ROMANIAN JOURNAL OF

EXPERIMENTAL APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

VOL. 7, ISSUE 4 – www.rjeap.ro

4 - THE IMPACT OF THE PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

TRAINING ON REDUCING THE PERCEIVED LEVEL OF

NEGATIVE EMOTIONS AND THE PERCEIVED LEVEL OF

DEPRESSION AND IMPROVING THE PERCEIVED LEVEL

OF THE POSITIVE EMOTIONS

TEODOR VASILE a

a University of Bucharest, Department of Psychology

Abstract

Besides being a very common phenomenon, both individually and socially,

depression affects the ability to perceive the surrounding world correctly, reduces

drastically the desire to live, reinforces negative feelings such as guilt, anger, lack

of trust, inability to believe in itself and its own power, breaks the individual from

the reality, affects individual daily activities, such as sleeping and eating, resulting

in the most dismal case, referring to major depression, to suicide. This study is

focused on how we can improve the perceived level of the positive emotions, and

how we can reduce the perceived negative emotions and the perceived level of

depression as a result of attenting a personal development training. Method: the

participants are a group of 15 people, aged between 23 and 46 years old

(Mean=35.066; S.D.=6.83), 11 female and 4 male participants. The instruments:

Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (Zung, 1965) and The Positive and Negative

Affect Schedule – PANAS (Watson et al., 1988). The third instrument is the

personal development training used, for a period of six months. This training

represents the independent variable. The dependent variables: the perceived level

of depression, positive emotions: attentive, interested, alert, enthusiastic, excited,

inspired, proud, determined, strong, and active; for negative emotions: distressed,

upset, hostile, irritable, scared, afraid, ashamed, guilty, nervous, and jittery. In

order to prevent depression is necessary to reinforce the protective factors and

decreasing risk factors (Marcus et. al, 2012), implementation of a positive way of

thinking and an attitude of confidence in its own forces and switching to a desire to

live and cope with the challenges of life. Everyone should love life, live every

moment to the fullest, regardless of the obstacles that tend to occur during one’s

life, representing a gift to each of us.

Corresponding author. Email address: dr.TeodorVasile@psihoterapia.ro

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Cuvinte cheie: depresie, stări emoționale, dezvoltare personală, psihoterapie,

încredere în viață.

Keywords: depression, emotional states, personal development,

psychotherapy, life confidence.

1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK REGARDING DEPRESSION

In Dictionary of Psychology, Popescu-Neveanu (1978, p.187) defines

depression as: "morbid mental condition, characterized by a decrease in physical

activity and motor tone, accompanied by an asthenic provision of mind, of sadness,

of discouragement, excessive fatigue and anxiety."

According to the World Health Organisation reports (W.H.O.) cited by citată

de Silammy (2000, p.96), 5-10% of the world population would present depressive

disorders.

According to Boyd and Weissman (1981) cited by Robinson et al. al (1990) as

a result of epidemiological studies it has been found out that between 10% and

20% of the population is going through a major depressive episode throughout life.

Moreover, Murray & Lopez (1996) cited by Saluja et. al (2004) highlights in an

article that the topic is the prevalence and risk factors of depression, that in the

sphere of psychiatric disorder, major depressive syndrome covers the greatest

morbidity and mortality and involves the highest therapeutical costs.

According to Popescu-Neveanu (1978, p.187) depressive episodes may occur

especially during "adolescence and old age".

Initially, the depressing episode’s appearance was linked to a chemical

imbalance in the body, scientists making reference to a neurotransmitter called

norepinephrin, subsequently, in the mid-1960s was studied the relationship

between depression and serotonin (Leo & Lacasse, 2008).

Another important aspect presented by Downey & Coyne (1990) and

Hammen (1991) cited by Petersen et. al (1993) is that a depressed parent represents

a major risk factor for the occurrence of depression in childhood.

As a result of the study of literature, Petersen et. al (1993) presents a

classification of depression during adolescence through the following three

approaches: depressed mood, depressive syndromes and clinical depression.

Lorant et. al (2007) conducted a longitudinal study of the population, over a

seven-year period, studying the relationship between risk factors and socio-

economic depression. The socio-economical risk factors assessed in this study

were: material standard of living, education, employment status and social

relationships. The result of this study was that depression can be directly linked

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with socio-economic factors, and their worsening can even lead to the occurrence

of a major depressive episode.

1.1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEPRESSION AND EMOTIONS

As a result of research carried out by Gibb, Chelminski & Zimmerman (2007)

with regard to the relationship between the diagnosis of depression in adults and

physical, emotional and sexual abuse from the period of childhood, the authors

noted that major depressive episode facing an adult is strongly associated with

emotional abuse suffered in a childhood period. Thus, negative emotions felt by the

individual in childhood negatively marks one’s further life as an adult. Rottenberg

(2005) conducted a survey whose main subjects were the moods, emotions and

their interaction in major depression. The findings of this study were that a

depressive condition is associated with: pessimism, self-absorption, and loss of

interest in the environment. Also, studying emotions and depressive persons’

reactions to external stimuli, whether they are negative or positive, Rottenberg et.

al. (2005) think that a depressive state limits one persons’ emotional reactions, the

authors naming this pattern: emotion context insensitivity. In opposition to those

described above, Fredrickson (1998) cited by Kashdan (2010) is of the opinion that

living positive emotions offers a wide range of thoughts, behaviours and reactions

that are easily available to anyone. Moreover, positive emotions decrease the

tendency to perceive racial differences in faces (Johnson & Fredrickson, 2005 cited

by Kashdan, 2010), facilitates flexible thinking and behaviour and increases

openness towards acceptance of new perspectives and knowledge (Kashdan, 2010),

etc.

1.2. DEPRESSION AND SUICIDE RISKS

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) represents an increased risk factor for

suicide, according to Birmaher et. al. (1996) cited by Saluja et. al (2004), and the

suicide rate among teenagers has increased three times in the past 50 years,

concluded The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in a report on Suicide in

the United States of America (Saluja et. al, 2004).

Studying the relationship between depression and suicide, Gibson (1989)

cited by Petersen et. al (1993) is of the opinion that gay and lesbian youth are more

exposed to depression and show a serious risk of suicide.

In 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published the fact sheet

with regard to the understanding of suicide, in which, since the first paragraph is

underlined that suicide represents the main cause of death in the United States of

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America. According to the same fact sheet, suicide represents a public health

problem with a high importance that can affect the health of others, but also to the

community due to the onset of depression and other mental health problems in

people who survive attempted suicide and the onset of emotional shock, anger,

feeling of guilt and depression among family and friends of those deceased by

suicide.

Suicide represents a path with no turning back, a fatal act of a person in a

period of major crisis in his/her life, from which they can find no other way out,

seemingly no resolution, no escape. Sometimes the human mind tells us to appeal

to desperate gestures, without giving us the time needed to find the inner resources

to understand, to overcome them and to solve them. Absolutely everyone has gone

through a stressful or difficult event at least once in a lifetime, such as the death of

a loved one, a sentimental or social failure, and coping mechanisms specific to

each individual represents the levers necessary for understanding, reasoning and

remediation of the negative impact that these events have, especially over mental

and emotional conditions of the individual.

In these situations it is necessary, over time and with expert help, to find

physical comfort and mental & physical balance to continue the evolution on this

invisible thread simply called, life.

1.3. DEPRESSION RELATED TO PSYCHOTHERAPY

In the framework of the research carried out by Robinson et. al (1990) with

regard to depression and its treatment, the results obtained by the authors were that

choosing between pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy, psychotherapy is a method

of therapy with actual results in cases of depression. Moreover, the authors

emphasise that the benefits of psychotherapy in depression can be seen in the long

term.

As a result of the study conducted by Robinson, Berman, & Neimeyer (1990)

cited by Cuijpers et. al (2008) on the efficacy of cognitive psychotherapy and

cognitive-behavioural psychotherapy compared with other types of verbal

therapies, the authors concluded that cognitive psychotherapy and cognitive-

behavioural psychotherapy had a better effect in the treatment of depression.

A comparative meta-analysis of high importance made by Cuijpers et. al

(2008) analysed the effectiveness of certain types of psychotherapy in cases of

depression: cognitive-behaviour therapy, nondirective supportive treatment,

behavioural activation treatment, psychodynamic treatment, problem-solving

therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and social skills training. The authors’

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conclusion was that they cannot observe significant differences between the

analysed types of psychotherapy and it is necessary for a more thorough study, to

determine if there is a type of psychotherapy better than others in the long run.

I consider that the most important aspect is represented by the individual's

confidence in the therapeutical process, and in its one’s own resources to face and

to understand this complex process on the basis of mental and physical needs of

each individual, as well as searching one’s personal evolution.

2. OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESES

2.1. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the present study are focused on improving the perceived

level of the positive emotions, reducing the perceived level of negative emotions

and reducing the perceived level of depression. Also, the possible bivariate

correlations were verified using statistical tests.

2.2. THE HYPOTHESES

1. There are statistically significant improvements reducing the level of

perceived depression in the participants at the Personal Development

groups.

2. The Personal Development focused on increasing the level of positive

emotions leads to a statistically higher level of perceived positive

emotions in the participants at the Personal Development groups.

3. The Personal Development focused on reducing the level of negative

emotions leads to a statistically lower level of perceived negative

emotions in the participants at the Personal Development groups.

4. There are statistically significant positive correlations between the

perceived depression level and negative emotions.

3. METHOD

3.1. PARTICIPANTS

The participants are a group of 15 people, age between 23 and 46 years old

(Mean=35.066; S.D.=6.83), 11 female and 4 male participants. The histogram of

age representation for the 15 participants sample at the Personal Development

28

training focused on reducing the level of perceived depression can be seen in figure

1.

Figure 1. The histogram representation for the participants by age

3.2. THE INSTRUMENTS

1. The Personal Development training procedure was focused on the

following aspects: to reduce the level of perceived depression, to

increase the level of perceived positive emotions, to reduce the level

of perceived negative emotions.

2. Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (Zung, 1965) is a self-

administered survey to measure the perceived level of depression

status of a person. The scale is composed from 20 items on the scale

that rate four common characteristics of depression without being

pathological: the pervasive effect, the physiological equivalents, other

disturbances, and psychomotor activities. Furthermore, there are ten

29

positively issued items and ten negatively issued items. Each question

is scored on a scale from 1 (a little of the time) to 4 (most of the

time).

3. The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – PANAS (Watson et al.,

1988b) is composed from a number of 20 items, 10 positive emotions

and 10 negative emotions. The scale points are: 1 ‘very slightly or not

at all’, 2 ‘a little’, 3 ‘moderately’, 4 ‘quite a bit’ and 5 ‘very much’.

As Crawford and Henry (2004) mentioned in their paper, “the items

were derived from a principal components analysis of Zevon and

Tellegen’s (1982) mood checklist” (page 250).

Crawford and Henry (2004) present in their study the internal consistencies of

the PANAS PA and NA scales. Hence the internal consistency Alpha Cronbach’s

was .89 (95% CI = .88–.90) for the PA scale, and .85 (95% CI = .84–.87) for the

NA scale (page 257). The same authors highlighted that “for both measures the

correlation between PA and depression was significantly higher than that between

PA and anxiety (DASS: t (986) = 7.523, p < 001; HADS: t (737) = 7.667, p <

.001)” (Crawford & Henry, 2004, page 257).

3.3. PROCEDURE

The participants to the Personal Development sessions completed the consent

agreement for the present study. They completed at the moment t0 the instruments

as prettest: PANAS and Zung depression scale. After completing the instruments

they participated in a number of 24 Personal Development sessions focused on

reducing the perceived level of depression and negative emotions and increasing

the perceived level of positive emotions. Furthermore, at the moment t1 the

participants completed the same instruments as post-test.

3.4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The independent variable: the training with the Personal Development

focused on reducing the perceived level of depression and negative emotions and

increasing the perceived level of positive emotions.

The dependent variables: the perceived level of depression, positive emotions:

attentive, interested, alert, enthusiastic, excited, inspired, proud, determined,

strong, and active; for negative emotions: distressed, upset, hostile, irritable,

scared, afraid, ashamed, guilty, nervous, and jittery.

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Figure 2 The design pre-test/post-test in order the test the hypotheses

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The collected data was computed using the program SPSS 15 for statistics.

Taking into consideration that the Personal Development group is composed from

a number of 15 participants applied nonparametric tests were in order to test the

hypotheses.

After reversing the 20 non depressive symptoms items, the reliability Alpha

Cronbach was calculated for the Zung Depression Scale at the moment T0 (Table

1). Table 1 Reliability Statistics (T0)

Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items

.843 .886 20

Applying the Wilcoxon nonparametric test the following hypotheses was

confirmed (p<0.05) for the Personal Development group (tables 2, 3, 4, 5):

1. There are statistically significant improvements reducing the level of

perceived depression in the participants at the Personal Development groups.

2. The Personal Development focused on increasing the level of positive

emotions leads to a statistically higher level of perceived positive emotions in the

participants at the Personal Development groups.

3. The Personal Development focused on reducing the level of negative

emotions leads to a statistically lower level of perceived negative emotions in the

participants at the Personal Development groups. Table 2 Test Statisticsc

interested2 - interested1 noninterested2 - noninterested1 excited2 - excited1 angry2 - angry1

Z -3.436a -3.201b -2.008a -3.108b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .001 .045 .002

In table 3 can be seen the statistically significant differences between the

pretest and posttest results at the following emotions: powerful, guilty, scared and

hostile.

T0 moment of Zung

Depression Scale and PANAS

application pretest

T1 moment of Zung

Depression Scale and

PANAS application posttest

Personal

Development

training sessions

31

Table 3 Test Statisticsc

powerful2 - powerful1 guilty2 - guilty1 scared2 - scared1 hostile2 - hostile1

Z -3.441a -3.219b -3.213b -2.298b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .001 .001 .022

In table 3 can be seen the statistically significant differences between the

pretest and posttest results at the following emotions: enthusiastic, proud, irritable,

alert. Table 4 Test Statisticsc

Enthusiastic2 - Enthusiastic 1 proud2 -proud1 irritable2 - irritable1 alert2 - alert1

Z -3.336a -3.332a -3.213b -2.277a Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .001 .001 .023

In table 3 can be seen the statistically significant differences between the

pretest and posttest results at the following emotions: nervous, active, perceived

depression. Table 5 Test Statisticsc

nervous2 - nervous1 active2 - active1 perceiveddepression2 - perceiveddepression1

Z -3.443b -3.448a -3.408b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .001 .001

In table 6 can be seen the bivariate nonparamentric correlation between the

dependent variables at the moment T0: the perceived level of depression, positive

emotions: attentive, interested, alert, enthusiastic, excited, inspired, proud,

determined, strong, and active; for negative emotions: distressed, upset, hostile,

irritable, scared, afraid, ashamed, guilty, nervous, and jittery. Table 6 Correlations

nervous1 determinated1 atent1 agitat1 activ1 speriat11 perceiveddepression1

Sp

earm

an's

rho

intrested1

Correlation Coefficient

-,674** ,895** ,875** -,759** ,784** -,812** -,760**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,006 ,000 ,000 ,001 ,001 ,000 ,001

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

disintrested1

Correlation

Coefficient ,588* -,764**

-

,843** ,677**

-

,713** ,740** ,655**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,021 ,001 ,000 ,006 ,003 ,002 ,008 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

impatient1

Correlation

Coefficient -,360 ,491 ,553* -,426 ,216 -,466 -,529*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,187 ,063 ,032 ,113 ,440 ,080 ,043

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

angry1

Correlation Coefficient

,771** -,808** -

,881** ,800** -,638* ,881** ,715**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,011 ,000 ,003

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

strong1

Correlation

Coefficient -,741** ,883** ,932** -,834** ,801** -,820** -,767**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,002 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,001 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

guilty1

Correlation

Coefficient ,863** -,789**

-

,878** ,837** -,466 ,823** ,773**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,080 ,000 ,001

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

scared1 Correlation Coefficient

,753** -,772** -

,714** ,724** -,480 ,912** ,680**

32

Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,001 ,003 ,002 ,070 ,000 ,005

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

hostile1

Correlation

Coefficient ,496 -,641*

-

,682** ,781** -,559* ,573* ,470

Sig. (2-tailed) ,060 ,010 ,005 ,001 ,030 ,025 ,077 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

enthuziastic1

Correlation

Coefficient -,683** ,894** ,893** -,795** ,757** -,859** -,820**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,005 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,001 ,000 ,000

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

proud1

Correlation Coefficient

-,756** ,876** ,881** -,830** ,771** -,854** -,712**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,001 ,000 ,003

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

iritable1

Correlation

Coefficient ,713** -,698**

-

,793** ,761** -,437 ,749** ,708**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,003 ,004 ,000 ,001 ,104 ,001 ,003 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

alert1

Correlation

Coefficient -,473 ,780** ,779** -,577* ,689** -,615* -,668**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,075 ,001 ,001 ,024 ,004 ,015 ,007

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

shamed1

Correlation Coefficient

,816** -,862** -

,828** ,852** -,613* ,914** ,795**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,015 ,000 ,000

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

inspirated1

Correlation

Coefficient -,754** ,767** ,747** -,823** ,576* -,806** -,596*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,001 ,001 ,000 ,025 ,000 ,019 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

nervous1

Correlation

Coefficient 1,000 -,742**

-

,791** ,834** -,395 ,819** ,788**

Sig. (2-tailed) . ,002 ,000 ,000 ,145 ,000 ,000

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

determined

Correlation Coefficient

-,742** 1,000 ,912** -,821** ,806** -,845** -,881**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,002 . ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

carefully1

Correlation

Coefficient -,791** ,912** 1,000 -,877** ,739** -,806** -,880**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 . ,000 ,002 ,000 ,000

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

jittery1

Correlation Coefficient

,834** -,821** -

,877** 1,000 -,624* ,784** ,703**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 . ,013 ,001 ,003

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

active1

Correlation

Coefficient -,395 ,806** ,739** -,624* 1,000 -,631* -,583*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,145 ,000 ,002 ,013 . ,012 ,022 N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

scared11

Correlation

Coefficient ,819** -,845**

-

,806** ,784** -,631* 1,000 ,739**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 ,001 ,012 . ,002

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

perceiveddepression1

Correlation Coefficient

,788** -,881** -

,880** ,703** -,583* ,739** 1,000

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 ,003 ,022 ,002 .

N 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

33

The hypotheses „4. There are statistically significant positive correlations

between the perceived depression level and negative emotions.” has been

confirmed according the statistically significant positive correlations between the

variables: perceived depression1 and scared11 (rho=.739; p<0.01); perceived

depression1 and jittery1 (rho=.703; p<0.01); perceived depression1 and nervous

(rho=.788; p<0.01); perceived depression1 and shamed1 (rho=.795; p<0.01);

perceived depression1 and irritable1 (rho=.708; p<0.01); perceived depression1

and guilty1 (rho=.773; p<0.01); perceived depression1 and angry1 (rho=.715;

p<0.01).

5. CONCLUSIONS

As can be seen in tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 the hypotheses was confirmed for the

Personal Development group; focused on reducing the level of the perceived

depression and negative emotions and incresing the level of the perceived positive

emotions. Hence, positive emotions as proud, interested, enthusiastic, active, and

careful can be optimised and educated during Personal Development groups using

strategies and methods, such as role play, case studies, facing trauma and solving

with the help of cognitive and behavioural specific techniques, and many others.

Furthermore, reducing the perceived negative emotions also the level of perceived

depression may be reduced because according to Crowford and Henry (2004) there

are plenty of cited studies and also their study to support this findings.

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35

REZUMAT

Dincolo de a fi un fenomen atât individual, cât și social foarte des întâlnit,

depresia afectează capacitatea de a percepe corect lumea înconjurătoare,

diminuează major dorința de a trăi, întărește sentimente negative precum: vina,

furia, neputința, neîncrederea în sine și în propriile forțe, rupe individul de

realitate, afectează activitățile zilnice de rutină precum: somnul și masa, ducând în

cel mai sumbru caz, referindu-ne la depresia majoră, către suicid. Acest studiu

urmărește modul în care putem îmbunătății nivelul perceput de emoții pozitive și

modul în care putem reduce nivelul perceput de emoții negative și nivelul perceput

de depresie ca urmare a participării la un training de dezvoltare personală.

Metoda: participanții au fost un grup de 15 persoane, cu vârsta între 23 și 46 de

ani (Media=35.066; A.S.=6.83), 11 femei și 4 bărbați. Instrumente: Scala Zung de

evaluare a depresiei (Zung, 1965) și Chestionarul care măsoară emoțiile pozitive

și negative – PANAS (Watson et al., 1988). Al treilea instrument este reprezentat

de training-ul de dezvoltare personală folosit pe o perioadă de șase luni. Acest

training reprezintă variabila independentă. Variabile dependente: nivelul perceput

de depresie, emoții pozitive: atent, interesat, alert, entuziast, emoționat, inspirat,

mândru, determinat, puternic şi activ; pentru emoțiile negative: în dificultate,

supărat, ostil, iritabil, speriat, înfricoșat, ruşinat, vinovat, agitat şi nervos. Pentru

a putea preveni depresia este necesară consolidarea factorilor de protecţie şi

diminuarea factorilor de risc (Marcus et. al, 2012), implementarea unei gândiri

pozitive și a unei atitudini de încredere în propriile forțe și reorientarea către

dorința de trăi și de a face față provocărilor vieții. Orice om ar trebui să iubească

viața, să trăiască fiecare clipă la intensitate maximă, indiferent de obstacolele care

tind să apară pe parcursul acesteia, viața reprezentând un Dar pentru fiecare

dintre noi.