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Michael A. Hitt

C. Chet Miller

Adrienne Colella

Chapter 4 Learning andLearning andPerceptionPerception

Slides by Ralph R. Braithwaite

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Learning at NUMMILearning at NUMMI• What are your thoughts on the peer pressure approach

to teamwork and norms at NUMMI?

• What would be your reaction to having a high-level manager from another part of the organization entering your workforce “undercover”? What would be the advantages and disadvantages?

• Have you had any experiences similar to the learning at “the old plant” described in the scenario?

• How might the approach to teams and employees in place at NUMMI work in other types of industries?

                                                           

Exploring Behavior in Action

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Knowledge ObjectivesKnowledge Objectives1. Describe the effects on learning of positive reinforcement,

negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.2. Discuss continuous and intermittent schedules of

reinforcement.3. Explain how principles of learning can be used to train

newcomers as well as to modify the behavior of existing associates.

4. Describe the conditions under which adults learn, in addition to rewards and punishments.

5. Describe some specific methods that organizations use to train associates.

6. Discuss learning from failure.7. Identify typical problems in accurately perceiving others and

solutions to these problems.8. Explain the complexities of causal attributions and task

perception.

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LearningLearning

• Relatively permanent change in capabilities

• Process of behavior change based on positive or negative experiences

• Occurs only when changes in behavior happen

• Driven by experience with a particular situation

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Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Reinforcement based

• Behavior is learned as a function of its consequence

• Roots in the late 1800s with animals

• Learning results from simple conditioning, not from higher mental functioning

B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, emphasized conditioning in people

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Social LearningSocial Learning

• Humans can observe others in a situation and learn from what they see

• No direct experience to a specific situation is needed to understand the behavior and its consequences

• Learning can result from higher mental functioning

Albert Bandura

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Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

SituationBehavioralResponse

Consequencesof Behavior

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Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

The SituationBehavioral Response

New Response to the Situation

Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response

Aversive consequences lead to avoidance of the same behavioral response, or to new responses to similar situations in the future

Adapted from Exhibit 4-1: Effects of Reinforcing Consequences on Learning New Behaviors

Consequences of the Behavior

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Reinforcing ContingenciesReinforcing ContingenciesReinforcement increasesincreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

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Non-Reinforcing ContingenciesNon-Reinforcing Contingencies

Non-reinforcing contingencies always refer to contingent events that decreasedecrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations

Punishment Extinction

R.I.P.

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Punishment GuidelinesPunishment Guidelines• Use only if necessary

• Deliver as quickly as possible afterthe undesired event

• Focus on specific behaviors that have been made clear to the recipient

• Deliver in an objective, impersonal fashion

• Listen to the person before taking action

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ManagerialAdvice

Punishment TakenPunishment TakenToo FarToo Far

• Thoughts about the “obey or else” environment in the cockpit?

• What changes would you recommend to improve the working relationships and reduce potential accidents?

• What has been your experience with an environment such as this one?

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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Intermittent

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Intermittent ReinforcementIntermittent Reinforcement

What should I

use?

Fixed intervalVariable interval

Fixed ratio orVariable ratio

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ExamplesExamples

Fixed Interval

Calling a radio station once a week for a chance to win a prize

Fixed Ratio

Car salesperson gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold

Variable Interval

Pressing the "redial" button when you keep getting a "busy" signal

Variable Ratio

Betting on specific numbers on a roulette wheel

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Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

SymbolizationSymbolizationand and

ForethoughtForethought

ObservationObservation Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy

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Other Conditions for LearningOther Conditions for Learning

• Associates need to know why they are learning what they are learning

• Associates need to use their own experiences as the basis for learning

• Associates need to practice what they have learned

• Associates need feedback

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Training and Enhancing Training and Enhancing PerformancePerformance

Determine new behaviors to be

learned

Break new behavior into

smaller, logical segments

Demonstrate desired behaviors

to trainee

Trainee practices new

behavior

Use contingent reinforcement for

new behavior

New job behaviors learned,

performance improves

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Organizational Behavior ModOrganizational Behavior ModAlso known as performance management, a formal procedure that focuses on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and elimination of undesired behaviors

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OB Mod Part 1OB Mod Part 1

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

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OB Mod Part 2OB Mod Part 2

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

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OB Mod Part 3OB Mod Part 3

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

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SimulationsSimulations

Team Leader’s Pizza

Curling Club General Manager

What factors might have contributed to the reaction of the two situations described in the chapter?

Suggestions for the two leaders?

A simulation mimics the real system but allows us to take

one action at a time to understand its effects and

consequences.

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Causal RelationshipsCausal Relationships

Exhibit 4-4: Casual Relationships at a Sports Club

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Learning from FailureLearning from Failure

“A failure that does not result in learning is a mistake: a failure that results in learning is an intelligent failure.”

Thoughts?

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Intelligent FailuresIntelligent FailuresResults of certain actions: • Thoughtfully planned

• Reasonable chance of success

• Typical modest in scale

• Executed and evaluated in a speedy fashion

• Limited to familiar domains

Examples

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““We Are Ladies and Gentlemen We Are Ladies and Gentlemen Serving Ladies and Gentlemen”Serving Ladies and Gentlemen”

ExperiencingStrategic OB

WOW!

• What are your thoughts about the Ritz-Carlton’s approach to customers?

• Is all the training (310 hours in the first year) they do necessary?

• What types of training programs exist in the places you have worked?

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PerceptionPerceptionA process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task or event and forming impressions based on selected inputs.

Three basic stages:• Sensing various characteristics

• Selecting facts

• Organizing into useful concepts

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Perception

• Need a volunteer to read what I am about to show on the screen.

• Look at the list below and say the color, not the word as fast as you can.

RED GREEN PURPLE BLUE ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BROWN RED PURPLE YELLOW BLUE ORANGE GREEN BLACKRED PURPLE ORANGE

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Perception

• That was pretty fast.

• Can anyone do it faster.

• I need another volunteer.

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Perception

Look at the list below and say the color, not the word as fast as you can.

RED GREEN PURPLE BLUE ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BROWN RED PURPLE YELLOW BLUE ORANGE GREEN BLACKRED PURPLE ORANGE

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Perception

• Why did the second reading of the colors take longer?

• The right side of the brain tries to say the color but the left side of the brain insists on reading the word.

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Perceptions of PeoplePerceptions of PeopleNature of Perceiver

Familiarity with the Other PersonFeelings Toward the Other PersonGeneral Emotion State

Nature of the Situation

General Nature of the Other Person

Apparent Intentions of the Other Person

Consequences of the Interaction

Perception of the Person

Problems in Person Perception

Implicit TheoriesHalo EffectProjectingStereotyping

Adapted from Exhibit 4-5: Person Perception

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““Beauty Is Only Skin Deep”Beauty Is Only Skin Deep”– Or Is It?– Or Is It?

Christine Craft

1. Should attractiveness be one of the considerations for hiring someone?

2. Thoughts on whether or not attractive people are perceived to be smarter, more confident, and more likeable.

3. What can be done to overcome some of the perceptual biases that exist in the workplace?

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Self-PerceptionSelf-Perception

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Internal-External AttributionInternal-External Attribution

Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

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Attributions of CausalityAttributions of Causality

Adapted from Exhibit 4.6 Attribution Theory

Individual Behavior

Consensus

Consistency

Distinctiveness

External

Internal

Internal

External

Internal

ExternalHigh

Low

High

Low

High

Low

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Attributions of Success and Attributions of Success and FailureFailure

Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error

Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias

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Task PerceptionTask Perception

• Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective and sometimes idiosyncratic processes

• Intelligence, age and gender influence perception of tasks

• Levels of satisfaction play a role

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The Strategic LensThe Strategic Lens

1. How does the knowledge held by managers and associates affect the performance of an organization?

2. What are some important ways in which associates can learn and thereby enhance their stock of knowledge? What role does perception play in the learning process?

3. What are the connections between learning, perception, and organizational strategies?

Bill Breen

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QuestionsQuestions