences due to the widely varying make-up of your survey sample

(D) ODD GROUPINGS – getting results you did not anticipate or cannot explain

A thorough diagnosis of your client’s situation should yield a problem definition

with the following elements::

1. a clear picture of the desired state

2. a clear understanding of what is happening now

3. an assessment of the gap (problem) and a decision of whether or not it is

worth

working on

4. an awareness of the factors that are pushing towards the desired state and

those that

are blocking progress

PHASE 4: SOLUTION FINDING

During this phase of the consulting process, you will provide the client with assistance in

specifying what exactly s/he wants and when s/he wants it. Alternative approaches to

reaching the client’s desired state are first generated and assessed, and a recommendation

is made thereafter.

Usually several courses of action are possible, each of which may contribute to the

resolution of the problem. In most cases, the issue of selecting the best or optimum

solution emerges. When this is likely to be the case, the first contribution that you can

make is to help your client in goal setting…

Turn a Description of the Desired State into a Goal

In order to provide a more solid foundation for assessing alternatives, the desired state

should be described more specifically as a goal or objective. A good goal statement

should meet the following criteria:

- be results oriented

- be specific as to accountability

- be specific in time

- be measurable in terms of quality and quantity

factors

- be realistic and achievable

- be challenging and stretching

- include constraints or conditions imposed by

money, manpower, resources, etc.

- be within the control of the person who is

accountable for its achievement

Check your data at this stage to ensure that you have what you need in order to

begin considering solutions..

What do you know or think you know so far?

What don’t you know yet, but would like to know?

Why is this a problem for you?

What has your client already thought of or tried?

GENERATING ALTERNATIVES

Use DIVERGENT THINKING to generate innovative and creative solutions using the

Spectrum Method:

This method states that every contribution has merit to it, however small. The value of an

idea can be looked at as a spectrum with some positive aspects and some negative. Our

competitive nature tends to steer us, however, to the negative aspects first. This method

asks us to focus on what is good and positive about it and then build on that positive

aspect and later work to reduce or eliminate any negatives.

Ex. “What I like about your suggestion is…” then you can go on to say

“I am concerned about this aspect of your suggestion,…How might I build

upon your idea and still get around this concern?”

Steps in Applying the Spectrum Principle:

1. listen carefully to the contribution of others

2. identify the positive aspects of that contribution and state them clearly as you see

them

3. wait for confirmation, elaboration or clarification from the other person

4. if you still have concerns about some aspects of the idea, express them in a way

that they can be worked on as in how might we…?

T R A N S F O R M

THE Principle for More Innovative/Creative Solutions:

T – transform: transform a basic solution into something different by making

modifications to any part of it

R – reverse: take a standard solution and turn it upside down or backwards to

see what emerges

A – adapt: take a solution that worked in another environment and adapt it to

see if it can be made to fit

N – novelize: make the strange familiar by taking an idea from a totally different

field and toying with it until it has relevance to the problem that

you are dealing with

S – substitute: if the problem lies with a particular step in the process (any sub-

unit of the larger whole), try to find a substitute for that part that

can still allow the whole to achieve its objective

F – fuse: take two or more good ideas and force them together—see what

emerges

O – omit: leave out a traditional step, omit a part of the obvious solution, stop

doing something that has already been done

R – rearrange: start at the end rather than the beginning

M – magnify: make something bigger or make it smaller (i.e. conduct a pilot

project in a small area before you try it on a national level)

Techniques for Creative Thinking Within Your Group:

- building on other’s ideas - crediting others - offering

- speculating - approximating - setting goals

- praising and reinforcing - deferring judgement - avoiding arguments

- confronting conflict - listening - not interrupting

EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES

After you have generated a list of possible actions, you must begin the task of evaluating

those options using the KEY DECISION CRITERIA identified earlier, to serve as a

basis for decision-making. Most evaluation approaches involve a comparison of COSTS,

IMPACT and FEASIBILITY. If each alternative will produce the same impact, then the

one that costs the least and/or is the most feasible is often the likely choice---but not

always! *(see page 24)

HELPFUL APPROACHES USING KEY DECISION CRITERIA :

Decision Trees - These consist of arrow diagrams that trace alternative courses of

action to their logical conclusions and consider a variety of what

ifs along the way. The costs and benefits associated with each are

recorded on the diagram and the decision maker(s) can thereby

reduce the alternatives to a manageable decision.

Evaluation Matrix - It may be helpful to create a matrix with your alternatives listed on

one axis and the various costs and benefits on the other. Allot each

factor a number of points (out of ten, for example) based on their

relative importance. Then you can rate each alternative, calculate

the total points awarded to each alternative, and select the best

solution as that which has the most points.

And finally…

MAKE A CHOICE BETWEEN THE ALTERNATIVES!

PHASE 5: PLANNING THE WORK(Action Plan) then WORKING THE PLAN (implementation)

This is the point at which you plan the work that will allow you to achieve your (and your

client’s) predetermined objective(s), and then work the plan to ensure that what you plan

actually occurs.

You will develop a work plan which will lay out who will do what, when, where, how

and with what resources. The plan will then be carried out and the progress monitored.

PLANNING THE WORK

- list the tasks involved in carrying out the decision (choice of alternatives)

- arrange them in sequence

- with more complex tasks, add the estimated time it will take to complete the

task, add who will be responsible for completing the task, add information

about where the task will be carried out, and with what tools, costs, etc.

- then…assess whether or not the plan is feasible and determine how best to

schedule each task for optimum efficiency

WORKING THE PLAN

Once you have a work plan, you and your client can begin to carry it out. This

phase of the consulting process is likely to be the most exciting and rewarding for

the client. The

consultant has a particular responsibility at this time to ensure that information

flowing back to the client from the project is timely and specific.

MANAGING THE CLIENT’S RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

Some of you may find that your recommendation to the client involves substantial or

complex change for the client and his/her organization. When this is the case, you may

experience some resistance on the part of the client. By anticipating client resistance and

getting a feel for the client’s orientation to change, (i.e. is s/he an innovator, a late

adopter, a resistor), there are a number of measures that can be taken to both avoid it, and

to deal with it when it arises:

- provide your client with opportunities for involvement throughout the project

to gain their commitment to the changes

- divide the change into a number of smaller steps so that the client (and the

people within his/her organization) can focus on one step at a time

- give the client advance notice of the possibility of a large or complex change

so that s/he has time to adjust his/her thinking

- the client should try to minimize or reduce the number of differences

introduced by the change and leave as many routines/habits in place as

possible

- be sensitive to the client’s concerns about the ripples that such change would

cause in his/her organization—introduce the change with some flexibility

- avoid pretence and false promises—be honest with your client

Some other approaches to keep in mind when trying to…

GAIN ACCEPTANCE OF CHANGE

Change is more acceptable when… What to do….

1. It is understood than when it is not. 1. Explain reasons, objective(s), and

mechanics of the change.

2. It does not seem to threaten security 2. Explain what effects the change

than when it does. will have on jobs, the future, and

the organizational structure.

3. Those affected have helped create it than 3. Whenever feasible, develop new

when it has been externally imposed. methods, procedures, etc. in

consultation with those who will

be affected.

4. It is implemented after prior change has 4. After each major change, allow

for been assimilated than when it is an adjustment period.

implemented during the adjustment to

other major change.

5. It follows a series of successful change than 5. If several changes over a period

of when it follows a series of failures. time have failed to solve a

problem, it may be better to

avoid any further change for a

while.

6. Those affected can see the “gain” factor in 6. Explain the benefits of the change

it than when they cannot. such as better distribution of

workload, work simplification,

more responsibility, better use of

talent, more opportunity, training

for better jobs, etc.

7. It results from an application of accepted 7. Avoid major change that results

policies or principles than when it is from personal likes and dislikes.

dictated by personal order.

8. People are new to a job than to people 8. The more old-timers are affected

by old on the job. the change, the more important it

is to apply other principles listed

in this chart.

9. The outcome is reasonably certain than 9. Where the outcome is uncertain,

try when it is not. the change on an experimental

basis, for a limited period, for a

test area, on a selected number of

products.

10. The organization has been trained to 10. As the consultant, encourage

plan for improvement than if the suggestions, develop a

organization is accustomed to the status questioning attitude,

quo. establish understanding that

failure of some ideas is

considered as part of the cost of

progress.

PHASE 6: EVALUATION AND TERMINATION

This is the phase of the consulting process during which the client and the consultant

look back over the project and their relationship to try to establish if objectives have

been met, what worked well and what did not, and if there are any next steps following

termination of the relationship.

PROJECT EVALUATION

Both you and the client must ask:

Where are we now?

How does this compare to where we wanted to be when we started out?

EVALUATING OF THE CONSULTING RELATIONSHIP

Arrange a final meeting with your client to review the final report (which you will have

presented to him/her at the previous meeting), and to review what has gone on between

you during the consultation, and also to look ahead at where the relationship may have

potential to go in the future. Be open and honest about how you perceive your consulting

behaviour during the relationship. Encourage your client to give you feedback. Ask him

or her to recall actions on your part that were helpful. Get them to be specific in their

answers. Also ask your client to recall (in detail) any times when you may not have been

so helpful. Open yourself to feedback about your consulting skills.

TERMINATING THE CONSULTING RELATIONSHIP

The final meeting with your client will also involve terminating the client-consultant

relationship. You and your client should reach an agreement to terminate the relationship

on a positive basis after you have discussed the project and the relationship in detail.

You may also want to leave the door open for further interaction with your client.