Index

AAccenture Development Partnerships, 783–785Acceptable Range of Macronutrient Distribution

(ARMD), definition, 587Access to Nutrition Index (ATNI), 773Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 414,

419–420advanced AIDS, 450End of AIDS, 668HIV wasting, 451United Nations Programme on (UNAIDS), 415

combination prevention, 426WHO plan, Three by Five, 415

Acrodermatitis enteropathica, 273, 274Activity-based costing ingredients (ABC-I) approach,

619Adequate intake (AI), 161, 330, 587

calculation for, 96Adolescent Girls’ Anaemia Control Programme, 569Adolescents, 124, 126, 129–130, 559

adolescent growth and nutritional status in relation topregnancy, 565–567

child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, 561delivery platforms, 571

community- and health-based delivery platforms,572

school-based platforms, 571–572social safety nets or social protection programs,

572–573determinants of growth of, 564–565global data on adolescent nutrition, 562–563growth and development of, 564intervention strategies and delivery platforms,

567–568micronutrient deficiencies and anemia in low- and

middle-income countries, 567nutrition-sensitive interventions, 570

anthelmintic treatment, 570optimizing interval between pregnancies, 571postponing age at marriage and first pregnancy,

570–571nutrition-specific interventions, 568

dietary intake, improving, 569–570iron and folic acid status, 568–569

pregnant adolescents, nutrition of, 570unique lives and needs of, 560–561and youth, 560

Adult-onset diabetes, 150, 152, 154Adult weight classifications, 97African countries, nutrition capacity in, 73–74African Nutrition Leadership Programme (ANLP), 80Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), 80Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030), 367Agriculture, urban, 718–719Agriculture development programs, 604Air displacement plethysmography (ADP) technology,

96Ajinomoto Group, 775Alma-Ata declaration, 625Alpha(1)-acid glycoprotein (AGP), 105, 2691 a-hydroxylation, 300Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), 322, 325, 330American with Disabilities Act (ADA), 525Amylase, 166–167Anemia, 172, 176, 243, 569

in adolescents, in low- and middle-income countries,567

assessment of, 241, 242control of, 252–256detection, by clinical examination, 243and HIV infection, 428in pregnancy, 477prevalence, 244small for gestational age and, 508and TB, 443as vitamin A deficiency disorder, 210–211

Anorexia nervosa, 470, 472Anthelmintic treatment, in adolescents, 570Anthropometric measures, 96, 124, 125, 126, 131

for adults and aging, 96–98for birth outcomes and pregnancy, 98–99for children, 99–101

Anti-tuberculosis therapy (ATT), 438Antioxidants, 475Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), 341, 371, 415, 416, 425Antiretroviral therapy (ART), 341, 415, 423–424, 457,

459–460, 674, 675Arachidonic acid (AA), 322, 326

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017S. de Pee et al. (eds.), Nutrition and Health in a Developing World,Nutrition and Health, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43739-2

809

Asian countries, nutrition capacity in, 74–75Asthma, 198, 324Attention deficit disorder (ADD), 542Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 526,

542feeding/nutritional problems, 542–543growth deviants, 543

Atwater, Wilbur Olin, 10Autism, 526, 529. See also Autism spectrum disorders

(ASDs)Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 543

feeding/nutritional problems, 543–544growth deviants, 544symptoms, 533

Average for gestational age (AGA) infants, 98Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

(ALSPAC), 541

BBaby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), 374, 375Baby-friendly hospitals (BFHs), 374–375Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) vaccine, 396, 397, 402,

403, 405, 406historical perspective, 387

Balanced energy and protein (BEP) supplementation, 569Balanced protein–energy (BPE) supplementation, 493,

495The Barker Hypothesis, 512Bedaquiline, 404Behavior change communications (BCC) strategy, 73,

605, 614Beneficence, ethical principles, 795Benefit:cost analysis, 34Benefit:cost ratios, nutrition interventions, 34, 41Bennett’s law, 741Benoiston de Châteauneuf, Louis François, 7Beriberi, 11–12, 14b-apocarotenals, 182Beta-carotene, 182, 541

food sources, 187Bifidobacteria, 350Bilharzia. See SchistosomiasisBiofortification, 171, 216–217, 280Biomarkers, 105–107

and dietary intake, 107and environmental factors, 105and obesity, 106proteomics, 106and time, 106

Bitot’s spots, 208, 209, 211Blegvad, Olaf, 16Blinding, 50Bloch, Carl, 16Body mass index (BMI), 96–97, 99–100, 562, 563, 710

in HIV, 461, 462measure of overweight and obesity, 144–145risk for TB and, 438, 439

Bovine TB, 392

Breast cancer, 479–480obesity, 479vitamin D supplementation and, 480

Breast milk substitute, 362, 372Breastfeeding, 11, 35, 205, 208, 337, 338, 361, 459, 777.

See also Human milkand 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 367benefits

for child, 339–340for mother, 340

community and global issues affecting, 370–371definitions and recommendations, 361–362essential fatty acids in, 327and HIV transmission, 341, 429infant feeding after 12 months, 365and infant health, 363–364initiation, 365–366Kangaroo method, 366–367and maternal health, 364–365nutrient content of breast milk, 362–363promotion and support, 340–341protection, promotion and support, 371

policies and guidelines, 372–374promotion programs, 374–376

socioecological model and social determinants, 371suboptimal, 35, 37trends, 367

global and regional trends, 367–370vitamin D deficiency, 299, 302, 304

Bretonneau, Pierre Fidèle, 9Britannia Industries Limited, 774Britannia Nutrition Foundation (BNF), 775British Public Health Act (1848), 8Buffalo milk, 339, 341

CC-reactive protein (CRP), 105, 269Cachexia

in HIV, 454tuberculosis and, 440–441

Calcium, 538deficiency signs and symptoms, 103pregnancy and, 476

Calmette, Léon Charles Albert, 405Candida albicans, 366Capacity development, 67

achieving international goalsand targets, 68–69

advocacy and leadership, 79–80approaches to develop

individual capacity, 77institutional capacity, 81–82systemic capacity, 82

assessing nutrition capacity, 70in African countries, 73–74in Asian countries, 74–75capacity for addressing obesity and

non-communicable diseases, 75

810 Index

global health workforce and capacity to delivernutrition services, 70–72

multi-country nutrition initiatives, 72–73building on what we know, 76burden of malnutrition, 67–68complex nexus of contributing factors, 68curriculum and credentials for development needs,

78–79defining, 69innovative approaches to education and training,

80–81levels of, 69monitoring and evaluating, 82–84new knowledge and skills to address post-2015

challenges, 77new ways of working with other disciplines, 77–78

Caritat, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas, 4Carotenoids, 107, 182, 188Casein proteins, 342, 349Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, 533, 534CD4 count, 424–425, 429, 455CD4 receptor, 418CD4+ T cells, 395, 400, 418Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 414Cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD), 474Cerebral palsy (CP), 525, 544

feeding/nutritional problems, 545growth deviants or nutritional deficits, 545–546

Cervical cancer, 480Chadwick, Edwin, 7, 7–8Chapin, Charles, 10Child growth

assessment, 119importance of zinc for, 274

Child health, 127, 506, 508, 631Child Health Days, 214Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group (CHERG),

506Child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, 561Child mortality, 506, 548, 714

reduction of, vitamin A and, 16–18Child nutrition

disparities in, urban and rural areas, 708–709services, 73zinc supplementation, 275

Childrenanthropometric measures for, 99–101HIV infection in, 429–430preventive zinc supplementation in, 275–276tuberculosis in, 443–444

Chinese city dynamics, 695Cholera, 8, 9Chromium, 104

deficiency signs and symptoms, 103recommendations for

older men, 588older women, 589

Chronic diseases, 516

in aging, 585and diet and nutrition in LMICs,

585–586non-transmissible disease epidemiology in

low-income country, 585relationship of chronic disease to diet and nutrition

in LMICs, 585–586Cities, nutrition analysis of, 688

consumption trends in cities, 690–691global nutrition status, 688–689global urban nutrition status, 689–690

City region food system, 700Climate variability and agriculture, relationship between,

68Cod liver oil, 16–17, 438Cognitive function

economics of malnutrition and cognitive impairment,34

iodine role in brain development, 290Colostrum, 338, 362Combination prevention, 425–426Communities, 625

historical perspectives, 626, 627access barriers, overcoming, 630defining and monitoring quality of care, 632health services, delivering, 630–632home care and care seeking, educating for,

629–630social norms and rights, promoting, 627–628social support, providing, 632–634

shifting dynamics, 634focus shifting from communities to individuals,

637–638physical communities, changing dynamics of,

635–636sustainable development goals (SDGs), 634–635virtual communities, 636–637

supporting integrated health and nutrition, 639cross-sectoral approaches, models of, 639–642

Community- and health-based delivery platforms, foradolescents, 572

Community-based management of acute malnutrition(CMAM), 631–632, 659

Community-driven quality, 632Community health workers (CHWs), 629–630

history of, 633–634Competency-based training and education, 78Complementary feeding, 173, 206, 362Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs, 572–573Condorcet, Marquis de, 4Confidentiality, ethics in public health research, 799–800Contagion, origins of concept, 8–9Contagionist theory, 8Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

(CRPD), 548Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 547Convergence model, 387Copper deficiency, 278

Index 811

signs and symptoms, 103Copy number variants (CNVs), 532Corporate social responsibility (CSR), 772Cost–benefit analysis, 35–36Cost-effectiveness, 34, 36, 606Cost-effectiveness analysis, nutrition interventions,

41–43Council for International Organisations of Medical

Sciences (CIOMS), 794Counterfactual, 612Cow’s milk, 341–342

and linear growth, 344–345malnutrition, 348–349pregnant and lactating women, 348SAM and MAM

in prevention and treatment of, 345–347use of cow’s milk ingredients in foods for, 351

school milk programs for prevention ofundernutrition, 348

Cretinism, 290Cross-sectoral approaches, models of, 639–642Curriculum and credentials for development needs,

78–79CYP27B1 mRNA, 300Cytochromes, function, 236

DDairy ingredients, recommended use of, 351

cost-effectiveness of milk content, 352–353Dairy products, 312D’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 4Declaration of Helsinki, 794, 800, 8047-Dehydrocholesterol, 299Delamanid, 404Demographic dividend, 560Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) surveys, 145Demographic transition, 585Development Impact Bonds (DIBs), 780–781Developmental disabilities (DDs), 523

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 542feeding/nutritional problems, 542–543growth deviants, 543

autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 543feeding/nutritional problems, 543–544growth deviants, 544

cerebral palsy (CP), 544feeding/nutritional problems, 545growth deviants or nutritional deficits, 545–546

definition, 524–526Down syndrome (DS) or trisomy 21, 546

growth deviants, 546epidemiology

cultural perceptions, 530–531discrepancies, 530etiology, 531in low-income and middle-income countries,

526–530etiology, 531

environmental exposures, 532from epigenetics/epigenomics, 534–535gene-environment interactions (GxE), evidence

for, 533genetics and genomics, 531–532potential to prevent developmental disabilities,

535–536nutritional implications for, 536

folic acid, 540–541iodine, 541iron, 540macronutrients, undernutrition in terms of,

536–537micronutrients, undernutrition with respect to,

538–539vitamin A deficiency, 541–542

outcomes, 548education, inclusion, or exclusion, 550–552employment, 552–553morbidities and mortalities, 548–550

sociopolitical, policies, and conventions adopted bycountries’ regulations, 547–548

spina bifida, 546growth deviants, 547

Deworming and enhanced vitamin A (DEVTA), 195DIAAS (digestible indispensable amino acid score), 342Diarrhea, 23t

prevention and treatment, 629relative risk of suboptimum breastfeeding, 339zinc deficiency and, 268

Diderot, Denis, 4Dietary diversification, 212–213, 279–280, 568Dietary intake, measuring, 95–96

biomarkers and, 107long-term trends, 18–19

Dietary reference intakes (DRI), 160, 189adequate intake level (AI), 161estimated average requirement (EAR), 160–161groups and circumstances with higher nutrient needs,

162–163recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 160recommended nutrient intake (RNI), 160upper intake level (UL), 161–162

Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS),165

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-(OH)2D), 300Direct nutrition interventions, 490–495

preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495

Directly Observed Therapy Short-Course (DOTS),401–402

Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), 35, 41–42Divalent metal transporter (DMT1), 238Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 322, 325, 326–327

in breast milk, 339supplementation during pregnancy, 328

Down syndrome (DS), 546

812 Index

growth deviants, 546Dried skimmed milk (DSM), 349, 351, 353Drug-resistant virus, 425Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, 96

EEbola virus disease (EVD), 628Economics

malnutritioncognitive impairment, 34productivity losses, 36

nutrition interventionsbenefit:cost ratios, 34, 41cost-effectiveness analysis, 41–43overview of costs, 37recommendations, 42

Education and training, innovative approaches to, 80–81Effectiveness trials, 50, 608Efficacy trials, 50Eicosapentanoic (EPA) acid, 322Eijkman, Christian, 12, 14Elders in low–middle-income countries, 579

biology of aging, 581burden of chronic diseases in aging, 585

non-transmissible disease epidemiology inlow-income country, 585

relationship of chronic disease to diet andnutrition, 585–586

deficiency and undernutrition states in low-incomecountry elderly, 592–594

demography of aging of populations, 583–584dietary intakes assessment in older subjects, 590–591evolutionary paradoxes, 580–581excess and overnutrition states, 594–595good nutritional status, addressing, 595nutrient intake recommendations

for older men, 588for older women, 589

nutritional requirements, nutrient intakerecommendations and guidelines for healthfuleating, 586–590

patterns of dietary consumption in later life, 591–592senescence of tissue and organ function with aging,

581function of alimentary and digestive tract in aging,

582–583successful aging

normative aging, 583frail aging, 583

ELISA techniques, 241Ellison, Joseph, 16ENACT course, 80Encyclopédie, 4Energy and protein, 120, 488

pregnancy, 474Energy availability, 472Energy density, 166–167

increasing, 167–168

eNutrition Academy, 80Enzymes, sources of, 165Epidemiological transition, 585, 586Epilepsy, 529Essential fatty acids, 165, 321

effect of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in pregnancy,lactation, and infancy, 325–326

immunomodulation, 323long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk,

326–328metabolism, 322–323n-3 and n-6 PUFA dietary intakes and disease,

associations between, 324asthma, 324noncommunicable diseases, 324

polyunsaturated fatty acids, 323n-3 and n-6 PUFA, 324, 325–326

requirements, 329and specific needs in developing countries, 329–330

Essential nutrients, 51, 55and active compounds, 165

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 96, 160–161,176, 265, 586

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER), 587Ethambutol, 404Ethics, in public health research

basic ethical principlesbeneficence, 795justice, 794, 796respect for persons, 795, 796–797

confidentiality, 799–800informed consent, 796–798responsibilities after completion of research, 802–804review of research proposals, 804, 805–806standards of care, 800–802

Evaluation research, using results from, 622Evidence-based medicine (EBM), 48–51, 53–54

drawbacks, 53Evidence for nutrition-specific interventions and

programs, 53–60assessing impact of programs for improving nutrition,

59choosing a control group for, 54–55evidence-based medicine paradigm, 53–54magnitude of nutrient intervention, 56outcome focused interventions, collecting and

interpreting ‘right’ evidence, 56stunting, 59–60

Exercise. See Female athlete triadExtensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB), 386External validity of RCTs, 50, 57Extrapulmonary TB (EPTB), 392, 397, 400, 403

FF-75, 346–347F(-)100 (therapeutic milk), 163, 164, 346–347Factors affecting impact on nutrition

characteristics/effects of crisis, 655

Index 813

displacement, 655service quality and access, 655–656women, crises and nutrition, 656

pre-crisis nutrition situation, 653–655FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, 174Farr, William, 6Fat, in milk, 343–344Female athlete triad, 472Ferritin, 237, 241, 256Fetal growth restriction (FGR), 131–132, 503First pregnancy, postponing age at marriage and,

570–571Fisher, Ronald A., 6Fluoride deficiency signs and symptoms, 103Folic acid, 540–541

costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35improving, in adolescents, 568–569supplementation, 568

Food access, 719cash and food purchases, importance of, 719

food price shocks, 720formal and informal safety nets, 722–723urban employment, 720

maternal employment and childcare, 721–722Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), historical

perspective, 22Food and available energy, 94–95Food availability, 715

foreign direct investment and globalization, 717street foods, 717–718traditional and modern supply chains, 715–717urban agriculture, 718–719

Food balance sheets, 94Food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG), 164, 166Food fortification, 255–256, 312, 477, 758, 776

biofortification, 171, 217with iron and folic acid, 568with vitamin A, 193, 215, 313with vitamin D, 299, 312, 313with zinc, 278–279

Food insecurity, 92HIV and, 453and tuberculosis, 439–440and undernutrition, 428

Food policy analysis, 745Food production, history of growth, 18Food safety, 726–727Food security, 707

in HIV, 453Food systems, nutrition transition and urban diets, 712

changing demand for food, 714changing role of women, 713physical activity, 714–715urban diets, 714urban structure, technology and society, 713

Food value chain, 755actors across, 755–756

nutrition-focused, 764private sector, role of, 756–757types of, 757–758

Food waste and cold chains, 697–698Ford Foundation, 772Foreign direct investment (FDI), 740, 747

and globalization, 717Forensic medicine, 21Fortification, 171

biofortification, 171considerations for, 172–173home-fortification/point-of-use fortification, 172industrial fortification of foods for general population,

171–172iron, 255–256setting nutrient level for, 174standards, specifications and quality control for,

174–175vitamin A, 215, 216

Fortification Rapid Assessment Tool (FRAT), 215Fortified blended food (FBF), 163Frail aging, 583Frank, Johann Peter, 5Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP), 241

GGene-environment interactions (GxE), evidence for, 533

from epigenetics/epigenomics, 534–535Genovesi, Antonio, 7Geographical communities, defined, 626Gestational diabetes (GD), 508GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), 780Glisson, Francis, 299Global acute malnutrition (GAM) prevalence thresholds,

656Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), 774Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI),

780, 783Global Food Security Index, 94Global Fund for AIDS, Tuberculosis (TB) and Malaria

(GFATM), 415, 416–417Global health workforce and capacity to deliver nutrition

services, 70–72Global Hunger Index, 97Global Vaccines Action Plan, 785Glutathione (GSH), 349Goat’s milk, 339, 342Godwin, William, 4Goiter

iodine deficiency, 289, 290, 294rate in iodine assessment, 291

Goldberger, Joseph, 15Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 471Graduate education, historical perspective, 21Grameen Bank, 638Graunt, John, 6Grijns, Gerrit, 12Growth retardation, 510, 516

814 Index

health and social consequences, 134–135interventions, 135–136measures and indicators

fetal growth, 121–123high weight-for-height, 125international reference population, 125, 126interpretation, 124–125, 130–131low height-for-age, 124–125low weight-for-height, 125overweight, 125

mental development effects, 120prevalence in developing countries

geographic distribution, 131–134intrauterine growth restriction, 123stunting, 124–125underweight, 125, 134

socioeconomic status correlation, 120vitamin A deficiency, 209–210

Guérin, Camille, 405Gynecologic morbidity, 479

HHalley, Edmund, 6Harrison’s sulcus, 307HarvestPlus, 764, 766Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP),

62Health Organization of the League of Nations, 22Health system, defined, 417Healthy growth and development, promoting, 135–136Height-for-age z-scores (HAZ), 99Helen Keller International (HKI), 81, 609, 610, 616Helicobacter pylori infection, 583HemoCue system, 243Hemoglobin, 105, 508, 538

function, 236iron deficiency testing, 243, 244

Hemosiderin, 237Henle, Jacob, 10Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HIV infection, 427–428Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV infection, 428Hepcidin, 239, 240, 257Hidden Hunger Index (HHI), 776High birth weight (HBW) infants, 98High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 458High energy biscuits (HEB), 164High energy foods with low or high nutrient density, 168Highly active antiretroviral therapy, 415HIV, 413, 628

access to care and treatment, 416–417health systems strengthening, 417

anti-HIV antibodies, 419biology of, 418and breastfeeding, 341clinical history of, 418

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS),419–420

acute HIV infection, 418–419

clinical latency/chronic asymptomatic HIVinfection, 419

early HIV infection, 418–419early symptomatic infection, 419

continuum of care, 421antiretroviral therapy (ART), 423–424comprehensive HIV care, 421–422HIV counseling and testing, 422–423linking to care, 423viral suppression, CD4 count monitoring and

resistance testing, 424–425enteropathy, 452global epidemiology of, 420history, 414–415HIV-1, 417HIV-2, 417HIV wasting, 451malnutrition and, 348–349nutrition and, 667–668, 674–675overlapping epidemics, 427

anemia, 428food insecurity and undernutrition, 428hepatitis B virus (HBV), 427–428hepatitis C virus (HCV), 428schistosomiasis, 429TB/HIV coinfection, 427

prevention, 425, 426–427, 631treatment as, 425

testing, 672–673transmission, 418, 672tuberculosis risks, 388women and children, 429–430

HIV/AIDS movement, 669–672HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 449

background, 449–450cachexia in, 454food security in, 453impact of fully suppressed HIV viral load on

nutrition/metabolism, 458macronutrients

deficiencies in, 461interventions in, 455–456, 462

and malnutrition, 460–463micronutrients

deficiencies in, 454, 461–462interventions in, 456–457, 462–463

mortality and weight loss and, 451nutrition

and ART in, 457nutrition programs and, 457–458

nutritional assessment in, 455nutritional status in, 461outcomes in, 461protein energy malnutrition in, 453–454resting energy expenditure/metabolic abnormalities

in, 454vulnerable populations, 458

children, 458–460

Index 815

during pregnancy, 460weight loss in, 451–452

Home-fortification, 172, 568Home-fortification technical advisory group (HF-TAG),

169Home-processing methods, 167Homestead food production (HFP) program, 609, 610,

616Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 13, 14Household- or institutional-level fortification, 568Household food insecurity access scale (HHFIAS), 95Household penetration of adequately iodized salt (HHIS),

291Human milk, 337. See also Breastfeeding

benefitsfor child, 339–340for mother, 340

breastfeeding promotion and support, 340–341composition, 338–339, 341

fat, 343–344lactose, 342–343minerals, 343protein, 342

HIV and, 341lactose, 350–351recommended use of dairy ingredients, 351

cost-effectiveness of milk content, 352–353specific effects of whey in undernutrition, 349–350

Humanitarian crises, 647consequences and effects of crises, 650

access to services, 651displacement, 651food insecurity and market access, 651

definition of, 648–650factors affecting impact on nutrition.See Factors

affecting impact on nutritionnutrition response to, 656

food assistance and nutrition, 661prevention and treatment, 659–661thresholds for, 656–659

preparedness, 651–652types of crises/shocks, 650who and how, 653

Hydrocarbon carotenoids, 182Hydrogen peroxidases, 23625-Hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3), 299Hygiene, 3, 20, 21Hypertensive disorders, 508Hyperthyroidism, 290–291Hypocalcaemia, 307Hypothyroidism, 290Hypotonia, 307

IImmune function and morbidity, importance of zinc for,

274Impact evaluation, 61–63Implementation science, 34Inadequate nutrient intake, correcting, 170

fortification, 171–175

increasing contribution from nutrient-rich,unprocessed, foods, 170–171

supplementation, 175Individual capacity development, 77Industrial fortification of foods, 171–172Infant feeding after 12 months, 365Infant mortality history of social reform, 11Infectious diseases, 3, 10, 20

morbidity, 207Informal education, 79Informed consent, ethics in public health research,

796–798Institut Pasteur, 21Institutional capacity, developing, 81–82Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), 345Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), 569Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), 656Intelligence and cognition in children born SGA,

514–515Interferon-gamma (IFN-c), 403Interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs), 402–403INTERGROWTH-21st Project, 123, 505International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN), 367International Classification of Functioning Disability and

Health (ICF), 525International Classification of Functioning Disability and

Health for Children and Youth (ICF-CY), 526International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 609International Network of Food Data Systems

(INFOODS), 591International trade and local production, 699–700International Vitamin A Consultative Group (IVACG),

168Interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein (IRBP), 184Intervening to improve nutrition, 52Intrauterine growth restriction/retardation (IUGR), 98,

123, 503, 509, 538epidemiology, 123measures, 123

Iodine, 165, 538absorption and transport, 288costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35. See also Iodine deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103excess, 294food sources, 288functions. See Iodine functions and brain

developmentintake requirements, 291–293iodized oil

injection, 294oral, 289, 290, 294

iodized salt, 288, 291, 292, 293potassium iodide administration, 294pregnancy and, 478prophylaxis and treatment, 293–294requirements and prevalence, 291–293thyroid hormones, 287

Iodine deficiencyassessment, 35

816 Index

goiter rate, 291thyroid-stimulating hormone level, 291urine concentrations, 288

and clinical manifestationscretinism, 290goiter, 289, 290, 294

effectsin adults, 290–291in childhood, 290on pregnancy and infancy, 289–290

history of study, 287, 288pathophysiology

goitrogens, 288intake, 289

public health significance, 292Iodine deficiency disorder (IDD), 287, 289, 541Iodine functions and brain development, 288, 292–293

growth and development, 287, 289metabolism, 288

Ironabsorption, 238–239biological functions, 235–240costs of interventions, 37deficiency. See Iron deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103functional, 237functions

cytochromes, 236enzymes, 236hemoglobin, 236myoglobin, 236

homeostasis, regulation of, 239–240metabolism and regulation of, 236–240overload, 256–257pregnancy and, 476–477storage, 237–238supplementation, 568transport, 237turnover and loss, 238

Iron and folic acid (IFA), 491, 493, 494, 495, 497,568–569

Iron deficiency, 35, 540clinical examination, 243control

fortification, 255–256helminth infection, 251–252nutrition education and promotion, 255supplementation, 252–255

definition, 235, 241delayed cord clamping, 256diagnosis of anemia, 243functional consequences

birth outcomes, 249–250child behavior and development, 250heavy metal absorption, 251infection, 251–252mortality, 249–250work performance and productivity, 250–251

hemoglobin field testing, 243overview of tests, 241pathogenesis

intake, 244, 247–248iron loss, 238iron requirement increase, 237, 247

prevalence, 244, 245–246prospects for study, 258risk factors, 244, 247

Iron deficiency anemia, 242assessment, 241–244definition, 241functional consequences

child behavior and development, 250heavy metal absorption, 251infection, 251–252work performance and productivity, 250–251

intervention strategies for prevention and treatmentof, 252

maternal mortality, 249prevalence, 244, 245–246, 248–249

Iron regulator proteins (IRPs), 239–240Isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT), 401, 404

JJoint United Nations Programme on AIDS (UNAIDS),

415, 667Joints, 101, 297, 582

fixed contractures of, 545swollen joints, 325and PTB, 392

Justice, ethical principles, 794, 796

KKaiser–Permanente (K-P) diet, 543Kangaroo method, 366–367Kaposi sarcoma, 414Keratomalacia, 209Kheth’Impilo, 642Kilimo Salama program, 779Koch, Robert, 10, 387Kwashiorkor, 15, 102

LLactase, 350–351Lactating women, 348Lactose, 342–343, 350–351Lancet estimates, 40Lancet Series on Maternal and Child Nutrition, 603Large for gestational age (LGA) infant, 98Last menstrual period (LMP), 504–505Latent TB infection (LTBI), 391, 397, 398Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), 438Life years saved (LYS), 35Linear growth

assessment, 132cow’s milk and, 344–345growth stimulating factors in milk, 165

Index 817

Linoleic acid (LA), 322Lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNS), 167, 491Lister Institute, 21Liver X receptor (LXR), 323Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk,

326–328Low birth weight (LBW), 98

epidemiology, 123iron deficiency, 237and small-for-gestational age, 108–109

Low birth weight (LBW) rate, 122Low dietary calcium intakes, 302–304Low-income and middle income countries (LMICs), 146

elders in. See Elders in low–middle-income countriesobesity trends in, 147–151, 153–154prevalence of

developmental disabilities in, 526–530obesity in, 146–147

Lunin, Nicholai Ivanovich, 13, 14

MMacronutrients

deficiencies, and HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 461interventions

in HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 455–456, 462and TB, 441–442

and risk of tuberculosis, 440Madsen’s Institute for Tribal and Rural Advancement

(MITRA), 777Magendie, François, 10Magnesium

deficiency signs and symptoms, 103pregnancy and, 478

Mainstreaming Nutrition Initiative, 73Malaria control, 629, 631Malnutrition, 91, 125, 127, 131, 136, 348–349, 450

burden of, 67–68causes of, 57community, household and individual measures, 92deficiency signs and symptoms, 103double-burden of, 92economics, productivity losses, 36global measures, 107

low birth weight and small-for-gestational age,108–109

micronutrient deficiencies, 110overweight/obesity, 110spectrum of malnutrition across regions, 111undernourishment, 108undernutrition, 109

HIV and HIV/TB co-infection and, 460–463and outcomes of tuberculosis, 439prevention and treatment, 629and risk of tuberculosis, 439specific indicators of nutritional status, 94

anthropometric measurements, 96–101biomarkers, 105–107clinical signs of malnutrition, 101–104diet, 95–96food and available energy, 94–95

functional outcomes, 107treatment of, 631–632

Malthus, Thomas Robert, 5Manicus, August Henrick, 8–9Mantoux tuberculin skin test, 402Marriage, postponing age at, 570–571Marten, Benjamin, 387Maternal, newborn and child health (MNCH) outcomes,

487Maternal death, 474Maternal employment and childcare, 721–722Maternal health, 506, 508

breastfeeding and, 364–365Maternal morbidity, 474Maternal mortality, 249, 473, 475, 476, 477–478Maternal newborn and child health, 679Maternal nutrition

assessment of, 488–490and birth outcomes, 487before conception, 495–496evidence from programs, 497–498nutrition interventions during pregnancy. See

Maternal nutrition interventions during pregnancyrole of intergenerational effects, 497

Maternal nutrition interventions during pregnancy, 490direct nutrition interventions, 490–495

preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495

nutrition-related factors during pregnancy, 495Maternal–infant bonding, 364Maternity waiting homes (MWHs), 630Matrix framework application to food and nutrition

assistance, 675key populations, focus on, 678maternal newborn and child health, focus on, 679role of food security and nutrition for adherence,

676–677social protection, focus on, 677–678

McKeown, Thomas, 20McNamara, Robert, 22Mean dietary energy requirements (MDER), 94Measles

case fatality rates over time, 22history of study, 8–9

Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF), 785Medical Police, 5, 21Mediterranean diet, 482Mellanby, Edward, 16, 17Men who had sex with men (MSM), 414, 667Menstrual cycle, 471

anorexia nervosa, 472female athlete triad, 472overnutrition and obesity, 473

Metabolomics, 1075,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR)

gene, 533Metropolis Water Act of 1852, 9mHealth (mobile-health) revolution, 81Miasma, history of concept, 8–9

818 Index

Microbiology, historical perspective, 10Microcytic anemia, 251Micronutrient deficiencies, 92, 110, 539

and anemia in adolescents in low- and middle-incomecountries, 567

in HIV, 454in HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 461–462

Micronutrient interventionsin HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 456–457, 462–463in TB, 442–443

Micronutrient powders (MNPs), 47, 254, 779Micronutrients, 34, 35, 36, 254–255

and risk of tuberculosis, 440Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), 99–101, 125,

352, 353, 656Midday meal program, 173Milk protein, 342, 347Minerals, 165

in milk, 343Moderate acute malnutrition (MAM), 162, 353

cow’s milk in prevention and treatment of, 345–347Modern-to-traditional value chains, 758Morbidity

gynecologic, 479maternal, 474obstetric, 473–474reproductive, 473small for gestational age and, 512

long term, 512–513short term, 512

Mortality, 3child, 506, 548, 714HIV, 451maternal, 249, 473, 475, 476, 477–478perinatal, 495from severe malnutrition, 458small for gestational age and, 510trends in developed countries, 20–21, 23

Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV, 371Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS), 26, 126Multi-country nutrition initiatives, 72–73Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), 386,

404–405Multiple micronutrient powder (MNP), 607Multiple micronutrients (MMN), 478, 491, 494, 499Multiple (stunting), 35

costs of interventions, 37Murat, Joachim, 7Muscle accretion, 353

whey protein and, 350Mycobacterium africanum, 396Mycobacterium canettii, 396Mycobacterium caprae, 396Mycobacterium microti (voles), 396Mycobacterium orygis, 396Mycobacterium pinnipedii (seals), 396Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), 387, 437, 442

transmission of, 392–394

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), 396Myoglobin, function, 236Myopathy, 307

NN-3 and N-6 fatty acids, 321–323

effect in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy, 325–326N-3 and N-6 PUFA dietary intakes and disease,

associations between, 324asthma, 324noncommunicable diseases, 324

Naandi Foundation, 774NADH dehydrogenase, 236National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC), 794,

798, 804National Institutes of Health (NIH), historical

perspective, 21, 22National Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation

Programme, 569Neonatal care, 629Nestlé Foundation, 777Neural tube defect (NTD), 495, 540, 568Neurobehavioral development, importance of zinc for,

275Newman, George, 11, 19Night blindness, 208Non-Agricultural Rural Employment (NARE), 693Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), 68, 75, 324, 471,

585, 632, 675Non-transmissible disease epidemiology in low-income

country, 585Normative aging, 583Nuremberg code, ethics, 793Nutrient deficiencies, determining, 168–170Nutrient density, 167

increasing, 167–168Nutrient needs, 159

ascertaining impact of measures to correct dietarydeficiencies, 175–176

determining (risk of) nutrient deficiencies, atpopulation level, 168–170

dietary reference intakes (DRI), 160adequate intake (AI) level, 161estimated average requirement (EAR), 160–161groups and circumstances with higher nutrient

needs, 162–163recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 160recommended nutrient intake (RNI), 160upper intake level (UL), 161–162

energy density, 166–167increasing, 167–168

high energy foods with low or high nutrient density,168

inadequate nutrient intake, correcting, 170fortification, 171–175increasing contribution from nutrient-rich,

unprocessed, foods, 170–171supplementation, 175

Index 819

Nutrient needs (cont.)meeting nutrient requirements from diet, 163

selecting foods that can meet nutrientrequirements, 164–166

single foods that meet all nutrient intakerecommendations, 164

nutrient density, 167increasing, 167–168

Nutrition Assessment and Counseling (NAC), 677Nutrition evidence in context, 47

evidence-based medicine (EBM), 48–51, 53–54evidence for nutrition-specific interventions and

programs, 53–60impact evaluation, 61–63trends and context, importance of, 60–61

Nutrition programs and HIV, 457–458Nutrition-related factors during

pregnancy, 495Nutrition science, 51–52Nutrition surveillance, 59Nutrition transition, 144Nutrition value chain actors, 762Nutritional assessment in HIV, 455Nutritional deficiencies, 15Nutritional effect of zinc fortification, 278Nutritional immunology, 15–16Nutritional problems in utero and during early life, 471Nutritional science, historical perspective, 10–11“Nutritious Agriculture by Design” tool, 763

OObesity, 106

in children and women, 710–712overnutrition and, 473overweight and. See Overweight and obesitypubertal onset, 471

Obstetric morbidity, 473–474OneHealth, 39Open innovation, 780Opportunistic infections (OI), 449, 675Oral rehydration solution (ORS), 361Orr, John Boyd, 19Osteomalacia, rickets, 298Ovarian cancer, 480–481

micronutrients, 481obesity, 480–481

Overnutrition, 91, 92diagnosing, 594–595and obesity, 473, 479

Overweight and obesity, 92, 110, 124, 143in children and women, 710–712comparative approach, 145–146epidemiologic transition, 143implications for public health, 150

genetic component, 154interactions of obesity and activity, 152–154physical activity, 152

lower and middle income countries (LMICs), 146

obesity trends in, 147–151, 153–154prevalence in, 146–147

measures, 144–145research and policy implications, 155survey design and sample, 145

Ovulation and menstruation. See Menstrual cycleOxytocin, external administration of, 364

PPanum, Peter Ludwig, 8–9Pasteur Institute, historical perspective, 21Pasteur, Louis, 10PDCAAS method (protein digestibility corrected amino

acid score), 342Pediatric TB, 400–401Peer-reviewed research studies, 49Pellagra, 15PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief),

415, 416–417Peptide YY, 440Performance-based incentives, 81Perinatal mortality, still birth and, 495Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR), 323Pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs), 529Pharmaceutical companies, 780Physical activity, 454, 714–715

overweight and obesity, 152Phytate:zinc molar ratio, 267Plasma and serum zinc concentration, 268–269Plausibility, 608Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), 414Point-of-use fortification, 172, 568Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 323, 327, 491

in milk, 343Population growth, mortality decline, 20Porter, Michael, 754, 756

value chain, 754Potassium iodate, 293Poverty, 706–707

and development dimension, 743–744integrating food and health dimension with, 744–747

Poverty and hunger index, 94Pre-ART care, 673Preconception, 496Preeclampsia, 474, 508Pregnancy, 473

adolescent growth and nutritional status in relation to,565–567

calcium, 476energy and protein, 474and HIV, 460iodine, 478iron and vitamin B, 476–477magnesium, 478multiple micronutrients, 478nutrition interventions during. See Pregnancy,

nutrition interventions duringoptimizing interval between pregnancies, 571

820 Index

overnutrition and obesity, 479postponing age at marriage and first pregnancy,

570–571and TB, 444vitamin A, 475vitamin D, 475–476vitamins C and E, 475weight gain during, 99zinc, 274–275, 477–478

Pregnancy, nutrition interventions during, 490direct nutrition interventions, 490–495

preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495

nutrition-related factors during pregnancy, 495Pregnant adolescents, nutrition of, 570Pregnant and lactating women, 348Prelacteal feeding practices, 366Premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 473Premenstrual tension (PMT). See Premenstrual syndrome

(PMS)Preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493Preterm milk, 363Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

(PMTCT) programs, 429, 459, 666Preventive health and nutrition programs, 59Preventive medicine, historical perspective, 6, 7Private sector, 771

driving innovation and novel approaches, 778–782proliferation of public private partnerships, 782–785provision of goods and financial and in-kind

resources, 773–775public health advocacy, 775–778standards for private sector involvement, 785–786

Probability, 6Program effectiveness trials, 608Program managers, 77, 78Program theory framework and program impact

pathways analysis, 608designing, 609using, 610

Programs, nutrition-sensitive, 603comprehensive evaluation framework, 610

challenge of finding valid counterfactual, 612choosing indicators, 615ensuring appropriate sample size, 615importance of time, duration, and timing, 614–615selecting evaluation design, 612–613

cost of program, 619differences in priorities, expectations, and

incentives, 620differences in time constraints and time frames,

620–621evaluation and program implementation toward

common goal, 619independence of evaluators, 621–622

defined, 603designing process evaluation, 616drawing sample, 618evaluation research, using results from, 622key challenges in evaluating, 604

assessing benefits beyond targeted beneficiaries,606–607

complexity, 605differing points among program implementers and

evaluators, 606efficacy trials, 607–608long impact pathways and time frames, 605program effectiveness trials, 608trade-offs between implementation constraints and

evaluation rigor, 605–606probability, 608, 613program theory framework and program impact

pathways, 608designing, 609using, 610

selecting data collection methods and tools, 617–618sharing and feeding results to program implementers,

618–619summarizing results from process evaluation, 618timing and time frames, importance of, 616–617understanding pathways to impact, 615–616

Progressive Era regulations, 22Propensity score matching (PSM), 613Prostate cancer, 325, 481–482Protein, 165

in breast milk, 342Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

(PDCAAS), 165Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), 102

in HIV, 453–454risk for TB, 440

Protein malnutrition, 15Proteomics, 106Provider-initiated counseling and testing (PICT), 422Pubertal onset, 470

nutritional problems in utero and during early life,471

obesity, 471vitamin D deficiency, 471

Puberty, defined, 564Public health, historical perspective, 257

graduate education, 21idea of progress, 4–5international organizations, 21–23statistics, 6–7, 8

Public health advocacy, 775–778Public–private partnerships (PPPs), 773

proliferation of, 782–785Pulmonary TB (PTB), 392, 396, 398–404Purified protein derivative (PPD), 402Pyrazinamide, 404

Index 821

QQuaker Service Team, 100Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) saved, 35Quetelet, Adolphe, 6

RReady-to-use foods (RUF), 659Ready-to-use supplementary foods (RUSF), 278, 352Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF), 163, 168, 278,

346–347, 352, 631Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), 160, 586Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI), 56, 160, 174, 188,

586RNI/RDA, 160

Reproductive and maternal health, 631Reproductive health, 469

menstrual cycle, 471anorexia nervosa, 472female athlete triad, 472overnutrition and obesity, 473

pregnancy, 473calcium, 476energy and protein, 474iodine, 478iron and vitamin B, 476–477magnesium, 478multiple micronutrients, 478overnutrition and obesity, 479vitamin A, 475vitamin D, 475–476vitamins C and E, 475zinc, 477–478

premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 473pubertal onset, 470

nutritional problems in utero and during early life,471

obesity, 471vitamin D deficiency, 471

reproductive organ cancers, 479breast cancer, 479–480cervical cancer, 480ovarian cancer, 480–481prostate cancer, 481–482uterus cancer, 481

reproductive well-being, 470sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 479

Reproductive morbidity, 473Resistin, 440Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS), 107Respect for persons, ethical principles, 795, 796–797Respiratory transmission, 392Resting energy expenditure/metabolic abnormalities in

HIV, 454Retinoic acid response element (RARE), 185Retinoids, 182Retinol activity equivalent (RAE), 186

Retinol-binding protein (RBP), function, 184, 189Retinol in urine, 207Rickets

bony deformities associated with, 307, 308causes, 297, 298clinical features, 307definition, 298diagnosis, 308–309epidemiology

geographic distribution, 302–304vitamin D synthesis, 299–304

historical background, 298–299osteomalacia, 298pathogenesis, 303pathophysiology, 307prevention, 310–312prospects for study, 312–313public health importance, 305–307treatment, 310

Rifampicin, 404Risk–benefit analyses, 52Roads and traffic, 698–699Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 772Rockefeller Foundation, 21, 772, 780Rowe, John, 583

SSABLA, 570Safe water and good sanitation, access to, 724–726Safety nets, formal and informal, 722–723Sanitary movement, historical perspective, 7–8Sanitation, water and, 698Saturated fatty acids (SFAs), 343Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Business Network, 773,

776–777Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement, 73, 81, 668, 698,

767Schistosomiasis, 429School-based platforms, for adolescents, 571–572School milk programs for prevention of undernutrition,

348Sedgwick, William, 10Selenium deficiency signs and symptoms, 103Selenium toxicity, 106Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA),

70Severe acute malnutrition (SAM), 34, 162, 353

community management of, 41cow’s milk in prevention and treatment of, 345–347

Sexually transmitted disease (STD), 479Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 479Shattuck, Lemuel, 8Sheep milk, 339, 341, 342Shock, Nathan, 581Sickle cell anemia, 565Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), 777

822 Index

Small for gestational age (SGA), 98, 108, 122–123, 503assessing, 504–506and birth size, 493–494and development, 513

child development, 513–515long-term performance, 516

epidemiology and determinants, 506fetal factors, 510maternal factors. See Small for gestational age

(SGA) maternal factorsplacental factors, 509

and morbidity, 512long term, 512–513short term, 512

and mortality, 510symmetric and asymmetric, 510

Small for gestational age (SGA) maternal factorsanemia, 508gestational diabetes (GD), 508preeclampsia, 508toxins, 509undernutrition, 508–509

Small intestine, absorption of zinc from, 268Small-quantity LNS (LNS-SQ), 172, 174Snow, John, 9Social behavior change communication (SBCC), 59Social investment bond (SIB), 780Social medicine, 5Social protection, 677–678Social safety nets/social protection programs, for

adolescents, 572–573Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior (SNEB),

78Socioeconomic status (SES), 91, 366, 564

as barrier to HIV testing, 673breastfeeding promotion, 372indicators of, 390nutrient interventions, 177stunting correlation, 120, 124unprotected transactional sex, 672vitamin A deficiency, 201, 203

Sodium–iodide symporter (NIS), 288Southern African urban food security and consumption

trends, 691Spina bifida, 546

growth deviants, 547Standard deviation, 6Standards of care, ethics in public health research,

800–802State Medicine, 21Statistics, historical perspective in public health, 6–7, 8Stein-Leventhal syndrome, 470Still birth and perinatal mortality, 495Stockholm Birth Cohort, 516Street foods, 717–718Streptomycin, 387

Stunted and plump, 92Stunting, 33, 56, 59–60, 120, 125, 269–270, 497, 708Sub-Saharan Africa, HIV in, 420Suboptimal breastfeeding, 35, 37

costs of interventions, 37Successful aging, 583Succinate dehydrogenase, 236Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 134Super Cereal Plus, 62Supermarkets, on nutrition and nutritional knowledge,

737, 757challenge to food security from modern supply

chains, 742economic growth and policy issues, 747–749food and health dimension, 742–743modern supply chains and marketing sector, 738–740poverty and development dimension, 743–744

integrating food and health dimension with,744–747

rise of supermarkets, 740–742Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 69, 84, 107,

634–635, 643, 649, 665, 666, 685, 686–687, 776applying matrix framework to food and nutrition

assistance, 675food security and nutrition for adherence, role of,

676–677key populations, focus on, 678maternal newborn and child health, focus on, 679social protection, focus on, 677–678

HIVand AIDS movement, 669–672current context for, 667–668

matrix framework, application of, 672ART initiation and adherence, 674HIV testing, 672–673HIV transmission, 672pre-ART care, 673

nutritionand ART, 675current context for, 668and HIV infection, 674–675

opportunities ahead, 669Symmetric and asymmetric SGA, 510–511Syngenta Foundation’s Kilimo Salama program, 779Systematic review, 49, 53Systemic capacity, developing, 82Systemic iron homeostasis, 240

TTakaki, Kanehiro, 12, 13Targeted fortification, 568TB/HIV coinfection, 427, 463

burden countries, 405macronutrients

deficiencies in, 461interventions in, 462

Index 823

TB/HIV coinfection (cont.)and malnutrition, 460–461micronutrients

deficiencies in, 461–462interventions in, 462–463

nutritional status in, 461outcomes in, 461

TBXpert Project, 403Testing before use/consumption, 52Thames, contamination of, 9Thames Water, 9Therapeutic zinc supplementation, 277Thrifty phenotype, 512Thyroid hormones, 287, 288, 289, 290–291Thyrotropin (TSH), 289Tolerable Upper Intake Level, 587Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 305, 323Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), 454Trade-offs between implementation constraints and

evaluation rigor, 605–606Traditional birth attendants (TBAs), 629Traditional-to-modern FVCs, 758Traffic, roads and, 698–6997-Transdomain chemokine receptor, 418Transthyretin, function, 184Trends and context, importance of, 60–61Tres Cantos Open Lab Foundation, 780Trisomy 21, 546

growth deviants, 546Tuberculin skin test (TST), 402–403Tuberculosis (TB), 385, 631

control strategy, 401–402convergence model, 387diagnosis, 402–403epidemiology, 388

geographic distribution, 388global drug resistance, 389global tuberculosis, 388Mycobacterium tuberculosis, transmission of,

392–394risk factors, 390, 394–395risk groups, HIV infection, 388

factors contributing to global tuberculosis burden, 386global incidence of, 389global threat, 385–386historical perspective, 386–388

Bacilli Calmette-Guérin vaccine, 387cod liver oil therapy, 438treatment, 387, 438

in HIV-positive individuals, 399malnutrition and, 348–349pathogen, 396–397pathogenesis and clinical manifestations, 397pediatric TB, 400–401prevention, through vaccination, 405–406seasonal dependence of, 396symptoms and stages of, 399therapy, 404–405vulnerable populations, 389

children, 390diabetes, 392disparities in other settings, 391high-risk populations, 391–392indigenous peoples, 390race and ethnicity, 389–390role of migration, 391urban and rural disparities, 390

Tuberculosis (TB) infection, 437and cachexia, 440–441food insecurity and, 439–440history, 438macronutrients

interventions and, 441–442and risk of, 440

malnutritionand outcomes of, 439and risk of, 439

micronutrientsinterventions in, 442–443and risk of, 440

treatment, 443vulnerable populations, 443

children, nutrition and TB, 443–444pregnancy, nutrition and TB, 444

UUltraviolet (UV) light, 393

B radiation, 299Under-five mortality rate (U5MR), 169Undernourishment, 92, 108Undernutrition, 33, 92, 109, 163

and benefit–cost of interventions, 41–43costs of, 34–38

interventions to reduce, 38–41maternal, 488school milk programs for prevention of, 348small for gestational age and, 508–509specific effects of whey in, 349–350SUN estimates, 39

Underweight in children, 708United Nations AIDS (UNAIDS) Fast Track approach,

666United Nations Children’s Fund, 81United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

(UNICEF), historical perspective, 22United Nations Multiple Micronutrient Preparation

(UNIMMAP), 444United Nations Office for the Coordination of

Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), 647United Nations REACH program, 73United States Public Health Service, 22United States Special Supplemental Nutrition Program

for Women Infants and Children, 375–376Universal fortification, 568Upper intake level (UL), 161–162Urbanization, food security and nutrition, 635, 637, 705

disparities in child nutrition within urban and ruralareas, 708–709

824 Index

food access, 719cash and food purchases, importance of, 719food price shocks, 720formal and informal safety nets, 722–723maternal employment and childcare, 721–722to safe water and good sanitation, 724–726urban employment, 720

food availability, 715food retailing and food environment, 715foreign direct investment and globalization, 717street foods, 717–718traditional and modern supply chains, 715–717urban agriculture, 718–719

food safety, 726–727food security, 707food systems, nutrition transition and urban diets, 712

changing demand for food, 714changing role of women, 713physical activity, 714–715urban diets, 714urban structure, technology and society, 713

global urbanization trends, 705–706implications for policy, programming and research,

727–729overweight and obesity in children and women,

710–712poverty, 706–707stunting and underweight in children, 708

Urbanization patterns, 685, 688cities, nutrition analysis of, 688

consumption trends in cities, 690–691global nutrition status, 688–689global urban nutrition status, 689–690

infrastructure and its relationship with urban nutritionstatus, 697food waste and cold chains, 697–698roads and traffic, 698–699water and sanitation, 698

international trade and local production, 699–700sustainable development goals, achieving, 686–687urban development, 691

history, 692medium-sized cities, 694–695megacities, 694primate cities, 692–693secondary towns, 693–694

urban size, infrastructure and food systems, 696Urinary iodine concentrations (UICs), 291Uterus cancer, 481

obesity, 481

VVaccines, 405–406, 785, 802

Bacilli Calmette-Guérin vaccine, 387Value chain, 754–755, 760

contribution of food value chains to nutrition, 760entry and exit points, 762–763

food value chainactors across, 755–756private sector, role of, 756–757types of, 757–758

global context of food systems and evolution ofnutrition, 759diet shifts and value chains, 759–760

nutrition-focused food value chains, 764nutrition value chain actors, 762primary activities, 764

inbound logistics, 764–765marketing and sales, 766operations, 765outbound logistics, 766

secondary activities, 767Value Chains Knowledge Clearing House, 763Value for nutrition, 761–762Very low birth weight (VLBW) infants, 98Villermé, Louis René, 7Virtual communities, 626Vision, vitamin A role, 184, 185Vitamin A, 614

absorption and transport, 183–184in breast milk, 363costs of interventions, 37deficiency. See Vitamin A deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103food sources, 186–188functions

gene regulation, 184–185overview, 182visual cycle, 184, 185

history of study, 10, 11, 13, 14, 197–200intake recommendations, 186–188metabolism, 184newborn dosing, 195–196pregnancy and, 475structure and nomenclature, 182–183supplementation, historical perspective, 15–18

Vitamin A deficiency, 35, 181, 541–542anemia, 209–210breastfeeding studies, 205, 206child morbidity and mortality impact, 193–195complementary feeding, 206–207growth retardation, 209–210infant morbidity and mortality impact, 195–196infectious disease morbidity, 207, 209maternal morbidity and mortality impact, 197

risk for TB, 440prevalence

geographic distribution, 192neonates, 191–192overview, 181–182preschool children, 190–191school-aged children, 192women, 192–193

prevention

Index 825

dietary diversification, 212–213fortification, 215, 216overview, 212supplementation, 213–214

risk factorsage, 202–203gender, 203location, 202periodicity in risk, 203–204socioeconomic status, 203

xerophthalmia, 208conjunctival xerosis with Bitot’s spots, 208, 209corneal xerosis, ulceration, and necrosis, 208–209night blindness, 208treatment, 211–212

Vitamin A deficiency disorders (VADD), 188–189, 190Vitamin B complex

deficiency signs and symptoms, 103–104pregnancy and, 476–477

Vitamin B1, 363, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103EAR for, 161function and maternal deficiency, 539

Vitamin B2, 103, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103function and maternal deficiency, 539

Vitamin B3, 278, 444, 456deficiency signs and symptoms, 103

Vitamin B6, 103, 110, 279, 363, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103function and maternal deficiency, 539

Vitamin B9, 104, 594deficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 105

Vitamin B12, 444, 476, 595in breast milk, 363deficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 105function and maternal deficiency, 539

Vitamin Cdeficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 457pregnancy and, 475

Vitamin D, 493in breast milk, 363deficiency, 592

breast-feeding, 299, 302, 304genetic predisposition, 312–313geographic distribution, 302–304and puberty, 471risk for TB, 440

deficiency signs and symptoms, 103non-skeletal actions of, 311pregnancy and, 475–476synthesis and metabolism, 299–304

Vitamin D binding protein (DBP), 299Vitamin E

deficiency, risk for TB, 440pregnancy and, 475

Vitamin K deficiency signs and symptoms, 103

Vitamins, 165. See also individual vitaminsfunctions, 539history of study, 11–14

Vocational training of nutrition workforce, 79Voluntary counseling and testing (VCT), 422Von Liebig, Justus, 10Von Voit, Carl, 10

WWald, George, 201Wallerstein, Immanuel, 693Wasting, 109, 125, 134

HIV wasting, 451Water and sanitation, 698Weight-for-age z-scores (WAZ), 99Weight-for-height/length z-scores (WHZ), 99Weight gain during pregnancy, 99Weight loss, 364

etiology, 451–452and HIV, 451

Whey protein, 349–350Whistler, Daniel, 299Williams, Cicely, 15W.K. Kellogg Foundation, 772Workforce requirements in nutrition sector, estimating,

71demand-based approach, 72service-target approach, 72worker-to-population ratio, 72

World Bank, historical perspective, 22World Breastfeeding Trends Initiative (WBTi), 72, 367World Food Programme, 81World Health Assembly (WHA), 368World Health Organisation (WHO), 22WPC80, 352

XXerophthalmia, 185, 208

conjunctival xerosis with Bitot’s spots, 208, 209corneal xerosis, ulceration, and necrosis, 208–209night blindness, 208treatment, 211–212

Xpert MTB/RIF assays, 402, 403

YYunus, Muhammad, 638

ZZ-score, growth data interpretation, 127Zidovudine (AZT), 415Zinc

costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35, 103. See also Zinc deficiencypregnancy and, 477–478

Zinc deficiency, 265assessment of, 268

dietary intake, 269

826 Index

plasma and serum concentration, 268–269stunting, 269–270

causes of, 266absorption from small intestine, 268inadequate dietary intake, 267physiological requirements, conditions increasing,

267estimates of requirements, 265–266importance of, 273

for child growth, 274for immune function and morbidity, 274

for neurobehavioral development, 275for pregnancy outcome, 274–275

intervention strategies, 275biofortification, 280dietary diversification and modification, 279–280food fortification with, 278–279preventive supplementation in children, 275–276preventive supplementation in pregnant women,

276–277therapeutic supplementation, 277

prevalence of, 270–273

Index 827