51811544 coke project report
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A
RESEARCH REPORT
ON
ROLE OF SALES PROMOTION ON FMCG
A Research report submitted in Partial Fulfillment of award of MBA Degree
(2011-13)
SUBMITTED BY: UNDER GUIDANCE OF:
Sukhvant Singh Mr. Vibhore Khandelwal
Roll No-1117270098 (Assistant Professor)
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Acknowledgement
There are people who simply by being what they are try to influenceyou to do things which you could never think of their spontaneous andgenuineHelp as and when neededhave helped me a lot, to gain profound knowledgeand experience in the analytical field.
My sincere thanks to HINDUSTAN COCA-COLA BEVERAGEPVT. LIMITED which have given me the golden opportunity to do my
project.
I would also like to thank Dr. S.K. Bedi (Director, LIMT) for his
proper guidance and help.
In a nutshell it is not a work of one but many others who by theirsincere efforts have contributed towards the completion of this project.
DATE: (Sukhvant Singh)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
SR.NO TOPIC PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION TO COCA
COLA COMPANY
2 RAW MATERIAL
3 SANITATION
4 SYRUP MAKING PROCESS
5 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
6 INTRODUCTION TO
QUALITY ASSURANCE
7 MICROBIOLOGY LAB AND
TESTING
8 INVERSION
9 WATER TREATMENT PLANT
10 EFFLUENT TREATMEN
PLANT
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INTRODUCTION
Soft drinks constitute one of the largest beverage industries in the world today.
Tremendous advances have taken place in the process technology in the soft drink
industries in the past one or two decades.
The beverages are divided into two groups i.e carbonated soft drink like coke, thums
up, limca, fanta etc. & non-carbonated soft drink like maaza, minute maid.
The major ingredients of soft drinks are
Water
Sugar and/or sugar substitute
Carbon dioxide
Flavor emulsion and emulsifiersColoring agents
Acids and preservatives
Coca Cola: An InsightCoca Cola: An Insight
Our RootsOur Roots
While much of the world has changed since 1886, the pure and simple magic of
one thing stays the same - COKE. The name and the product represent simple
moments of pleasure for consumers in nearly 200 COUNTRIES200 COUNTRIES around the
globe, who reach for products of The Coca Cola Company hundreds of millions of
times every single day.
John Styth Pemberton first introduced The Refreshing Taste of Coke in Atlanta,
Georgia. It was May of 1886 when the pharmacist concocted a caramel-colored
syrup in a three-legged brass kettle in his backyard. He first distributed the new
product by carrying Coin a jug down the street to Jacobs pharmacy. For five cents,
consumers could enjoy a glass of Coat the soda fountain. Whether by design or
accident, carbonated water was teamed with the new syrup, producing a drink that
was proclaimed
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Delicious and Refreshing.
Dr. Pembertons partner and bookkeeper, Frank M.Robinson, suggested the name and
penner Coke in the unique flowing script that is famous worldwide today. Mr.
Robinson thought the two would look well in advertising.By 18911891, Atlanta entrepreneurAsa G. CandlerAsa G. Candlerhad acquired complete ownership
of the Coca-Cola Business. Within four years, his merchandising flair helped
expand consumption of Coca-Cola to every state and territory. In 1919, The Coca-
Cola Company was sold to a group of investors for $25 million. Robert W.
Woodruff became president of The Coca- Cola Company in 1923, and his more
than six decades of Leadership took the business to unrivaled heights of
commercial success, making Coca Cola an institution the world over.
FIRST BOTTLEDFIRST BOTTLED
COKE began as a fountain product, but candy merchant Joseph A. Bedenharn of
Mississippi was looking for a way to serve this refreshing beverage at picnics. He
began offering bottled Coke, using syrup shipped from Atlanta, during an
especially busy summer in 1894.
In 1899, large-scale bottling became possible when Asa Candler granted exclusive
bottling rights to Joseph B. Whitehead and Benjamin F. Thomas of Chattnooga.
The contract marked the beginning of The Companys unique independent bottling
system that remains the foundation of Company Soft drink operations.
As the Company had many imitators, which consumers would be unable to
identify until they took a sip. The answer was to create a distinct bottle for Coke.
As a result, the genuine Coke bottle with the contour shape now known around the
world was developed in 1915 by the Root Glass Company.
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TRADEMARKSTRADEMARKS
The trademark Coke was registered with the US Patent & Trademark office in
1893, followed by C in 1945. The unique contour bottle, familiar to consumers
everywhere, was granted registration as a trademark by the US Patents &Trademark office in 1977, an honor awarded to only a few other packages.
In 1982, The Coca Cola Company introduced Diet Coke to US consumers,
marking the first extension of the Companys most precious trademark to another
product. Later years saw the introduction of additional products bearing the name
of Coca-Cola, which now encompasses a powerful line of six cola products.
Today, the worlds favorite soft drink, Coke, is also the worlds best known and
most admired trademark, recognized by more than 90 PER CENT90 PER CENT of the worlds
population.
THE PLANT AN OVERVIEW
AREA OF LAND
Total site area 40 acres
Built up area 4 acres
Green belt development 4 acres
Ambitious state-of the-art Dasna Plant. Second Largest as well as the most hi-tech
bottling green Field plant in Northern India, established on 16 th Feb 1999. The
plant in spread on an area of 40 acres which is 45 km away from Delhi.
Commissioned in March 1999, it has a sophisticated facility for bottling the PET,
RGB as well as fountain filling. The plant has1 Kinley, 2 ,1 PET,1 Hotfill, 3 RGB
lines,1 Tetra, 1 Krones. The sales are made through indirect distribution and serve
33000 retailers around 7 districts in total.
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Built up area break up
Main building including Process areas , Packaging areas ,
Warehouse , Stores & ETP
13096 m2
Utility 1755 m2
Caustic , HSD, Cooling towers, carbon dioxide , raw
water tanks
3196 m2
Admin. Block 918 m2
Empty Bottle storage yard 9600 m2
Car parking 490 m2
Truck Parking 1890 m2
Concrete roads 7500 m2
ETP 3000 m2
LPG store 120 m2
Driver amenities 64 m2
Contract Labour amenities 108 m2
Forklift repair area 100 m2
Security building 24.5 m2
Caustic storage area 100 m2
HSD storage area 324 m2
Carbon dioxide storage 1800 m2
Raw water storage area 720 m2
Switch yard 180 m2
HINDUSTAN COCA COLA BEVERAGES PRIVATE LIMITED
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Coca Cola, the name and the product represent simple moments of pleasure for
consumers in nearly 200 countries around the globe.
John Smith Pemberton first introduced the refreshing taste of coca cola in Atlanta,
Georgia. It was May of 1886 when the pharmacist concocted caramel coloured syrup
in a three-legged brass kettle in his backyard. He first distributed the new product by
carrying Coca-Cola in a jug down the street to Jacobss pharmacy. For five cents,
consumers could enjoy a glass of Cola-Cola at the soda fountain. Whether by design
or accident, carbonated water was teamed with the new syrup, producing a drink that
was proclaimed delicious and refreshing. Thus Coca Cola began as a fountain
product.
In 1899 large scale bottling became possible when Asa Candler granted exclusive
bottling rights to Joseph B. Whitehead and Benjamin F. Thomas of Chattanooga,
Tennessee. Today coca-cola products reach consumers and customers around the
world through a vast distribution network made up of local bottling companies. These
bottlers are located around the world, and most are independent businesses. Using
syrups, concentrates and beverage bases produced by the Coca-Cola Company. The
global bottling system packages and markets products, then distributes them to more
than 14 million retail outlets worldwide.
The trademark Coca-cola was registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark office
in 1893, followed by Coke in 1945.
In 1982, the Coca-Cola Company introduced diet coke to U.S consumers, marking the
first extension of the Companys most precious trademark to another product. Later
years saw the introduction of additional products bearing the Coca-Cola name, which
now encompasses a powerful line of cola products. Today, the worlds favourite soft
drink, Coca-Cola is one of the worlds best-known and most admired trademarks,
recognized by more than 90 percent of the worlds population.
RAW MATERIAL TESTING
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1. CARBON DIOXIDE STANDARDS
Moisture not more than 20 ppm
Total sulphur Not more than 0.1ppm v/v
Total volatile Hydrocarbon Not more than 50 ppm v/v
Purity not less than99.9% v/v
Appearance No color or turbidity
Taste or Odor Free of foreign taste or odor
TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE
a) PURITY
PROCEDURE :-
1. Fill the Zahm CO2 purity tester with water and observe for any airbubbles
2. Attach the connecting tube to the sample valve of CO2 system3. Open the stop cork between reservoir & body of tester.4. Open the stop cork on the body of the tester before attaching the tubing
and allow water to flow out.5. Quickly attach the tubing. Which has CO2 flowing through it, forcing
the water into reservoir
6. Allow the flow of gas to continue for about 30 sec.Close the stopcockon the body of tester. Then close the stamping valve and reservoirstopcock and detach tester from sampling tube.
7. Fill the reservoir with 30% w/v NaOH8. Open the stopcock and allow the NaOH to flow into tester body.
Agitate the tester to be sure all CO2 is absorbed.9. When the bubble remains constant in size close the reservoir stopcock.10. Read % purity from the scale.
b) ODOR (SNOW TEST)
PROCEDURE:-
1. Collect liquid CO2(snow) in plastic bag (approx 550cc)2. To a flask add about 200ml treated water then add about 250cc of
snow and cover immediately.3. Swirl the liquid in flask and sniff odor in headspace. No odor should be
there.
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Typical off odors
Fruity
Rotten egg, sewer,silage,sulfury
Acetaladehyde
Hydrogen sulfide
2. TESTS FOR SUGAR
a) TASTE
1. Make 50 Brix solution.
2. Take 10 ml of this solution and make upto 100 ml3. Check the taste of this sample
b) ODOR
1. Half fill a wide mouth screw capped bottle with dry sugar2. Heat to 50 C3. Smell and note the nature of any off odor
c) ODOR AFTER ACIDIFICATION
1. Smell the 50 brix solution at room temperature and note any off-odor2. Add 0.2ml 75% w/v phosphoric acid to 50 ml of sugar solution in a
100ml glass beaker and mix3. Cover the beaker with a watch glass and heat to 50C in a water bath or
incubator.4. Smell the solution every 10 min for 30min and note the nature of any
off odor.
d) TURBIDITY
1. Prepare 492g of 50 brix solution by dissolving 246g of sugar in 246gdistilled water.
2. Examine the 50 brix solution in a glass beaker.3. Turbidity meter ready must be
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1. Weigh 10g sugar in a sterile 250 ml flask and add sterile100 ml waterupto the mark. Cover with a foil and agitate to dissolve sugar.
2. Pour the solution into filter funnel.3. Cover the funnel, apply vacuum.4. Wash the flask twice with 250ml sterile water.
5. Transfer the membrane to a sterile petridish (M-TGE medium for totalcount and M-green yeast and mold medium on schaufus Pottingermedium for yeast and mold count) and incubate at 35 C or 28 C
6. for total count, count the colonies at 24hrs and at 72 hours. For yeastand count , count colonies at 48 hrs and at 24 hrs interval thereafteruntil 5 days have lapsed.
f) COLOR (ICUMSA)
1.Weight 50gm of sugar sample in a 250ml conical flask, add 50gm ofTriethanol amine Solution ( weigh 7.460gm TEA in a beaker and make
upto 500ml). Dissolve it by swirling.2. filter the solution through 0.45 micron filter.3. set the spectrophotometer at 420nm4.Rinse the cell with sugar solution and then fill with sugar solution.5.keep TEA solution as standard blank.
ICUMSA = ABSORBANCE X 1000
Cell Length (in cm) x conc.(g/cm3)
3. TEST FOR CONCENTRATE
To ensure a good quality beverage, concentrate receipts and handling ought tobe properly managed.
Every possible precaution is taken to guarantee that the containers of flavorconcentrates arrive at the bottling plant in perfect condition. Additional precautionsmust be taken while the concentrate is in storage in the plant. Formulas instructionsand packaging labeling should be followed exactly and will indicate the particularrequirement needed in terms of storage needs and mixing for a particular product.
The following points must be taken care of with regard to concentrates:
1) Sanitary condition: Storage in clean, dry, closed area free from insect infection.2) Temperature: Storage temperature is between 4 to 10*C /ambient for dry base. Norefrigeration should be done until required to do so.3) First in First out: The oldest stock in hand should be used first4) Stacking and Sorting: They should be kept on wooden platforms, above the floorright side up and yet not very high above the ground.5) Inspection: The containers must be scrutinized for seal damage leaks, date of
production and other damages.6) Sealing of containers: Partly used containers contents must be transferred to glassor stainless steel containers and then used as early as possible.
4 AUXILLARY MATERIAL TESTING
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i) Lime testing:-
Requirement:
3N HCL
0.02N EDTA solution (reagent A).
1N NaOH
Hydroxy napthol blue.
A conical flask.
500ml volumetric flask.
A 50ml beaker.
Distill water.
2 pipettes of 10ml.
Procedure
1. Weigh 1.5gm of lime powder in a beaker.2. Add 10ml of distill water in above beaker.3. Then add 30ml of 3N HCL.4. Transfer it to conical flask for thorough mixing.5. Take a 500ml volumetric flask.6. Transfer contents of conical flask to volumetric flask, made up the volume by
distill water.7. Put the cap of volumetric flask and mix thoroughly.8. Pipette out 5ml of volumetric flask content into conical flask.9. Add 10ml distill water, 1.5ml 1N NAOH and 0.30mg of Hydroxy napthol
blue.
10. Titrate it with EDTA solution.11. End point Blackish purple to blue.
Formula used:
Lime % = B.R 3.705 100 0.02
1.5
Where,B.R = Burette readingStandard for lime % = 95
ii) Caustic checking:-
Requirements:-
A conical flask.
Distill water.
50ml beaker.
Dropper.
Measuring cylinder.
Phenolphthalein indicator.
Procedure:-
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1. Weigh 1.5g of caustic sample with the help of dropper in 50ml beaker.2. Add 40ml distill water to the weighed sample and mix it thoroughly.3. Transfer it to conical flask and add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator4. Titrate it with 1N H2SO4 .5. End point- pink to colorless
Formula used:-
Caustic % = B.R 4
1.5
Where,B.R = Burette readingStandard for caustic % = 48
iii) Ferrous sulphate checking:-
Requirements:- 4N H2SO4 .
3 N HCL.
1N NaOH.
0.1N KMnO4.
50ml beaker.
250ml volumetric flask.
Funnel.
Distill water.
Conical flask.
Ortho phosphoric acid. 2 pipettes of 10ml.
Procedure:-
1. Weigh 5gm sample in beaker.2. Add distill water to weighed sample, mix it thoroughly & transfer it to
volumetric flask and make up the volume, again mix it.3. Pipette out 50ml vol. flask content into conical flask, and then add 10ml
H2SO4 and 2ml ortho phosphoric acid.4. Titrate it with 0.1N KMnO4.5. End point Colorless to light pink.
Formula used:-
FeSO4 % = 139 B.R 0.1
Wt. of sample taken
Where,B.R = Burette reading
Standard for ferrous sulphate % = 97
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PACKAGING MATERIAL TEST
The finished products are packaged in cartons and are dispatched for themarket. The tests ensure the suitability of the packet for the market, as a packet ofinsufficient strength would spoil all the efforts of carefully manufactured product.
PACKAGING MATERIAL
# Glass Bottles
# Crowns
# Pets
# Plastic caps
# Wrap around Labels
# Corrugated Cartons
# Shrink films
They are checked for weight dimensions, breaking strength compressionstrength etc. The other details for expiry date, manufacturer date are printed on
the carton.
# RGB(RETURNABLE GLASS BOTTLES)
Procedure for sampling of RGBs
Select 50 samples from each incoming consignment of 22000 bottles
1. Draw samples from min. 5 different crates / bulk packs with bottles of
different mould nos. for equitable sample representation
2. Maintain linkage between samples drawn and the consignment. Thisshall enable resampling, resorting quarantine of the sampled lot ifrequired.
3. Inspect the Glass bottles as per the quality plan.
# CROWNS
Procedure for sampling of Crowns
1. Packet contains 1200 crowns.
2. Different flavors have different crowns.
3. Select 25 samples from each incoming consignment of 100 boxes (5 from eachof 5 boxes).
4. If out of 50 crowns, 5 or 8 found defected then that consignment should berejected.
5. If only one critical defect is there then neglected.
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There are mainly three types of defects.
1. Critical defects.
No liner.
Deformed crowns
Foreign crowns.(like Limca in ThumsUp) Foreign material.
Height out of specification(Go No Go)
OD out of specification(Go No Go)
Incorrect text(Std. color should be there)
2. Major defects.
Rust
Burrs.
Die scratches.
Excess liner
Under fill liner
3. Minor defects.
Litho damage.
Litho off center.
Lith off color.
Scratched decoration.
No decoration.
Smudgy decoration.
Liner adhesive poor.
# Wrap around labels
Procedure for sampling of Wrap around labels
Select 50 wrap around labels, randomly from each incoming lot of 35000
150000 labels
Maintain linkage between samples drawn and the consignment. This shall
enable resampling, resorting quarantine of the sampled lot, if required. Inspect the Wrap around label as per the quality plan taking samples one from
each bundle of 200 labels.
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# Corrugated Cartons
Procedure for sampling of corrugated cartons
Select 20 Samples, randomly from each incoming truck load of approx. 6500 7000 Cartons.
Maintain linkage between samples drawn and the consignment. This shall
enable resampling, resorting quarantine of the sampled lot, if required.
Inspect the Carton as per the quality plan.
# Plastic closures
Procedure for sampling of plastic closure
Select 25 samples randomly from each incoming consignment of 100 boxes of
approx. 2.2mm plastic closure(one container load)
Draw samples from min. 5 different boxes; with closures of different liner no.
for equitable sample representation.
Incase some consignment contains closures of different brands, Draw samples
equitable for each brand.
Maintain linkage between samples drawn and the consignment this shall
enables resampling, resorting quarantine of the sampled lot, if required.
Inspect the plastic closures as per the quality plan.
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SANITATION:
The most important sanitation programme in the beverage plant deals with cleaning
and sanitizing of the surfaces that come in contact with syrup beverage, or ingredients
in their preparation.
Proper sanitation performed at the recommended frequency will minimize and most
likely completely eliminate the potential for bacteria, yeast and mold reproduction and
growth.
3 step CIP
Rinse with treated water
Hot water
Final rinse with treated water
5 step CIP
Rinse with treated water
Hot caustic rinse (1.5% - 2.5% of caustic with a temp. of 73 C)
Rinse with treated water
Hot water rinse (85 C)
Final rinse with treated water
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SYRUP MAKING PROCESS:
SYRUP PREPARATION:
Syrup preparation is carried out by two methods:
a) Batch System
b) Continuous System
BATCH SYSTEM
Treated Water
Sugar dissolving tank
Heating (85 Deg cent)
Addition of sugar
Contact time 30 minFilter
Precoating
Filtration in Plate and frame filter pressPressure difference-In-
2.5kg/cm2 Out-2.0kg/cm2
CoolingPlate heat exchangerRefrigerant-Glycol &cold
Water (by water-up to 35Deg cent followed by glycol
22-40 Deg cent)Simple raw syrup
Mixing with concentrate
Ready syrup
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CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (Capacity: 5000 ltr/hr)
Treated Water
Heating (PHE) to 85 Deg centCarbon Sugar
Contisolv
Mixing and dissolving
Holding (85 Deg cent-30 min)
Filtration
Buffer tank
Bag Filter
Cooling (PHE) [Pasteurization]
Syrup Tank
Concentrate addition
Ready syrup
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
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Depalletizing
Uncasing
Sorting / Removal of Foreign Matter
Bottle Washer
EBI (Empty bottle inspector)
Proportioner
Filling & Capping
Date Coding
Final Inspection
Casing
Palletizing
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1) DEPALATIZING: Separation of bottle cases from palate.
It is carried out manually, and cases are supplied to conveyer, for uncasing.
2) UNCASING: Removing of bottles from case. It is carried out by using uncaser
machine.
3) BOTTLE WASHING:Bottle washing is completed in following stages:
a) Pre-rinse:- Here empty bottles are rinsed by water used in first rinse.
b) First soak: - Bottles are soaked in surface active reagent solution like
caustic(2.8%) and Divo NEF ( 0.2-0.3%) . Here temperature is 60 deg cent and
pressure is 2-3 bars.
c) Second soak: - First soak is followed by second soak, here temperature is
maintained at 74 deg cent and pressure is at 2-3 bars.
d) Third soak: - Here again temperature is maintained as that of first soak.
This section wise soaking is carried to avoid thermal shocks to bottles .the
temperature difference between two soaks should not be more than 25 deg cent.
e) Rinse: - Here rinsing is carried out in four stages as first, second, third and final.
For rinsing, truated soft water is used. The flow of water is from final soak to dirst
soak. Water from first soak is used in pre rinse
Following are major issues and their reasons, during bottle washing.
a) Caustic carry over in bottles*
Chocked jets or disturbed jet alignment
Not proper water pressure.
Too high caustic dose.
Blowers off.
b) Excess breakage
Thermal shocks (high temperature difference between two sections of bottle washer)
Damaoed poskets.
c) M.B. Positive
Dirty bottles in feed
Caustic and additive percent is not up po limit.
Soak wise temperature difference.
d) Excess damage to bottle neck:
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Improper jet alignment.
Damaged pockets
e) M.B. Contamination:
Scales in prefinal and final rinse.
Improper temperature and contect ti}e.
Flow diagram of Bottle washer
Empty bottles handling
Removal of foreign material
Bottle washing in washer
Inspection of returnable bottles
Ready for filling
4) EBI (Empty Bottle Inspector): It is the new technique that is being used in coca
cola company.
It is used to detect 4 kinds of defects in the returnable glass bottles. In this cameras
and sensors are used to check the defects in the bottles.
Four kinds of defects are:
1) BASE :- it checks if the base is 3mm or not.
2) ISW ( Inner Side Wall) :- it checks if the inner side of the bottle wall is 3mm or
not.
3) IR :- it detects the level of water residue.
4) Radio Frequency :- it checks the level of caustic in bottle.
5) PROPORTIONER:
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Machine used for mixing of syrup, carbon dioxide and water in proper
proportion is called as Proportioner
It contains following major parts:
Deairation
Proportioning
Carbonating unit
Cooling unit
6) FILLING:
The operational principle is based on following functions
Positioning
Pressurizing
Filling
Closing & decompression
7) CROWNING:
Crowning applies the closure to the filled bottle.
The basic types of closures and closing equipment are
Crowns: For glass bottles.
Plastic closures : For PET bottles
The function of the crowner is to mechanically apply and seal crowns to bottles. This
uses a crimping technique that applies pressure to the top and sides of the crown.
This pressure causes the crown to adapt to the neck of the bottle
The capper applies a pre-threaded plastic closure on the bottle, centers and pre
tightens the closure onto the bottle. The final stage seals to a pre-set dynamic torque.
When the pre set torque is reached, the clutch steps to prevent further tightening.
8) PACKAGE LABELLING:
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Labellers are used to apply labels to returnable stock bottles and PET containers.
Labels can be used for special sales or promotions. Sleeve labels have the advantage
of more consistent operation with no glue application
Labels can be made of:
Plastic laminate
Paper
Combination of material
9) DATE CODING:
Date coding matter should include following information.
Date of production.
Time of production.
Batch number
Line identification.
The coder is installed on the production line and identifies the filled beverage package
as to establish
Production date
Regulatory requirements
Mandatory information
This informations would allow plant to check back if there were any problems with
that production and to effectively manage the age of inventory in trade.
.10) FINAL INSPECTION:
The beverage filled bottles are again passed through a manual inspection station
where the beverage is scrutinised for appearance, clarity, presence of any particulate
matter, and half filled bottles. Rejected bottles are removed before packaging into
cases
11) CASING:
Mechanically by using caser machine casing is carried out.
12) WAREHOUSING:
The filled bottles are arranged in cases and through a belt conveyor system are taken
to the shipping or warehouse area where they are stored till they are marketed.
INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY ASSURANCE
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It is the total arrangement made with the object of ensuring that beverage
products are of the quality required for their intended use.
The system of quality assurance appropriate to the manufacture of foodproducts should ensure that:
a) Beverages are designed and developed in a way that accounts of the
requirements of GMP and associates codes such as those of good laboratory
practice GLP and good clinical practice (GCP).
b) Production and control operations are clearly specified in a written form and
GMP requirements are adopted.
c) Arrangements are made for the manufacture, supply, and use of the correct
starting and packaging material.
d) All necessary control on starting materials, intermediated products, and bulk
products and other in process controls, calibrations and validations are carried
out.
e) The finish product is correctly processed and checked, according to the
defined procedures.
f) Beverages are not sold or supplied before the authorized person have certified
that each production batch has been produced and controlled in according with
the requirements of the label claim and any other regulations relevant to the
production, control and release of pharmaceutical products.
g) Satisfactory arrangements exist to ensure, as for as possible, that the
pharmaceutical products are stored by the manufacturer, distributed and
subsequently handled so that quality is maintained through out their shelf life.
h) There is a procedure for self inspection and/or quality audit that regularly
appraises the effectiveness and applicability of the QA system.
To achieve the quality objective reliably there must be a comprehensively
designed and correctly implemented system of QA incorporating GMP
and QC.
MICROBIOLOGY LAB
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To distinguish the food of acceptable quality from food of unacceptable quality
required the application of what are known as microbiological criteria. Three different
types of microbiological criteria have been identified.
1) A microbiological standard is a criteria specified in a law or regulation. It is a
legal requirement that foods must meet and is enforceable by the appropriate
regulatory agency.
2) A microbiological specification is a criteria applied in commerce. It is a
contractual condition of acceptance that is applied by a purchaser attempting to
define the microbiological quality of a product or ingredient, failure of the
supplier to meet the specification will result in the rejection of the batch or a lowerprice.
3) A microbiological guideline is used to monitor the microbiological
acceptability of a product or process. It differs from the standard or specification
in that it is more often advisory than mandatory.
The microbiological laboratory of QA is well equipped and maintained. All the
microbiological work is carried out in it.
COMMONLY USED INSTRUMENTS IN MICROBIOLOGY LAB
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AUTOCLAVE
An Autoclave
An autoclave is a pressurized devicedesigned to heat aqueous solutions above their
boiling point to achieve sterilization. It was invented by Charles Chamberlandin
1879.[1] It is used for moist heat sterilization, which is carried out at 121C for 30
minutes at 15 psi. Media is sterilized by autoclave Under ordinary circumstances (at
standard pressure), liquid watercannot be heated above 100 C in an open vessel.
Further heating results in boiling, but does not raise the temperature of the liquid
water. However, when water is heated in a sealed vessel such as an autoclave, it is
possible to heat liquid water to a much higher temperature. As the container is heated
the pressure rises due to the constant volumeof the container (see theideal gas law).
The boiling point of the water is raised because the amount ofenergy needed to form
steam against the higher pressure is increased. This works well on solid objects; when
autoclaving hollow objects, however, (hypodermic needles,tools, etc.), it is
important to ensure that all of the trapped air inside the hollow compartments is
vacuumed out.
Autoclaves are widely used inmicrobiology, medicine, veterinary science,
dentistry and metallurgy. The large carbon-fibercomposite parts for the Boeing
787, such as wing and fuselage parts, are cured in large autoclaves
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INCUBATOR
An Incubator
An incubator comprises a transparent chamber and the equipment that regulates its
temperature, humidity, and ventilation. For years, the principle uses for the controlled
environment provided by incubators included hatching poultry eggs and caring for
premature or sick infants, but a new and important application has recently emerged,
namely, the cultivation and manipulation of microorganisms for medical treatmentand research. It is used for providing favorable temperature conditions for the growth
of culture organisms. Generally the temperature of incubator is operated at 37C for
the growth of microorganisms
Laboratory incubators were first utilized during the twentieth century, when doctors
realized that they could be could be used to identify pathogens in patients' bodily
fluids and thus diagnose their disorders more accurately. After a sample has been
obtained, it is transferred to a Petri dish, flask, or some other sterile container and
placed in a rack inside the incubator. To promote pathogenic growth, the air inside the
chamber is humidified and heated to body temperature (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit or 37
degrees Celsius). In addition, these incubators provide the amount of atmospheric
carbon dioxide or nitrogen necessary for the cell's growth. As this carefully
conditioned air circulates around it, the microorganism multiplies, enabling easier and
more certain identification.
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CENTRIFUGE
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment, generally driven by a motor, that puts an object
in rotation around a fixed axis, applying force perpendicular to the axis. The
centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where thecentripetal acceleration
is used to separate substances of greater and lesser density. There are many different
kinds of centrifuges, including those for very specialised purposes
It is used to separate the suspended matters as pallets/button/residue from the liquid as
supernatant.
MICROSCOPE
A Microscope
A microscope is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the
naked or unaided eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an
instrument is called microscopy. The term microscopic means minute or very small,
not visible with the eye unless aided by a microscope. The microscopes used inschools and homes trace theirhistoryback almost 400 years
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pH METER
A pH meter is an electronic instrument used to measure the pH (acidity orbasicity) of
a liquid A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode)
connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading.It is used
to obtain pH value of different sample calibration is done carried out with standard
buffer solution of pH 4.0, 7.0, 10.0
A simple pH meter with its probe immersed in a mildly alkaline solution. The
two knobs are used to calibrate the instrument
LAMINAR AIR FLOW UNIT
A Laminar Air Flow Unit
LAF unit is used for providing sterilized airflow by means of High EfficiencyParticulate Air (HEPA) filters
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HOT AIR OVEN
A Hot Air Oven
It is used for dry heat sterilization. Glasswares, Petri plates and pipettes are
packed in stainless steel containers and kept at 180C for 2 hrs.
BOD INCUBATOR
A BOD Incubator
It is used for fungal growth at 22C.
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CYCLOMIXER
It is used to mix the suspended particles.
STOMACHER LAB BLENDER
It is used for dissolving sample without the destruction of the organism for
which the cost is to be carried out. Sample + dilution is placed in the
recommended bags provided the total volume should be with in recommendedcapacity of the machine (80 400 ml).
WEIGHING BALANCE
It is a precious weighing instrument for small load. It is used primarily in
professional and technical application. It is calibrated against standard weights.
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VALIDATION OF EQUIPMENTS
In general, validation is the process of checking if something satisfies a certaincriterion. Examples would include checking if a statement is true (validity), if
an appliance works as intended, if a computersystem is secure, or if computer
data are compliant with an open standard. Validation implies one is able to
testify that a solution or process is correct or compliant with set standardsor
rules.
In food industry, validationrefers to establishing documented evidence that a
process or system, when operated within established parameters, can perform
effectively and reproducibly to produce a medicinal product meeting its pre-
determined specifications and quality attributes
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MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING:
Different types of media used in microbiology lab to test microbiological count in
various samples.
Media used for water testing:
Water being the essential component of beverage industry is tested against microbes
using various media.
1. Chloromphenicol yeast glucose agar:
Standard formula:
Yeast extract : 5.00 gms/ltr
Dextrose : 20.00 gms/ltr
Chloromphenicol : 0.10 gms/ltr
Agar :14.90 gm/ltr
pH (at 25 c ) 6.6 + 0.2
Directions: Suspend 40.0 gms of salt in 1000ml distilled water. Heat to boiling to
dissolve the medium completely. Sterilize by autoclaving at 15lbs pressure at 121 c
temperature for 15 mins.
Use : To check yeast and mold in water .
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2. Violet Red Bile Agar:
Standard Formula:
Peptic digest of animal tissues : 7.00 gms/ltr
Yeast extract : 3.00 gms/ltr
Lactose : 10.00 gms/ltr
Bile salts mixture : 1.50 gms/ltr
Nacl : 5.00 gms/ltr
Neutral Red : 0.03 gms/ltr
Agar : 15:00 gms/ltr
pH (at 25 c ) 7.4 + 0.2
Directions : Suspend 41.53 gms of salt in 1000 ml distilled water . Heat to boiling to
dissolve the medium completely. Cool to 45 c and immediately our into sterile petri
plates containing the innoculum. If Desired , medium can be sterilized by autoclaving
at 15lbs pressure at 121 c temperature for 15 mins.
Use : For selective Isolation , detection and enumeration of Coli aerogens bacteria
in water, milk and other dairy food products.
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3.EMB Agar :
Standard formula :
Peptic digest of animal tissues : 10.00 gms/ltr
Dipotassium phosphate: 2.00 gms/ltr
Lactose : 5.00 gms/ltr
Sucrose : 5.00 gms/ltr
Eosin Y : 0.40 gm/ltr
Methylene Blue : 0.005 gms/ltr
Agar : 13.50 gms/ltr
pH (at 25c ) 7.2+0.2
Directions: Suspend 36 gms in 1000 ml distilled water. Heat to boiling to dissolve the
medium completely. Dispense and Sterilse by autoclaving at 15lbs pressure at 121 c
temperature for 15 mins.
Use : Used for differential isolation of Gram-ve enteric bacilli from clinical and non-
clinical specimen.
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4. CC2:
Standard Formula:
Yeast extract: 9 gms/ltr
Cerelose : 50 gms/ltr
Bio Peptone : 10 gms/ltr
Magnesium Sulphate : 2.10 gms/ltr
Potassium sulphate: 2.00 gms/ltr
Diastase : 0.05 gms/ltr
Thiamine : 0.026 gms/ltr
Bromo Cresol Green Agar : 15.00 gms/ltr
pH (at 25 c ) 4.6+0.2
Directions: Suspend 8.82 gms in 1000 ml distilled water . Mix thoroughly. Heat to
boiling to dissolve the medium completely. Dispense and Sterilse by autoclaving at
12-15lbs pressure at( 118- 121 c) temperature for 15 mins.
Use : For counting yeast and molds in samples by membrane filter method.
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Media used for checking and controlling microbial count in MAAZA.
5. Orange Serum Agar:
Standard Formula:
Casien enzymatic Hydrolysate: 10 gms/ltr
Yeast Extract : 3 gms/ltr
Dextrose : 4 gms/ltr
Dipotassium Phosphate : 2.50 gms/ltr
Orange Serum Agar ( solid from 200 ml): 17 gms/ltr
pH (at 25 c) 5.5+0.2
Directions: Suspend 45-5 gms in 1000ml Distilled water . Heat to boiling to dissolve
the medium completely. Dispense and Sterilse by autoclaving at 12-15lbs pressure
at( 118- 121 c) temperature for 15 mins. Avoid overheating . Mix well and pour into
Sterile Petri plates.
Use: For Cultivation and enumeration of micro- organisms associated with spoilage
of citrus products. Cultivation of Lacto bacilli and other aciduric organism and
pathogenic fungi.
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INVERSION:
INVERTED BRIX: This is the brix which is found after breaking of sucrose in two
parts and molecular weight increases due to water molecule addition in the presence
of acid.
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(SUCROSE) (GLUCOSE) (FRUCTOSE)
(342) (180) (180)
(A) (B) {360}
(A) Sucrose is 95% of (B) because of that
Inverted Brix * 95 = actual brix
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Procedure:
1) Expel the CO2 from the sample properly.
2) Take 50 ml of decarbonated Sample in a cleaned and dry bottle after rinsing the
bottle twice with the decarbonated beverage.
3) Add 0.3ml of the HCl stock solution (made for inverted brix checking) in the 50ml
of the sample.
4) Cap the bottle properly and keep in water bath to reflux it at 900C for 90 mins.
5) Now cool down the sample to room temperature.
6) Check the brix and note down it.
Inverted Brix should be = (Std. Brix of the flavour/0.95) +- 0.15
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WATER TREATMENT PLANT
INTRODUCTION
The bottling plant receives its water supply from 3 bore wells .This water is first
treated and then used for beverage preparation.
NEED TO TREAT WATER
Water is treated to remove:
Colloidal and suspended particles.
Undesirable odor, taste and color.
Reduction in alkalinity to desired level.
Micro organisms.
COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER
Suspended solids: Includes all matter suspended in water that is large enough to be
retained on a filter with a given porosity.
Turbidity: Indicates level of colloidal matter of organic or inorganic origin.
Alkalinity: Indicates the quantifiable quantities of carbonates, bi carbonates and
hydroxides in water.
Total hardness: Indicates the quantifiable quantities of calcium and magnesium.
Total dissolved solvents: Indicates total content of dissolved solids in water.
EFFECT OF CONTAMINATED WATER ON PRODUCT
Contaminants present a danger to taste, aroma and appearance of beverage.
Physical discrepancies in water as turbidity, color, odour, taste can have an almost
immediate effect on beverage flavor or appearance. Even when present in small
amounts, there remains a danger to product shelf life.
Turbidity or small levels of colloidal matter can cause foaming problem either at the
filler or while the beverage is being filled or later when the bottle \can is opened by
the consumer.
Micro organisms like yeast affect taste & odour and can cause sediment or floc to
develop.
Organic matter affects beverage sensory characters and shorten the shelf life
Chemicals and minerals affect adversely the taste of beverage.
High alkalinity _ can quickly neutralize and delicate acidity of the beverage.
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STANDARS OF WATER AT COCA COLA COMPANY
Turbidity Ntu < 0.5 ntu
pH > 4.9
Alkalinity (M as Ca(co)3 < 85 mg/l
Chlorine Nil
Chlorides < 250 mg/l
Sulfates < 250 mg/l
Chlorides + Sulfates < 400 mg/l
TDS < 500 mg/l
TH & Cal Hardness Per product Requirement
Sodium -DO-
Iron < 0.1 mg/l
Aluminum < 0.1 mg/l
Color No visible Color
Taste No detectable off taste
Odor None
Trihalomethanes Below 100 ppb
Microorganisms Coliform Nil/100 ml
Total Count
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WATER TREATMENT PLANT TESTING
It includes various tests under physical and chemical parameters.
These tests are:-
1) Physical Parameter:
TDS
Odour
Taste
Turbidity
Appearance
2 )Chemical Parameters:
Calcium hardness
Sulfate
Iron
Total Hardness
Total and Partial Alkanity
Chloride
Free/Total Chlorine
WATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOWCHART
Bore wells
Raw water storage
3 Streams
Coagulation Softening Domestic
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TREATED WATER
Raw Water Tank
Free chlorine (2-3ppm)
Coagulation Tank
.
Lime, bleaching pd., FeSO4
Clear Water tank
Pressurized Sand Filters (PSF)
Dechlorination
Activated Carbon Filters (ACF)
Lead ACF
Lag ACF
5 micron filter
UV chamber
3 micron filter
1 micron filter
Treated water
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USE OF TREATED WATER
Syrup making, beverage preparation and CIP.
Filler for cleaning and flushing.Water coolers.
Back washing of PSF and ACF of treated water
SOFTENING STREAM
Raw water
P.S.F.
A.C.F.
Softener (24% brine)
Soft water
USE OF CHLORINATED SOFT WATER IN
Bottle washer.
Crate washer.
PET rinser.
USE OF NON CHLORINATED SOFT WATER IN
Boiler.
Chiller.
PET blower.
Cooling system.
KINLEY WATER MANUFACTURE
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Water from bore well
Coagulation
PSF
Storage tank
Dechlorination ACF
Two tier ACF
UV chamber
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis membrane filtration process
Storage tank
Micron filter
Ozonation
Filling and capping
Warmer and blower
Labeling
Date coding
Packaging
Palletizing
VARIOUS WATER TREATMENTS
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Functions of different water Treatment Process
1) Chlorination
Scope
Destruction of micro organisms.
Oxidation of heavy metal ions and organic impurities.
2) Coagulation and Flocculation
Scope
Reduction of alkalinity.
Removal of dirt clay and other suspended matter.
Removes microbial matter
Heavy metals and compounds causing off taste.
Chemicals Used in coagulation and flocculation:
Lime: Reduces alkalinity and temporary hardness.
Bleaching Powder: Removes color, turbidity, kills microbes and acts as a coagulant
aid.
Ferrous sulphate: Used as a coagulant for quicker settlement of suspended particles.
Soda Ash: Reduces permanent hardness and is used when total hardness in water is
higher than total alkalinity.
3) Pressure Sand Filter
Scope
Removes colloidal material
Removes suspended micro particles
Media Used 6 layers of sand ranging from coarse gravel to fine sand.
Optimum Flow Rate
Pressure should not exceed 4.8 m2/hr/sq meter of surface area in case of PSF.
Pressure should not exceed 8.5 m3/hr/sq meter of surface area for$Gravity Sand Filter
Back Wash Frequency Done when turbidity 0.4 NTU (Normally once in 24 hrs.)
Sanitation Done by 50 ppm chlorine solution.
4) Activated Carbon Filter
Scope
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Removes trace level of organic compounds
Removes color, taste and odour causing compounds.
Media Used Activated Carbon0(by adsorption)
Optimum Flow Rate Should not exceed 9.& m3/hr/sq meter of carbon bed
Back Wash and Sanitation(Frequency
Turbidity 0.5 NTU
Depends on the chlorine carry over
Sanitation done by steam at 1.5 kg for around 4 hrs at a temp of 85 C.
Noreal frequency once in 9 days.
5) Softener
Scope To reduce the hardness of water.
Medium Used Sodium resins
Resin0Quantity "1500 ltr. ( Ex: Indion 225)
Working(Priociple Na+ will be exclcnged with the hardness causing
elemunts.MRegeneration
Fepends on the hardness of output wa|er (generally every 4 days)
Done0by 2
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It reduces alkalinity and total dissolved solids by more than 90 %
Reduces inorganic such as Na, Cl, SO4
Reduces large organic molecules and organisms at efficiency more than 99%
The usual molecular weight range is below 300 Dalton
Operating pressure range is from 200 450 psi.
Advantages:
Highly effective against a wide spectrum of contaminants.
Easy to operate.
Cost effective when designed properly
Minimum space requirement
Can handle changes in water supply and level of impurities.
Disadvantages:
Polyamide membranes must be protected against effects of chlorine.
Cellulose acetate membranes are biodegradable.
Efficiency of unit affected by the temperature of raw water.
Higher the organic content of incoming water, less effective the unit.
The effluent waste water from system pose disposal problems.
9) Decaustisizer:
Decaustisizer
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Bottle Washer
Rinsing water from bottlewasher
PHE
(Plate Heat Exchanger)
Chlorination
Settling Tank
Overflow Tank
PSF
ACF
Decaustisizer (here the pH decreases)
Chlorine dozing
Degaser
Decausitisizer Storage Tank
Rinsing water bottle washer
WATER TREATMENT PLANT TESTING
1. Chloride test:-
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Take 50ml sample in a conical flask
Add 2 drops of P. indicator
Add 0.02N H2SO4
(Until pink color disappears).
Add 5 drops of potassium chromate or 0.5ml
(removes turbidity)
Titrate it with N/50 AgNO3
(End point brown color)
NaCl (mg/ltr.) = (R-0.2ml) 23.376
Where,
R Reading
2. Sulphate test:-
100ml sample
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2 drops of P. indicator
Add 1N HNO3 until the color disappear
Boiling to expel CO2
Make up to 200ml by distill water
Cool it & allow to settle
From above soln. take 50ml
Add 1ml NH3 buffer
Add black tincti-cation
Titrate with N/50 EDTA
End point Blue color
3. Total hardness:-
Standard for total hardness (< 100 ppm)
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Procedure:-
Take 100ml of water sample in a conical flask
Add 3 4 drops of ammonia buffer
Add a total hardness tablet
Mix thoroughly
(Pink color appears)
Titrate it with N/50 EDTA soln
Development of blue color
(Indicates the presence of total hardness)
Result: - Observation is less than 100ppm.
4. Alkalinity:-
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Standard for alkalinity(< 85 ppm)
Procedure:-
Take 100ml of water sample in a conical flask
Add 2 3 drops of Ph indicator
Add 4 5 drops of Methyl orange or Methyl purple
Development of orange yellow color
Titrate it with N/50 H2SO4
Darkning of orange yellow color(Indicates the presence of Alkalinity)
Result: - Observation is < 85ppm
Note: - Burettereading should be multiplied by 10 to get alkalinity
5. Chlorine test:-
Standard for chlorine (b/w 3 5ppm)
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Procedure:-
Take 10ml of sample in micro quant bottle
Kept it in colorimeter
Add one Cl2 1A tablet powder
Observe color
Development of dark pink color(Indicates the presence of chlorine)
# To observe mid readings do testing as follows:
Take 50ml of chlorinated water and50ml non chlorinated water in a measuring cylinder.
Mix it thoroughly and fill it into two cubettes
Add powder of one DPD tablet to one cubette
DPD gives pink color(Pink color indicates the presence of chlorine)
6. Calcium Hardness:-
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Procedure:-
Take 100ml of sample water
Add 3 4 drops of NaOH
Add one CaH tablet powder
Gives light pink color
Titrate it with EDTA soln.
Pink color slightly darkens with purple touch(Indicates the presence of CaH)
7. Magnesium hardness:-
Procedure:- Same as Calcium hardness
MgH = TH CaH
Where,MgH Magnesium hardnessTH - Total hardnessCaH Calcium hardness
8. Turbidity:-
Collect the sample in a clean dry glass beaker, transfer the sampleto the sample cell quickly
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Rinse the sample cell with the water to be tested
Cap the cell and dry the outside surface of the cell with a tissue
paper
Pour the sample into the sample cell
Examine the water sample in the cell before placing it in theinstrument. If bubbles have formed on the inside wall of the cell;gently tapping on the cell wall or mildly agitate the cell to releasethe bubbles
Gently invert sample once to agitate any particulate that may
have settled
Place the cell in the turbidity meter with the direction mark on the
cell forward
Lower the light cover and the turbidity will be displayed
Record the turbidity
9. P test (alkalinity):-
Phenolphthalein indicator gives pink color if alkalinity is there.
10.TDS (total dissolved solids):-
Measured by TDS meter
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EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT:
INTRODUCTION
Treatment plants remove impurities contained in wastewater so that the treated
wastewater can be safely returned to the environment. This same stabilization process
occurs in nature to break down wastewater into its most basic components of carbon
dioxide and water. Common methods of treatment include physical, biological and
chemical treatment steps to stabilize the wastewater.
The effluent treatment facility is installed for biological treatment of the effluent
emanating. The effluent bears large amounts of organic matter. The direct discharge
of the effluent into the water bodies causes depletion, of DO of the water. Hence, in
order to meet the recommended standards of quality of the effluent, it is necessary to
treat the effluent before it is finally disposed off. This treatment facility provides for
removal of major pollutants from the effluent.
There are three reasons why most companies consider on site treatment of
wastewater: -
a) To avoid prosecution
b) To remove restriction on the output of the factory
c) To save money
d) To protect public health in the service area
e) To protect the water quality in the waterway which receives the treated
effluent from the processes.
f) To protect the environment which receives any residuals from thetreatment processes.
Industries carry out cost/benefit studies to show how to achieve the greatest benefit
from the investment in effluent treatment. They design plants for the treatment of
industrial effluents tailored to the requirements of the site and the industrial process,
and they can arrange a complete service through to installation and commissioning of
the effluent plant.
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Wastewater from industrial processes can be difficult to treat. The cost of disposing
of the effluent to the public sewer is determined by the volume, the polluting load, the
suspended solids in the flow and the treatability of the effluent.
It may not be possible to treat the effluent with municipal sewage, or it may be cost-
effective to treat the effluent on site. The plant may be designed to reduce the strength
of the effluent to a level suitable for discharge to the sewer, or to a standard suitable
for discharge to the environment, or to optimise the balance between on-site costs and
disposal charges.
Industrial wastewaters are typically much stronger than domestic sewage, and require
a different approach if they are to be treated economically.
Many of the existing treatment plants are developments of municipal technology. It
can be difficult to achieve the required effluent standards, and large amounts of
sludge are produced.
Sludge disposal is becoming one of the greatest problems both for the industrial
wastewater treatment plants. The available routes for disposal are reducing rapidly,
and costs are escalating.
Modern aerobic treatment plants produce far less sludge with a smaller footprint on
the site. Anaerobic plants produce minimal sludge with a by-product of methane,
which can be used in the upstream processes for heating or power generation.
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TREATMENT PROCESS
PROCESS CONCEPT
The raw effluent, bears large amount of suspended solids and oxygen consumingorganic matter. The conceptual approach of the treatment includes the removal ofsuspended particles, dissolved organic matters and handling of sludge for disposal.
The heart of this treatment scheme is the aerobic biological reactor, which aredesigned on the basis of activated sludge process. The activated sludge treatment
process basically involves the stabilization of organic matter by the action of variousmicroorganisms as depicted in the following equation.
Organic + Microorganisms + Oxygen + Nutrients = New cells + Carbon dioxide
+ Ammonia + Energy
This could be restated in engineering term as-
Waste + Sludge + Air Surplus Sludge + End products
In this biological process, a part of the newly synthesized sludge undergoes oxidationcalled, Endogenous respiration.
Cells + oxygen End products + Less cells
The preformed biological flocks (MLSS) come in contact with the incoming waste inthe aeration tank under highly aerobic environment, and oxidize the organic matter tomore stable materials. The efficiency of the system mainly depends upon theconcentration of active microorganism present to perform the assimilation of organic
matter. The activated sludge, in general, consists bacteria and protozoan, rotifers etc.in the presence of DO. The desirably environmental condition like sufficient DO,substrate and nutrients are required for cell growth and energy for various metabolicfunctions. It is essential that the biological flock should readily separate from thetreated wastewater in the final clarifier.
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The oxygen supply is required for the following: -
1. Oxidation of organic matter (substrate removal)
2. Endogenous respiration of microorganisms.
3. Nitrification
Oxidation of nitrogenous materials is slower. Nitrification generally begins aftercarbonaceous demand is satisfied and occurs in two steps: -
Nitrosomonas
2 NH + 3O 2 NO + 2HO + 4 H
Nitrobacter2 NO + O 2 NO
Excess or deficient quantity of food (incoming BOD) adversely affects the physicalquality of biological sludge. The activated sludge system is designed on the basis of a
particular food to microorganism ratio. This ratio is in practice indicated by thequantity of BOD in influent per unit quantity of mixed liquor suspended solids perunit time. This may be expressed as kg, BOD/kg, MLSS/day. The volatile suspendedsolid, which repression is between 60 70% of MLSS is used as a measure of activecells in the system. The optimal pH for an active biological aeration system is
between 6.5 9.0.
In the aeration tank required MLSS concentration is maintained by recirculating thebiological solids separated in the final clarifier.
The surplus biological sludge (and the sludge from the secondary clarifier) needsfurther dewatering, which is achieved in sludge drying beds. The final effluent issuitable for discharging into the inland surface water.
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PROCESS UNITS
The units are designed for maximum of efficiency within certain flow range and
effluent characteristics. Close control and coordination of the operation of different
units are required within limits of design.Efficient plant operation is possible only
when the operator is fully conversant with the equipments and function of each unit.
This effluent treatment facility consists of the following units: -
1) Storage tank
2) Equalization tank
3) Neutralization tank
4) Primary clarifier
5) Anaerobic Hybrid Reactor
6) Aeration tanks 1 & 2
7) Final clarifier 1
8) Final clarifier 2
9) Sludge drying beds
UNIT DISCRIPTION AND OPERATION -
1) STORAGE TANK -
OBJECT
The function of storage tank is that it collects and store the raw effluent from
different part of the factory.
PROCESS
The raw effluent is collected from the different part of the factory and stored. The
storage tank is of 40 feet in height. The capacity of the tank is two lack liters. Now
from the storage tank the raw effluent is passed to the equalization tank with the help
of pump. The pH of the raw effluent in the storage tank is 5.5 6.5, which generally
come out from the factory.
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2) EQUALISATION TANK -
OBJECT
The function of equalization tank is to equalize the raw effluent emanating from
different processing units.
PROCESS
The effluent is collected in an existing combined effluent from where it is pumped to
the existing aeration tank, which serves as an equalization tank. The floating aerator
is operated to homogenized effluent is pumped to the neutralization tank.
3) NEUTRALIZATION TANK -
OBJECT
The function of the neutralization tank is to neutralize the raw effluent, which is
generally acidic in nature.
PROCESS
The raw effluent, which is usually acidic (pH-5.5 to 6.5) in nature is neutralized by
adding the saturated solution of NaOH, So, the final pH of the neutralization tank is
adjusted to pH- 8.0 to 9.0. Then the raw effluent after has been treated in
neutralization tank is allowed to passed in the primary clarifier through gravity.
4) PRIMARY CLARIFIER
OBJECT
The function of PC is to remove suspended heavy particles from the raw effluent.
PROCESS
In this tank, the heavy particles along with the sludge, which the bacteria have
degraded settles down at the bottom of the tank and the water flows on top of it. A
rotator is fixed in the middle of the tank, so that the heavy particle along with the
sludge which has been settle down does not block the outlet of the PC. In this tank
mostly the inactive heavy particles along with little amount of sludge is thrown out in
the Sludge drying beds. The pH of the PC is maintained to 7.0 to 8.0.
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5) ANAEROBIC HYBRID REACTOR -
OBJECT
This unit is provided for the anaerobic treatment of the effluent.
PROCESS
The effluent after treated in PC is passed to the AHR through gravity. The design of
the AHR is in a way that at the bottom of this tank anaerobic bacterias beds are
made. The effluent which comes from PC react with the anaerobic bacteria and the
break up of organic compounds takes place with the production of Methane gas
which can be seen in the form of bubbles on the upper layer of the water in the tank.
The pH of the AHR is maintained to 7.0-7.5 because the anaerobic bacteria are stable
in this pH. If there is much fluctuation in the pH of this tank the anaerobic bacteria
can die.
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6) AERATION TANKS 1 & 2 -
OBJECT
This unit is provided for aerobic biological treatment of the effluent for the reduction
of organic matter in the effluent.
PROCESS
The effluent from the AHR is received in the aeration tank stage-1 by pumping and is
aerated by the help of OXYRATOR mechanical surface aerators in the presence of
previously developed biological sludge (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids i.e. MLSS).
The food / microorganism ratio is maintained at about 0.6 and 0.137 in the first and
second stage aeration tanks respectively which correspond to about 3500 mg / ml.
OPERATION
The start up of the activated sludge process can be accomplished by using seed
sludge available from night soil develop a suitable microorganism population
expressed as MLSS.
The following method is recommended for the initial development of MLSS in the
aeration tank: -
The use of seed sludge (Night soil) provides the reliable means of start up. Seed
sludge may be added in the aeration tank to provide approx. 500mg/ltr. MLSS. The
tank is to be filled up with fresh water prior to the addition of seed sludge. The seed
sludge is to be aerated by running both the aerators and be continued for at least 24
hrs. in order to make the sludge into aerobic. With the seed sludge aerated, raw
effluent into the aeration tank is to be introduced at approx. 25% of the design flow.
If possible, aeration must be continued by all aerators and feeding of effluent
increased in daily increments of 25%. If there is no indication of the process
deterioration. This enables the treatment process to produce a quality effluent as the
MLSS concentration is increasing. During this operation also be added the requisite
quantity of nutrients in aeration tank.
Required nutrients viz. N and P are added with aeration tanks by pumping a solution
of Urea and DAHP. The aerators also help to keep the biological solids in suspension.
The mixed liquor from the aeration tanks is subjected to gravitational settling in the
hopper bottom secondary clarifier.
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7) FINAL CLARIFIER 1 -
OBJECT
The function of final clarifier-1 is to separate biological solids from the mixed liquor
first stage aeration tank.
PROCESS
The mixed liquor from the first stage aeration tank is received in the clarifier by
gravity. The clarifier is hopper bottom type. The sedimentation of sludge is
withdrawn by pumps and is recirculated back into the aeration tank stage-1 for
maintaining the MLSS. Provision is given to transfer the sludge into the stage-2
aeration tank through the necessary connections given on the delivery line of the
sludge recirculation pump.
OPERATION
The clarifier is filled up with effluent by gravity. The biological solids get settled by
gravity at bottom. Keep the suctions valves corresponding to each hopper portion of
clarifier open. Recirculate the settled sludge by operating pump back into the aeration
tank continuously. If the MLSS exceed the required level, or sludge needs to be
wasted, divert the sludge into aerobic.
8) FINAL CLARIFIER 2 -
OBJECT
The function of final clarifier-2 is to separate the biological sludge from the mixed
liquor from the aeration tanks before the final effluent is disposed off.
PROCESS
The mixed liquor from the aeration tank is received in the clarifier by gravity. Final
clarifier-2 is a circular sedimentation tank with the central chute inlet peripheral
overflow laundar. The sedimentation of sludge takes place by gravity setting. The
settled sludge is collected to a central circular channel around the inlet chute by a
rotating scarper. Scraper is driven by a central drive head. The settled sludge is
pumped back into the aeration tank. The clarified effluent from the annular laundar is
disposed off through the V- Notch.
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Discharge through V-Notch: -
The raw effluent, which has been treated through different process, lastly clarified, is
now discharge into the water bodies through the V-Notch. This is a pipeline made
which have a V shape ending and having a scale mark from which height and
discharge of the effluent can be calculated. The following table shows the discharge
through V- Notch
Height in cms. Discharge cubic
meter/hour
Height in cms. Discharge
cubic meter/hour
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
10.50
6.48
7.92
9.00
10.08
12.24
14.04
16.20
18.36
11.00
11.50
12.00
12.50
13.00
13.50
14.00
14.50
15.00
20.52
22.68
25.56
28.08
30.96
34.20
37.80
40.68
44.28
9) SLUDGE DRYING BEDS -
OBJECT
This unit is meant for dewatering and drying the excess biological sludge.
PROCESS
The excess biological sludge from the stage-1 aeration tank after aerobic digestor is
conveyed to the sludge drying beds by gravity. The excess sludge from the stage-2
aeration tanks withdrawn to the sludge drying beds by pumping. Each bed comprises
of course sand broken stone as sand media support and under drain.
OPERATION
Allow the sludge to flow to the drying beds. Once the sludge thickness comes to about
300 mm charging of sludge is to be stop and the bed is isolated to dry up by natural
evaporation. This takes about 10 days.
After drying and dewatering, the sludge cakes are removed manually and are
disposed off.
SPECIFICATION OF ETP -
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S.No. Test Tank name Specification
1. pH Raw
PC
AHR
FC-1
FC-2
Neutralization tank
5.00 6.50
7.00 8.00
7.00 7.50
5.50 9.00
5.50 9.00
7.50 9.00
2. COD Raw
PC
AHR
FC-1
FC-2
NMT 3500 mg/ltr
NMT 3000 mg/ltr
NMT 2500 mg/ltr
NMT 250 mg/ltr
NMT 250 mg/ltr
3. DO AT-1
AT-2
NMT 5.0 mg/ltr
NMT 5.0 mg/ltr
4. BOD Raw
AHR
FC-1
FC-2
NMT 1800 mg/ltr
NMT 1500 mg/ltr
NMT 30 mg/ltr
NMT 30 mg/ltr
5. SS Raw
PC
FC-1
FC-2
NMT 2000 ppm
NMT 1500 ppm
NMT 100 ppm
NMT 100 ppm
6. MLSS AT-1 NMT 2000 ppm
TESTING -
GENERAL
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Full spectrum of water and wastewater testing can be performed to evaluate the
specific characteristics of water, wastewater or treated effluent. The ability to
determine what is happening within a plant, including evaluations of plant
performance, can only be done when proper sampling, storage and transportation
techniques have been followed
It is imperative to analyze regularly the operational parameters and maintain a
systematic record as a ready reckonar. Sampling and testing should be done as per the
methods prescribed in:
1) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. (APHA,
AWWA, WCPC 1975)
2) Manual for the examination of water, sewage and industrial waste.
(ICMR)
3) Methods of sampling and test for sewage and industrial effluent.
SAMPLING POINTS
S.No. SAMPLE SAMPLING POINTS
1)
2)
3)
4)
Raw effluent
Final effluent
Mixed liquor suspended solid
Return sludge
Equalization tank
Final clarifier launder
Aeration tanks
Return sludge line (Stage 1 & 2)
METHODS OF ANALYSIS -
pH -
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The pH of water refers to its hydrogen ion activity and is expressed as the logarithm
of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity in moles per litre at a given temperature.
The practical pH scale extends from 0 (Very acidic), to 14 (Very alkaline), with 7
corresponding to exact neutrality at 25C. Whereas alkalinity and acidity are measures
of the total resistance to pH change or buffering capacity of a sample, pH represents
the free hydrogen ion activity.
PRINCIPLE
Although the hydrogen electrode is recognized as the primary standard, the glass
electrode is less subject to interferences and is used in combination with a calomel
reference electrode.
The glass reference electrode pair produces a change of 59.1 mg/pH unit at 25C.
APPARATUS
1) Electronic pH meter with temperature compensation arrangement.
2) Glass electrode; are available for measurement over the entire pH range
with minimum sodium ion-error types for high pH- high sodium samples.
3) Reference electrode; Use calomel, silver-silver chloride or other constant
potential electrode.
PROCEDURE
Firstly, calibrate the pH meter with the buffer solution of pH -7.0 and then the pH -
4.0. After calibrating it the electrode is washed with DM water and finally the pH is
taken of the sample. After doing the work again the electrode is washed with DM
water and then the electrode is dipped in DM water.
One-Day Analysis: -
Raw 6.70
PC 7.28
AHR 7.20
FC 8.6
N-TANK 8.58
SUSPENDED SOLID
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Estimation of suspended solid plays a important role for the process evaluation. These
solids are mostly of organic species and contributes pollutants load to the treatment
system. SS is analysed once in a week.
PRINCIPLE
This test is based on the evaporation of the residues obtained after filtering a known
volume of sample, to dryness under standard conditions and weighing the residue
after drying.
APPARATUS
Gooch Crucibles - 50 ml. Capacity
Measuring cylinder - 100 ml. Capacity
Vacuum pump
Dry heat Oven
SAMPLE
Raw - 100 ml.
PC - 100 ml.
FC - 50 ml.
PROCEDURE
1) Firstly weigh the apparatus without any sample.
2) Filter the well-known sample (Raw, PC, and FC) through the Gooch
crucible under suction, dry at 103 to 105 C to constant weight. Cool and weigh.
The increase in weight equals the total suspended solid.
CALCULATION
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Weight of crucible Weight of empty
Suspended solids + dry residue - crucible
Mg/litre = ________________________________________ X1000
Volume of sample
One-Day Analysis: -
RAW: - 43.9035gm 43.8786gm = 0.0249 X 10
= 249 X 2mg
= 498 ppm.
PC: - 44.4568gm 44.4371gm = 0.0197 X 10
= 197 X 2mg
= 394 ppm
FC: - 55.8496gm 55.8484gm = 0.0012 X 10
= 12 ppm
MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLID (MLSS)
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MLSS is a rough quantitative measure of the microorganisms that are playing an
important role in biological degradation of organic matters in the aeration tank. MLSS
is analyzed once in a week. Routine analytical estimations of the mixed liquor solid is
essentially required to enable an effective functioning of the aeration system and its
significances are represented as follows: -
1) Indicates whether the quantum of biomass presence in aeration tank is
sufficient to meet the biological degradation or not.
2) Whether the biomass population is more or less in compared to the
designed food supply (BOD) to the aeration system.
3) Helps controlling the adjustment of biomass in the aeration tank.
PRINCIPLE
The tests are based on the evaporation of the mixed liquor sample to dryness under
standard conditions and weighing the residue after drying. MLSS is the weight of
residue, of the known filtered mixed liquor, on evaporation at 103 to 105C.
APPARATUS
Gooch Crucible - 50 ml.capacity
Measuring cylinder - 100 ml. Capacity
Vacuum pump
Dry heat Oven
SAMPLE
AT 1 - 50 ml.
AT 2 - 50 ml.
PROCEDURE
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1) Firstly weigh the apparatus without any sample.
2) Filter the well-known sample (AT-1 and AT-2) through the Gooch crucible under
suction, dry at 103 to 105 C to constant weight. Cool and weigh. The increase in
weight equals the total suspended solid.
CALCULATION
Mixed liquor Weight of crucible Weight of empty
suspended solids + dry residue - crucible
Mg/litre = ________________________________________ X1000
Volume of sample
One-Day Analysis: -
AT-1: - 44.1165gm 44.0909gm = 0.0256 X 10
= 256 X 2mg
= 512 ppm
AT-2: - 44.0905gm 44.0166gm = 0.0739 X 10
= 739 X 2mg
= 1478 ppm
SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX
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The sludge volume index (SVI) is the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 g of a
suspension after 30 min settling. SVI typically is used to monitor settling
characteristics of activated sludge and other biological suspensions. Although SVI is
not supported theoretically, experience has shown it to be useful in routine process
control.
In an activated sludge sewage treatment process, the suspended microbial mass
coming out of the aeration tank is separated from the bulk of the liquid phase by plain
sedimentation of the suspended matter. Further, since the microorganisms are
recirculated to the aeration tank it is advisable to have a concentrated sludge. Due to
overloading of the activated sludge plant, the sludge does not settle properly resulting
in a poor effluent. A poorly settling sludge may also result from an unbalance of
nutrients in the incoming sewage. The sludge volume index (SVI) is primarily
measured to know the settling characteristic of the sludge. After settling the mixed
liquor for 30 min. the sludge settlebility characteristic may be assessed from values of
sludge volume index as follows: -
SVI VALUE
Less than 20 Settlable solids
20-40 Sludge formation Stage
40-70 Settled sludge excellent
70-100 Well settled sludge
100-150 Reasonably good settled
More than 150 Poor settled sludge
APPARATUS
Measuring cylinder - 1000 ml.
SAMPLE
AT 1 and AT 2 - 1000 ml.
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PROCEDURE
a) Fill 1000 ml. of sample in 1000 ml. measuring cylinder.
b) Allow settling for 30 minutes and noting the volume of sludge occupied in
ml.
c) At the same time determine the MLSS.
CALCULATION
SVI is computed from the following equation: -
ml. settled sludge X 1000
SVI = ________________________
mg. /liter MLSS
One-Day Analysis: -
97 X 1000
SVI = = 74.61
1300
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
The COD determination provides a measure of oxygen equivalent of that portion of
he organic matter in a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical
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oxidant. In the absence of a catalyst however, this method fails to include some
organic compounds (such as acetic acid), which are biologically available to the
stream organisms, while including some biologic compounds, which are not part of
the immediate biochemical load on the oxygen assets of the receiving water.
The use of exactly the same technique each time is important because only a
part of the organic matter is included; the proportion depending upon the chemical
oxidant used the structure of the organic compounds and the manipulative procedure.
The dichromate reflux method has been selected for the COD determination
because it has advantages over other oxidants in oxidizability, applicability to a wide
variety of samples and ease of manipulation.
The bas